UTOPIA OF GLOBAL EDUCATION - srsshodhsansthan.orgsrsshodhsansthan.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/1.-UT-June-18.pdfstatus of women is not equal vis-à-vis that of men in the society

S.R.S.D. Memorial Shiksha Shodh Sansthan, Agra, India

UGC Sl. No. 64416

Keywords: Status of women, strategic gender needs, practical gender needs, tribal and non- tribal

women.

.

Introduction

Women constitute nearly half of the world population. But, one of the greatest challenges

of 21st Century is that women are still not treated equally around the world. The socio-economic

status of women is not equal vis-à-vis that of men in the society.

The „Status of Women‟ can be defined as the position of women in society in relation to

men in the same society, or among women in another society or sub-culture. „Women‟s status‟

is a multidimensional entity. The various components of status may move in different directions

in a given time period. Status may be viewed in its relative context also. According to Ruth B.

Dixon (in Strategies for Development in South Asia, 1978), the concept „women‟s status‟ should

focus on “the degree of women's access to (and control over) material resources (including food,

income, land, and other forms of wealth) and to social resources (including knowledge, power,

and prestige) within the family, in the community, and in the society at large” [1].

UTOPIA OF GLOBAL EDUCATION

A Peer Reviewed Refereed International Research Journal

ONLINE ISSN-2454-7387 Volume IV, Issue I, June 2018

www.srsshodhsansthan.org

Where do Women Stand in Assam of North East India? Examining Socio-Economic Status of Tribal and Non-Tribal Women in Assamese Societies

Dr. Ira Das1, Dr. Gargee Sharmah

2, Dr. Runima Baishya

3

1Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati, Assam, India 2Assistant Professor, Department of History, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati, Assam, India 3Associate Professor, Department of Physics, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati, Assam, India

Abstract

A detailed examination of women’s status in a specific location is necessary to have adequate and

correct information for effective planning and implementation of government policies. The paper intends

to examine and compare the socio-economic status of tribal and non-tribal women of different

communities in Assam of North East India. It is found from the study that the status of women in Assam

is somewhat better in terms of fulfilling strategic gender needs like participation in decision making

process, control over own body etc.. In tribal societies, women are even in better position in terms of

participation in decision making process in the society. However, the socio-economic status of women of

Assam in respect of fulfilling practical gender needs like women workforce participation, health status

etc. is not at all better than the all India average. The paper concludes with the view that women should

be aware of their rights and responsibilities to make a change in the society as well as for upliftment of

the status of women in the society.

Vol. IV, Issue I, June 2018 ONLINE ISSN-2454-7387

Where do Women Stand in …. 2 | P a g e

According to American Psychological Association, socioeconomic status is often

measured as a combination of education, income and occupation.

In reality, there exists inequality in women‟s access to education, health care, physical

and financial resources and opportunities in the political, economic, social and cultural field.

Women need to fulfill both „Practical Gender Needs‟ (e.g provision of water, healthcare,

employment etc.) and „Strategic Gender Needs‟ (e.g power and control, protection from

domestic violence, equal wage, and control over own body etc.) to have equal status with men

[2]. The decision on what to cook, about their own healthcare, and staying with their parents, the

extent of mobility and women‟s ability to make these choices to go to the market or visit

friends/relatives without seeking permission are also important.

The Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of Indian Constitution bear faithful

application of the principle of non-discrimination so that women are entitled to the same rights as

men as citizens of India. Yet, women are not treated equal to men.

There are various studies conducted about status of women all over the world. One of the

studies was carried out by Sunita Kishor and Kamla Gupta for all the states of India which found

that average women in India were absolutely disempowered relative to men, and there had been

little change in her empowerment over time [3].

Assam is one of the major states of North East India. It is perceived that status of women

in North East India is better than all India average. However, according to Assam Human

Development Report, 2003, there exists vast inequality in the achievements between men and

women of Assam in different spheres of life. The type and intensity of the inequality varied over

geographical locations. Therefore, location specific individual policy is required to achieve

gender development and gender equality within particular borders. Thus, a detailed examination

of women‟s status for specific location is necessary to have the right information for effective

planning and implementation of government policies.

Assam is land of many cultures, tribes and religions. Therefore, the culture of Assam is a

composite and complex phenomenon that includes the cultures of the various tribes that make

Assam their home. The different tribes residing in Assam are Bodo Kachari, Mising (Miri),

Deori, Rabha, Tiwa or Lanlung, Khamti, Sonowal Kachari, Tai Phake or Phakial, Dimasa

Kachari, Karbi, Barmans, Hmar, Kuki, Rengma Naga, Zeme Nagas, Hajong, Garo, Khasi, Jaintia

and Mech [4]. It is impossible to understand the status of women in Assam as a whole without

understanding the status of women among the varied communities. Therefore, the study intends

to examine the socio-economic status of women of different communities in Assam.

1. Objectives of the Study

(i) To compare the socio-economic status of women in Assam with that of all India average.



(ii) To examine and compare the socio-economic status of selected tribal and non-tribal

women of Assam. Here, tribal women comprise of mainly Tiwa and Hmar Community

women and non-tribal women comprise of mainly General Community women.

2. Study Area and Community

A field study was conducted in Guwahati City (for the General Community women),

Sonapur, on the outskirt of Guwahati (for the Tiwa Community women) and Haflong, North

Cachar Hill District (for the Hmar Community women) on the basis of a questionnaire.

The survey was conducted among the General community non-tribal women that are

living in Guwahati City. Information and data on tribal women were collected mainly from

Tiwa1 and Hmar

2 community women.

3. Data Source and Methodology

Both primary and secondary data are used in the study. Primary data are collected from

the field study conducted at Guwahati, Sonapur, and North Cachar Hills. Total of 206 samples

are collected out of which 110 are for general non-tribal women and 96 are for tribal women.

Secondary data are collected from the Census Reports, National Sample Survey Organisation

Reports, National Family Health Survey Reports, Sample Registration System bulletins, etc. A

questionnaire was prepared and the sample survey was conducted during December, 2014 to

June, 2015.

The study tries to achieve the objectives by using different socio-economic parameters.

The socio-economic status of women of Assam is compared with that of all India average by

using ten parameters viz like literacy rate, female workforce participation rate, gross enrollment

ratio, sex ratio, mean age at marriage, percentage of pregnant who are anemic, infant mortality

rate, participation of women in household decisions, women who are allowed to go to market,

access to health facility and establish contact outside the community and women who can use

bank account themselves. The second objective is tried to achieve by examining and comparing

the literacy rate, occupation level, ownership of the house, participation in different household

decision making, experience of violence, etc. To collect data Random Sampling method was

used. Simple mathematical and statistical calculations are used for analysis of data with the help

of SPSS.

Although quantitative method is used to achieve the objectives, qualitative method like

oral history method was also attempted for use in the study.

4. Comparison of the Socio-Economic Status of Women in Assam with that of all India

Average

The socio-economic condition of women in Assam is compared with that of all India

average in Table 1. It is revealed from the table that from among the ten selected indicators,

Assam performed better than all India average only in four indicators viz. literacy rate, sex ratio,

mean age at marriage and participation in household decision. However, performance of Assam



is behind in respect of other six important indicators viz. female workforce participation rate;

gross enrollment ratio; percentage of pregnant anemic women; infant mortality rate; women who

are allowed to go alone to the market, access health facility and establish contact outside the

community; and women who can use own bank account themselves. Therefore it can be inferred

that the socio-economic condition of women in Assam is not better than that of all India average.

Table 1. Comparison of the Status of Women in Assam and India

Sl. No. Parameters (%) Assam India

1 Literacy Rate 67.27 65.46

2 Female Workforce Participation Rate 20.8 35.6

3 Gross Enrollment Ratio [Classes I-VIII (6-13 years)] 84.9 101.09

4 Sex Ratio 954 940

5 Mean Age at Marriage 19.7 18.3

6 Pregnant women age 15-49 who are anemic (%) 72 57.9

7 Infant Mortality Rates (per 1000 live births) among Females 55 42

8

Married women who usually participate in household decisions

(%) 60.9 36.7

9

Women of age 15-49 who are allowed to go alone to three places

(market, health facility, and outside the community)(%) 35.3 36.8

10 A bank or savings account that they themselves use (%) 11.7 16.2

Sources: Census of India 2011 (Provisional Data); National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) (2010);

Government of India (2012), Data for use of Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission, 10 April; National Family

Health Survey (NFHS)-3; Sample Registration System (SRS) 2014 and Kishore and Gupta (2009) [5,6, 7] .

5. Examination and Comparison of the Socio-Economic Status of Women of General

Community, Tiwa Community and Hmar Community of Assam

6.1 Education Level of the Respondent Women

In a developing society, formal education becomes a fundamental prerequisite for

improving a person‟s status. Education is one of the most important means of empowering

women with the knowledge and self-confidence necessary to participate fully in the development

process. Elementary education empowers women by providing information and confidence while

higher education encourages them so that they are confident about entering any field or

profession, not previously open to women [8]. In the study, when the education level of the

respondent women was analysed for the general community, the analysis shows that majority of



women are not eager to respond about their education level. Highest percentage (i.e 18.18 per

cent) of women who have responded are higher secondary passed only. Next 15.45 per cent is

Class V to Class X passed only and 14.55 per cent is graduate. Only 12.73 per cent is master

degree holder and 0.91 per cent is PhD holder. None of them is found to be illiterate.

When the education level of the respondent women was analysed for Tiwa community, it

is found that HSLC passed and H.S passed women constitute 35.29 per cent and 37.25 per cent

of the total respectively. 25.49 per cent is found as graduate. 1.96 per cent has completed L.L.B

degree and 1.96 per cent has completed post-graduation. On the other hand, most of the

respondent Hmar women are higher secondary passed only (15.56 per cent) following the HSLC

passed women (11.11 per cent), Bachelor degree passed women (6.67 per cent) and Master

degree passed women (6.67 per cent). Others are reluctant to answer the question.

6.2 Occupation Level of the Women

Women‟s economic participation and empowerment are fundamental to strengthening

women‟s right and enabling women to have control over their lives and exert influence in

societies [9]. The occupational level of the women is examined and is presented in Table 2 and

Figure 1.

Table 2: Occupation Level of the Women (%)

Sl.

No.

Occupational Level General

Community

Tiwa Community Hmar Community

1 Government Service 11.82 2.92 17.78

2 Private Service 8.18 25.49 8.89

3 Business 7.28 5.88 13.33

4 Other Service 6.36 2.96 51.11

5 None 66.36 49.01 4.44

6 Missing Response 0 13.73 4.44 Source: Field Survey

Figure 1. Occupation Level of the Women (%)

010203040506070

General Community

Tiwa Community

Hmar Community



The occupation level of the respondent women is analysed for the general community and

analysis reflects that majority of the respondent women (i.e 66.36 per cent) are not in service as some of

them are house wives and some are students. Only 11.82 per cent women are in government service

followed by private service (8.18 per cent) and other service (6.36 per cent). Business is the least

preferred occupation for the women of general community. It can also be inferred that the female

workforce participation rate is also lower than the state average for the general community women.

On the other hand, Tiwa women are employed mostly in private services. Majority of Tiwa

women are housewives which is opposite to the Hmar women who are employed either in government

services or in private and other services. It is noteworthy that among all non-tribal women and tribal

women, the percentage of women employed in government services are more in Hmar community.

6.3 Decision of having number of Children

Decision to have children is ideally a consensus one between husband and wife. However, in

our society it is often found that either no such decision is taken and the child is born out of consummate

relationship or the husband alone takes the decision. The involvement of women in such decision making

signifies grater power to women. The decision of how many children women are going to have is

presented in Table 3 and Figure 2. It is found from the table and figure that husband is the main decision

maker in this regard for all women irrespective of the community. It is encouraging to note that 25.45 per

cent respondent women among the general community women can make their own decision on how many

children they are going to have in their families. However, only a negligible portion of tribal women can

take the decision themselves. Missing/null response is more as some respondents are unmarried women or

girls students.

Table 3. Decision of having number of Children

Sl.

No. Decision by

% of Respondent

Women (General

Community)

% of Respondent

Women (Tiwa

Community)

% of Respondent

Women (Hmar

Community)

1 Respondent 25.45 1.96 4.44

2 Husband 32.73 52.94 28.89

3 Seniors of the family 3.64 0 0

4 Greatest say in the decision 11.82 0 8.89

5 Both Respondent and Husband 10.00 1.96 0

6 Missing Response 16.36 43.14 57.78

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

Source: Filed Survey



Figure 2. Decision of having number of Children

6.4 Ownership of the House of Living

Ownership of a house or shelter is regarded as a major safety-net for women besides being a

provider of economic power. The ownership of the house in which the respondent women is living is

analysed in Table 4 and Figure 3. It is depicted in the table that in most of the failies whatever may be the

community husband is the owner of the houses where the respondent women are living in most of the

families whatever may be the community. Only 9.09 per cent respondent general category women are

living in their own house. However a significant portion of Hmar women (33.33 per cent) are living in

their own house. For general community women, 13.64 per cent are living in rented house while 10 per

cent women are living the houses in which other family members are the owner. Same is the condition for

other tribal women. It implies that achieving equal economic power by women is still a far cry for the

women of all communities in Assam.

Table 4. Ownership of the House of Living

Sl.

No.

% of Respondent

Women (General

Community)

% of Respondent

Women (Tiwa

Community)

% of Respondent

Women (Hmar

Community)

1 Respondent 9.09 1.96 33.33

2 Husband 61.82 60.78 40.00

3 Other Family Members 10.00 3.92 24.44

4 Landowner (if living in a rented house) 13.64 3.92 2.22

5 Missing Response 5.45 29.41 0

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00


0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Respondent

Husband

Seniors of the family

Greatest say in the decision

Both Respondent and…

Missing Response

% of Respondent Women(General Community)

% of Respondent Women (TiwaCommunity)

% of Respondent Women(Hmar Community)



Figure 3. Ownership of the House of Living

6.5 The Most Important Issue in Life

The most important issue in life for the respondent is categorized into six different responses

based on general understanding of prevalent society. The responses are discussed in Table 5 and Figure 4.

It is found from the table and the figure that family happiness is the most important issue for women of

any community in Assam. Next important issue is children for general community women and Tiwa

women whereas Health is the next important issue in life for the Hmar women. Only 8.18 per cent general

community women and 3.92 per cent Tiwa women think that career is the most important issue in their

life. Interestingly no women of Hmar community think that career should be given the priority in life

showing in a society in Assam where careerist ideology is less predominant. Family is the major source

of happiness for majority of the women reflecting prevalence of traditional Indian societal value system in

the state.

Table 5. The Most Important Issue in Life according to the Respondent Women

Sl.

No. Issues

% of Respondent

Women (General

Community)

% of Respondent

Women (Tiwa

Community)

% of Respondent

Women (Hmar

Community)

1 Family Happiness 71.82 58.82 82.22

2 Career 8.18 3.92 0

3 Children 11.82 11.82 4.44

4 Health 3.63 0 13.33

5 Social Life 1.82 9.80 0

6 Missing Response 2.73 25.49 0

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70


% of Respondent Women(Tiwa Community)




Figure 4. The Most Important Issue in Life according to the Respondent Women

6.6 Women's Participation in Decision Making

Empowerment of women refers to giving decision making power to women in social, economic

and political sphere of life. Women‟s position in the household determines women‟s autonomy in family.

It is worth to examine whether they can decide about household matters like buying household assets,

decision about their own health care, having access to money, having mobility to go relatives etc. [10].

The participation of women in different decision making process is presented in Table 6. It is revealed

from the table that 79.09 per cent general women, 86.27 per cent Tiwa women and 84.44 per cent Hmar

women participate in household decision which is more than the state average (60.9 per cent) and country

average (36.7 per cent). This is a positive development regarding status of women in the society in

Assam.

Similarly more than 80 per cent women can take decision on their own health care regardless of

community in the state and more than 75 per cent women can take decision on purchases of daily

household needs. However, only 64.55 per cent general community women are allowed to use own bank

account whereas more than 85 per cent tribal women are allowed to use own bank account in the state. 70

per cent non-tribal women are allowed to go alone to the market and 70.91 per cent non-tribal women are

allowed to meet their friends or relatives outside the house. However the percentage of tribal women is

higher in these two parameters of decision making. Women who can take decision to go alone to the

market, to health care, and to meet friends or relatives outside the house are 73.94 per cent, 84.97 per cent

and 94.07 per cent for general non-tribal women, Tiwa women and Hmar women respectively which are

above than the state average (35.3 per cent) and country average (36.8 per cent). This implies that the

status of women in decision making in the study localities is above the state average and country average.

Similarly 64.55 per cent general women, 88.24 per cent Tiwa women and 93.33 per cent Hmar women

are allowed to use own bank account which are also far above the state average as well as the country

average of 11.7 per cent and 16.2 per cent respectively. This shows the better economic independency of

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90


% of Respondent Women(Tiwa Community)




the women in Assam. In tribal society, women are even in better position regarding participation in

decision making process in the society.

Table 6. Women's Participation in Decision Making

Sl.

No

.

Women's

Participation (%)

% of Respondent Women (General

Community)

% of Respondent Women (Tiwa

Community)

% of Respondent Women (Hmar

Community)

Yes No

Some

times

Missing

Response Yes No

Some

times

Missing

Response Yes No

Some

times

Missing

Response

1 Participation in

Household

Decision 79.09 0.91 18.18 1.82 86.27 3.92 9.8 0 84.44 0 15.55 0

2 Decision about

own Health Care 80.91 5.45 11.82 1.82 82.35 5.88 9.8 3.92 95.56 2.22 2.22 0

3 Decision on

purchases of

Daily Household

Needs 77.27 2.73 19.09 0.91 76.47 3.92 15.69 3.92 93.33 0 6.67 0

4 Decision to meet

Friends or Other

Relatives outside

the house 70.91 9.09 18.18 1.82 88.24 3.92 7.84 0 86.67 4.44 6.67 2.22

5 Reading of News

Paper 49.09 23.64 26.36 0.91 62.75 1.96 27.45 1.96 8.88 4.44 86.67 0

6 Permission to go

alone to the

Market 70 6.36 21.82 1.82 86.27 1.96 11.76 0 100 0 0 0

7 Permission to use

Own Bank

Account 64.55 28.18 5.45 1.82 88.24 3.92 5.88 0 93.33 2.22 4.44 0

8 Women who can

take decision to

go alone to the

market, to health

care, and to meet

friends or

relatives outside

the house 73.94 6.97 17.27 1.82 84.97 3.92 9.80 1.31 94.07 2.22 2.96 0.74




6.7 Experience of Different forms of Violence

The experience of different forms of violence is reflected in Table 7 and Figure 5. The table

and figure reveal that majority of general community non-tribal women (53.64 per cent) are not ready to

answer the question about their experiences of different forms of violence. Whatever reported is presented

in the table shows that 4.55 per cent general women have their experience with the physical violence.

Both physical and sexual violence are reported by 1.82 per cent general women. No report was found

about sexual violence while 40 per cent general women denied any form of violence in their life at all.

Similar response has been received from the tribal women too. However, it can be observed from the

table that the percentage of women who can confidently deny about any kind of violence in their life is

more in tribal society than in non-tribal one.

Table 7. Experience of Different forms of Violence

Sl.

No. Categories

% of Respondent

Women (General

Community)

% of Respondent

Women (Tiwa

Community)

% of Respondent

Women (Hmar

Community)

1 Physical Violence only 4.55 5.88 4.44

2 Sexual Violence only 0.00 0.00 0.00

3

Either Physical or

Sexual Violence 0.00 0.00 0.00

4

Both Physical and

Sexual Violence 1.82 1.96 0.00

5 No 40.00 64.71 86.67


Total 100.00 100.00 100.00


Figure 5.Experience of Different forms of Violence

0

20

40

60

80

100

PhysicalViolence

only

SexualViolence

only

EitherPhysical

or SexualViolence

BothPhysical

andSexual

Violence

No MissingResponse



% of Respondent Women (HmarCommunity)



6.8 Participation in Election Procedure

Political empowerment of women can only be achieved when there is proper representation in

the political decision making bodies. However, women are generally underrepresented in all the facets of

the political process. It is mainly due to the socio-cultural barriers, lack of financial means, lack of

confidence, lack of access to technology, gender discrimination etc. [11]. The participation in the election

procedure is presented in Table 8 and Figure 6. It is seen from the table and figure that 90 per cent general

women and 97.78 per cent Hmar women have participated in the last election procedure as voter. Ten per

cent has come out as missing response in case of general women. However, it can be said that majority of

women among general community and Hmar community are conscious about their voting right as citizen.

Also they have the capability to exercise this right. However, it was surprising that Tiwa women are not

conscious about their voting right.

Table 8. Participation in the Last Election Procedure

Sl.

No. Categories

% of Respondent

Women (General

Community)

% of Respondent

Women (Tiwa

Community)

% of Respondent

Women (Hmar

Community)

1 As Voter 90.00 50.98 97.78

2 As Contestants 0.00 0.00 0.00

3 As Winner 0.00 0.00 0.00


Total 100.00 100.00 100.00


Figure 6. Participation in the Last Election Procedure



6.9 Discussion with the Respondent Women

The respondent women are asked to comment anything about their status in the society. Kanan

Kalita (Name changed) commented that this type of study will help women to know their present position

in the family and society as well. She is unhappy with her present status in the family. Sonali Das (Name

Changed) remarked that the study is a good initiative which is praise worthy. Daisy Zote (Name

Changed) stated aggressively that women should not be dependent on men.

6. Conclusion

From the above analysis it is apparent that the socio-economic status of women of Assam is

somewhat better in fulfilling the strategic gender needs like participation in decision making process,

control over own body etc.. However, the socio-economic status of women of Assam in fulfilling

practical gender needs like workforce participation, health status etc. is not at all better than all India

average, rather the status is found worse in case of many important indicators. From the study the

following findings may be derived:

(i) It is found that majority of women are not eager to respond to their education level. Most

women who have responded are higher secondary passed only.

(ii) The female workforce participation rate is also lower than the state average both for tribal and

non-tribal women in the study localities of Assam.

(iii) Husband is the owner of the houses where the respondent women are living in most of the

families. It implies that women are not achieving equal economic power in the families in the

study localities of Assam.

(iv) It is encouraging that a major portion of the general community non-tribal women can make

their own decision on how many children they are going to have in their families. However,

only a negligible portion of tribal women can take decision themselves.

(v) The study shows that careerist ideology is less predominant for women in Assam. Family is

the major source of happiness for majority of the women reflecting prevalence of traditional

Indian societal value system in the locality.

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

As Voter

As Contestants

As Winner

Missing Response

% of Respondent Women (HmarCommunity)





(vi) The status of women in decision making in the study localities is above the state average and

the country average. The study shows better economic independency for women in the state.

In tribal society, women are even in better position regarding participation in decision making

process in the society.

(vii) The majority of women of the study localities are not ready to answer the question about their

experiences of different forms of violence. Only a few responses were found about their

experience with sexual violence and physical violence while 40 per cent non-tribal women

denied about any form of violence in their life. However, it can be observed from the table

that the percentage of women who can confidently deny about any kind of violence in their

life is more in tribal society than in non-tribal one.

(viii) The majority of women except Tiwa women are conscious about their voting right as citizen.

The above findings reflect the status of women in Assam. This study is a humble attempt to have an

idea about the status of women of different communities in the state. A more intensive location specific

examination of women‟s status is necessary to have the right information for effective planning and

implementation of government policy.

One salient and important feature in the Assamese society was the absence of the dowry system. But

as time passes by, the evil of dowry system has silently crept into the Assamese society. Moreover,

incidents of molestation, trafficking, murder and domestic violence have also gone up in the state,

indicating that the status of women in Assam is not commendable at present.

Women themselves should be aware of their rights and responsibilities in the society to make a

change in the society as well as for upliftment of status of women in the society. Equal access to all

resources both by men and women is very important for better development of any country.

Acknowledgements:

The authors would like to acknowledge Women Study Centre, Pragjyotish College for

recommendation for conducting a study for general community women in Guwahati. The authors would

also like to acknowledge Ms. Kabita Doloi, Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Pragjyotish

College and Ms. Laltlanzuol Khawbung, Assistant Professor Department of English, Pragjyotish College

for their kind help collecting data for tribal women from the field.

Notes:

1. Tiwa is an ethnic group/indigenous tribe inhabiting Assam and Meghalaya in the North East India.

They are recognized as a scheduled tribe within the State of Assam. They were known as Lalungs in

the Assamese History, Colonial literature and in the Constitution of India. The vast majority of them

speak Assamese as their mother tongue, Tiwa language being still spoken on the foothills of

Meghalaya and in a few villages of the plains of Assam. Their descent system is patrilineal. Their

patronymics are not derived from their clan's names but are common Assamese/Other ethnic Tribes

surname-names such as Pator, Bordoloi, Konwar, Das, Doloi, Kakoti, Deka, Deuri, Borah etc. [12].

2. Hmar is the name of one of the numerous Chin-Kuki-Mizo tribes of India, spread over a large area in

the North East. The Hmars belong to the Chin-Kuki-Mizo group of tribes, and are recognised as

Scheduled Tribe. Hmars live mostly in the hills of South Manipur, Mizoram, Cachar, Dima Hasao

district of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Chittagong Hill Tracts. Although these areas are within

different administrative divisions, they are geographically connected. In Assam, the Hmars live in the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meghalaya

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_India

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_castes_and_scheduled_tribes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuki_people

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_Tribe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizoram

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cachar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dima_Hasao

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meghalaya

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripura

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chittagong_Hill_Tracts

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam



Cachar and North Cachar Hills District. There are about 1, 00, 000 Hmar people in Assam. The Hmar

tribe comprises numerous sub-tribes or clans. In the past these clans had their own villages and their

own dialects. However, today majority of the Hmar population use Hmar language. Some of the major

clans are: Biate, Darngawn, Faihriem (Saivate, Chawngthu, Vangsie/Vangchhia ,Chunthang,

Ngendum, Ngenzo); Lawitlang; Khawbung; Lungtau; Leiri; Thiek, Zote, Hrangkhawl, Changsan,

Ngurte ,Ngente, Khiengte etc. [12].

References

[1] Mason, K. O.,The status of women: conceptual and methodological issues in demographic

studies, Sociological Forum, 1986, 1 (2), Spring, 284-300.

[2] United Nations Children‟s Fund (UNICEF)., Promoting gender equality: an equity-focused

approach to programming, Operational Guidance Overview, June, 2011, Retrieved January11,

2015 from http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Overarching_Layout_Web.pdf.

[3] Kishor, Sunita & Gupta, K. , A Report on Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment on the basis

of National Family Heath Survey (NFHS)-3, 2009,Mumbai, India.

[4] Bordoloi, B.N.,Sharma Thakur G.C.& Sharma, M.C., Tribes of Assam, Vol I, II, III, 1987, 1988, 1991,

Assam, India: Tribal Research Institute.

[5] Government of India, Data for use of Deputy Chairman, April, 2012, Planning Commission.

Retrieved September 24 from

www.planningcommission.nic.in/data/datatable/0904/comp_data0904.pdf.

[6] NSSO, Employment and unemployment situation in India, 2007-08. Report No.531, NSS

64th Round, May, 2010, New Delhi: Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation.

[7] Kishor, S. & Gupta, K., Women‟s Empowerment in India and its States: Evidence from the NFHS,

Economic and Political Weekly, 2004, XXXIX (7).

[8] Desai, N & Thakkar, U., Women in Indian Society, 2005 New Delhi: National Book Trust, India.

[9] Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Women‟s Economic

Empowerment. Issue Paper, April, 2011.

[10] Rathirapee, Y. (n.d)., Women empowerment through decision making, Retrieved June 3,

2016 from http://scholar.google.co.in.

[11] Empowering Women in Political Participation and Leadership. (n.d)., Retrieved June 3

from http://www.newtactics.org

[12] Wikipedia, 2016, Retrieved January 4, 2016 from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiwa_people_%28Lalung and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmar_people.

http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Overarching_Layout_Web.pdf

http://www.planningcommission.nic.in/data/datatable/0904/comp_data0904.pdf

http://scholar.google.co.in/

http://www.newtactics.org/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiwa_people_%28Lalung

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmar_people.

Documents

UTOPIA OF GLOBAL EDUCATION - srsshodhsansthan.orgsrsshodhsansthan.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/1.-UT-June-18.pdfstatus of women is not equal vis-à-vis that of men in the society