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This article was downloaded by: [Northeastern University] On: 04 December 2014, At: 19:52 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ustr20 Using Physical Education to Improve Literacy Skills in Struggling Students David A. Wachob a a Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, PA Published online: 26 Aug 2014. To cite this article: David A. Wachob (2014) Using Physical Education to Improve Literacy Skills in Struggling Students, Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators, 27:5, 12-17, DOI: 10.1080/08924562.2014.938876 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2014.938876 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms- and-conditions

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This article was downloaded by: [Northeastern University]On: 04 December 2014, At: 19:52Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport EducatorsPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ustr20

Using Physical Education to Improve Literacy Skills inStruggling StudentsDavid A. Wachoba

a Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, PAPublished online: 26 Aug 2014.

To cite this article: David A. Wachob (2014) Using Physical Education to Improve Literacy Skills in Struggling Students, Strategies: AJournal for Physical and Sport Educators, 27:5, 12-17, DOI: 10.1080/08924562.2014.938876

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2014.938876

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in thepublications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations orwarranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsedby Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified withprimary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings,demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectlyin connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone isexpressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Page 2: Using Physical Education to Improve Literacy Skills in Struggling Students

Literacy skills are an essential part of academic performance. When phys-ical educators collaborate with classroom teachers to address these skills, student engagement in the learning process can greatly improve. This

article begins by reviewing the growing issues surrounding student literacy and its impact on academic performance. The discussion then moves to exploring how physical education can be a positive setting for improving literacy skills in students. The article concludes by providing specific examples for improving literacy skills through physical education.

Using Physical EdUcation

in Struggling Studentsto Improve Literacy Skills

12 Strategies

By David A. Wachob

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Volume 27 • September/October 13

With the majority of students reporting that the information being taught in school is not interesting (Yazzie-Mintz, 2010), it is no wonder that one in four students in grades 8 through 12 are scoring below the basic level of reading proficiency, and one in four 12th-grade students cannot demonstrate a fundamental ability to communicate in writing (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2008). These troubling findings are strongly connected to student engagement, and researchers are discovering that many schools lack this crucial component (Berti, Molinari, & Speltini, 2010; Willms, 2003).

Often, teachers report that students fail as a result of a nega-tive home environment, low intellectual ability, and low mo-tivation to learn (Raths, 2000). However, in a three-year na-tional study, researchers surveyed more than a quarter million students (Yazzie-Mintz, 2010) and found that students report lack of relevance of the material, poor interaction with the teacher, and the work not being challenging enough as the top reasons for disengagement. In fact, one of the lowest reported reasons for disengagement was material being too difficult (Yazzie-Mintz, 2010). This gap between teachers’ beliefs and what students report creates a disconnect in students’ engage-ment. If teachers can make a stronger connection with their students and the content, engagement in learning can improve. Ultimately, schools that have high levels of student engage-ment tend to have high levels of literacy skills (Willms, 2003). Through proper planning and communication, physical educa-tors can address literacy skills that will lead to increased student engagement and school connectedness.

The term literacy goes well beyond being able to read and write. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2004), “literacy involves a con-tinuum of learning that enables an individual to achieve his or her goals, to develop his or her knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in the wider society” (pp. 12–13). In other words, students should work toward achieving personal academic goals that align with the skills required to become productive citizens. When students achieve personal goals, they 1) are more interested in the outcome, 2) become more engaged in learning, and 3) are more willing to participate in coopera-tive-type activities — all of which can lead to improved literacy skills (Willms, 2003).

Physical Education as a Tool for ChangeThe uniqueness of physical education class makes it ideal

for integrating literacy skills. This is because students naturally gain knowledge outside of the traditional classroom setting (Buchanan et al., 2002). Daggett (2010) discussed how physi-cal education is uniquely different from the typical classroom structure because “in an academic class you are taught a les-son and then given a test. In physical education class you are often given a test that teaches you a lesson” (CHILDS Play section, para. 5). With the right planning, physical education can encourage students to plan, investigate, reason, strategize, and reflect — all of which build critical literacy skills (Buell & Whittaker, 2001). Furthermore, when other content areas are

integrated with physical education, students can explore class-room concepts through movement, which helps them discover the relevance of the content and ultimately leads to increased motivation to learn.

Literacy is a multifaceted concept that involves using a vari-ety of means (e.g., listening, speaking, and writing) to exchange information across a range of social contexts (Hay, Elias, & Booker, 2006). One focus of literacy that may be useful for as-sisting struggling students is physical literacy. Physical literacy includes expanding the student’s ability to 1) read and respond to the environment and to others through interaction, 2) use the body as an instrument of expression and communica-tion, and 3) demonstrate knowledge, skills, and understanding (Daggett, 2010).

Struggling students often display common deficits that lead to below-basic levels of physical literacy. Some common defi-cits are often seen in students’ inability to organize, store, and retrieve information; generalize and transfer learned knowl-edge to new and unknown tasks; show adequate use of strate-gies for solving tasks; and engage in appropriate social inter-actions that are essential for school connectedness (Hay et al., 2006). All of these areas of concern can be addressed and im- proved through well-designed, cross-curricular, physical educa-tion lessons.

A Cross-Curricular Approach to Improving Literacy Development

One of the primary learning styles for many students is kin-esthetic, or hands-on, learning (Gardner, 1999). Engaging in positive social interactions, generalizing and transferring new information, and solving tasks are essential for the developing learner, and all of these are strengthened through physical lit-

By collaborating with classroom teachers, physical educators can address the key components to learning by creating fun opportunities that reinforce classroom content through hands-on activities and by focusing on physical literacy skills.

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eracy. By collaborating with classroom teachers, physical edu-cators can address the key components to learning by creating fun opportunities that reinforce classroom content through hands-on activities and by focusing on physical literacy skills. When teachers work together to deliver content, they demon-strate school connectedness to students. This connectedness en-

courages students to challenge themselves, which in turn leads to higher engagement in learning (Ekeland, Heian, & Hagen, 2005).

There are endless ways to address literacy skills in physi-cal education. Providing written instructions or task cards, in-corporating vocabulary into each activity, developing personal

Table 1. Reading Integration Ideas for Physical Education

GradeLevel Activity Idea Integration Ideas

Lower

Acting out storiesThis helps develop physical movement concepts and reinforce the fun of reading. Give the classroom teacher books to read to the class so that when students come to physical education, they are ready to act them out.

Hints:•   Have students act out parts of books they are 

reading.•   Modify the themes of common activities to fit the 

characters or stories of popular children’s books.

Good fitness books for acting out:1. Wallie Exercises (by S. Ettinger): Students learn

important fitness concepts while following Wallie on his hilarious journey to get in shape.

2. I.Q. Gets Fit (by M. A. Fraser): A class pet mouse decides to get in shape by exercising.

3. Exercise-Looking After Me (by L. Gogerly): A grandmother has her grandchildren visit and refuses to let them be couch potatoes. During their visit, they do fun activities together to stay in shape.

Middle

Promote wider readingProvide students with a variety of sports and activity books that they can sign out to read.

Hints:•   Ask other teachers to recommend and promote 

their favorite sports books.•   Keep a reading wall with artifacts related to the 

topics being covered in class (i.e., memorabilia, trivia questions, student artwork, etc.).

•   Choose books that are relevant to current unit themes, and add to the collection as the year progresses.

Suggested sports and activity books:1. Camp Out!: The Ultimate Kids’ Guide

(by L. Brunelle): Everything students need to know about camping.

2. Foul Football (by M. Coleman): Provides fun facts about the game of football (known as soccer in the U.S.).

3. Sports Sabotage (by F. W. Dixon): The Hardy Boys bring their detective skills to the athletic arena in this all-new Secret Files mystery.

4. Body Owner’s Handbook (by N. Arnold): A book about the human body that helps kids learn and laugh at the same time.

Upper

Novel-themed eventsUsing popular young-adult novels (such as The Hunger Games) as the theme, create an activity or conduct a field-day event.

Hints:•   Have parent volunteers participate and help 

manage stations.•   Excite the students by creating a trailer video 

about the event and have the students watch it during the daily announcements.

Tips for developing novel-based activities:1. Draw on quotes from the book to develop themes

for activities. For example, using the following quote from The Hunger Games (by S. Collins), “What I want most, right at this moment, is water. I won’t last long without it. For a few days, I’ll be able to function . . . but after that I’ll . . . be dead in a week, tops” (pp. 153–154), students could be the first district (team) in a relay to fill a 2-liter bottle to the line.

2. Try to include the conflict from the story into the event. For example, from The Hunger Games, use the conflict of the Capital (teachers) versus Katniss (students) to excite the students about the event and motivate them to read.

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goals, and completing self-assessments can all help students to develop physical literacy skills (Ballinger & Deeney, 2006). However, the best way to create highly engaged students is by incorporating a cross-curricular approach to learning (Willms, 2003), which can improve comprehension of physical educa-tion, as well as other subject areas. The most effective way to go about this cross-curricular process is for the physical educator

to have ongoing communication with the classroom teachers. To plan appropriately and keep up with the fast-paced school curriculum, physical educators need to collaborate on a regular basis with other content teachers. For example, having access to the weekly vocabulary words that students are learning or a list of themes being discussed in a history unit can help physical educators incorporate this information into their lessons. Most

Table 2. Language Integration Ideas for Physical Education

GradeLevel Activity Idea Instructions

Lower

Walk This WayThis activity works well when practicing locomotor skills while teaching adverbs.

Hints:•   Have large note cards with adverbs and locomotor 

movements.•   Go around and have students randomly choose a 

card that describes the next move.•   Use silly adverbs (e.g., nonchalantly, angrily, 

beautifully) and get ready for some interesting locomotor skills!

Tips for incorporating adverbs:1. Briefly discuss what adverbs are, and focus on

using “ly” examples.2. Have the students start by walking around the

area.3. From a set of cards, yell out an adverb that

describes how the students should be walking (e.g., “walk quickly”).

4. Continue to switch the locomotor skill (skipping, jogging, etc.) and adverbs.

Middle

Pass the WordThis game can be played when practicing passing skills (e.g., football, basketball, etc.).

Hints:•   Provide students with a list of physical education 

vocabulary words or get one from the classroom teacher.

•   At first, provide terms or meanings around the gym and then make students memorize them once they get the hang of the activity.

Tips for incorporating words and definitions:1. Pair or group students.2. As they practice passing, they shout a word or

meaning.3. The receiver or catcher then has to give the

meaning or the word depending on what was shouted first.

4. Award points for correct answers, and limit thinking time to maintain pace.

Upper

Scrabble ShuffleThis is a small-group activity that can enhance students’ vocabulary and teamwork skills.

Hint:Scrabble letter point values:

*2 blank tiles (scoring 0 points)*1 point: E ×12, A ×9, I ×9, O ×8, N ×6, R ×6,T ×6, L ×4, S ×4, U ×4

*2 points: D ×4, G ×3*3 points: B ×2, C ×2, M ×2, P ×2*4 points: F ×2, H ×2, V ×2, W ×2, Y ×2*5 points: K ×1*8 points: J ×1, X ×1*10 points: Q ×1, Z ×1

Tips for incorporating vocabulary:1. Make a set of flashcard letters with point values

for each letter (see hint for letter point value).2. Break up students into small groups and spread

groups around the perimeter of the gym.3. With the Scrabble cards in the center court, the

teams have a few minutes to run out, pick up one letter, and bring it back to their group.

4. After a few minutes, each group should have a dozen or more letters to work with.

5. Now give students one to two minutes to formulate as many words as possible with the letters that they have gathered. Each letter can be used only once.

6. Have the groups add up the points from each letter card used to spell the words.

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teachers have this information well in advance, leaving plenty of time to prepare and coordinate.

A fun and easy way to build on what’s being done in the class-room is through sharing unit themes with other teachers. For instance, if the students are reading a book in class, the physical educator can help students “step into” the story, thus making a deeper connection to the literature (Colvin & Rayburn, 2007). This can give students the opportunity to transfer ideas they are learning in the classroom, get a more multi-dimensional look at the characters in a story, and solve problems (conflicts) that may arise in a story. For the primary grades, physical educators can suggest some reading titles that the classroom teacher can introduce to the class so that when the students come to physi-cal education, they are ready to act them out. For older students with assigned novels to read, physical educators can add the theme of the book to common physical activities. For example, if the students are assigned to read Charlotte’s Web for class, the physical educator can change the theme of a common chasing-and-fleeing game by adding main characters (e.g., the farmer [chaser], Wilbur the pig [fleers], and Charlotte [rescuer]) of the

story into the game. More story integration ideas are presented in Table 1.

Another way to infuse literacy into physical education is through language integration. For example, incorporating vo-cabulary words into physical education is an easy way to expose the content through kinesthetic learning. Integrating language skills into physical education not only reinforces vocabulary and parts of speech being taught in the classroom, but also encour-ages students to communicate with one another and ultimately promotes the use of different strategies for solving problems — all of which are skills struggling students lack (Hay et al., 2006). For example, if students are learning about prepositions in the classroom, the physical educator could create instructional cues based on a list of prepositions (i.e., up, down, beside, toward, etc.) posted on the gym wall. See Table 2 for some more ideas for integrating language skills into physical education class.

Lastly, physical education class can reinforce the importance of effective listening and speaking skills, which are an essen-tial part of literacy. Often, students who struggle with literacy skills also lack oral expression skills (Thompson, Bakken, Fulk,

Table 3. Tips for Encouraging Speaking and Listening Skills in Physical Education

Strategy Examples

Guided Discovery Provide students with open-ended questions that encourage them to think and develop a response based on prior knowledge and exploration of the task.

•   “Is it better to jump from a standing position or by taking a few steps first?”

•   “What are some ways that worked well to get the ball to teammates on your side of the court?”

Group Interactions•   When using peer assessments, set standards and specific 

objectives to help students provide authentic constructive feedback.

•   Allow time for students to explain their ideas. This allows them to internalize their strategies.

•   Giving a typically passive group member an activity guide to lead other students encourages speaking from less involved teammates and more listening from the natural “leaders” in the group.

•   Keep groups small to encourage fuller participation.

•   “While practicing dribbling, use this skill sheet to assess your partner and provide them with tips to improve their performance.”

•   “Each player must develop a play route that the group will practice and use when it’s time to play the game.”

•   “One member (quiet student) of each group has a guide to help develop strategies and approaches to complete today’s task. Seek their advice as you explore options.”

Encouraging Environment•   Provide students with the tools needed to encourage 

positive communication. •   Establish time and procedures dedicated to 

helping students work through disagreements and miscommunications.

•   Bulletin board displaying speculative language (What if we? Should we? Maybe . . .), problem-solving steps, detailed information about particular skills, etc.

•   “What were some roadblocks that your group had while completing the task? Could you get past those roadblocks? Why or why not?”

•   Develop quick steps (e.g., rock, paper, scissors) to handle simple conflicts (two students arguing over equipment). This allows students to work positively through situations by themselves and decreases negative communication during lessons.

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& Peterson-Karlan, 2007). To be successful in many activities presented in physical education, students must successfully communicate with one another, especially in the roles of leader, partner, supporter, or evaluator. These complex interactions among students involve skills that need to be explicitly taught. One of the best ways to build on listening and speaking skills is through cooperative activities, or tasks that require students to work together to be successful. For example, by giving students a seemingly impossible task (i.e., getting a group of students across the gym floor using only a beach towel) requires students to listen to different group members’ ideas and learn through the process of trial and error. It is important to note that these types of activities can elicit frustration in students, because they are given a task they think is impossible to complete. Therefore, it is essential for the teacher to provide students with tools to effectively communicate before, during, and after the activity. Table 3 presents strategies and tips that teachers can use to encourage positive listening and speaking skills in students.

ConclusionCreating new avenues for students to actively participate in

the learning process can be difficult for many educators (Fred-ricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004). However, as students remain disengaged from school and the dropout rate continues to soar (Yazzie-Mintz, 2010), it is important that schools and educa-tors rethink how they are addressing learning and instruction. Students need to have a more active role in their education and be encouraged to explore ways to internalize content (Sousa, 2006). In doing so, schools allow students to personalize learn-ing outcomes, which makes material more relevant and ulti-mately creates physically literate students (Ballinger & Dee-ney, 2006). Physical educators can lead this reform by crossing curricular lines and promoting a positive learning environment that strengthens school connectedness and student investment in education.

ReferencesBallinger, D. A., & Deeney, T. A. (2006). Physical educators as teachers

of literacy. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 77(5), 18–23.

Berti, C., Molinari, L., & Speltini, G. (2010). Classroom justice and psychological engagement: Students’ and teachers’ representations. Social Psychology of Education, 13, 541–556.

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Buell, C., & Whittaker, A. (2001). Enhancing content literacy in phys-ical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 72(8), 23–33.

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Daggett, S. (2010). Physical education and literacy: The odd couple or a match made in heaven? Educator’s Voice, 3, 42–49.

Ekeland, E. E., Heian, F. F., & Hagen, K. B. (2005). Can exercise im-prove self-esteem in children and young people? A systematic re-view of randomized controlled trials. British Journal of Sports Medi-cine, 39, 792–798.

Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School en-gagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59–109.

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed. New York, NY: Basic Books.Hay, I., Elias, G., & Booker, G. (2006). Students with learning difficul-

ties in relation to literacy and numeracy. Canberra, Australia: School-ing Issues Digest.

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Sousa, D. A. (2006). How the brain learns. Thousand Oaks, CA: Cor-win.

Thompson,  J. R., Bakken,  J.  P.,  Fulk, B. M., & Peterson-Karlan, G. (2007). Using technology to improve the literacy skills of students with disabilities. Retrieved from http://www.freewebs.com/sallydoxie/disability.pdf

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Education Sector. (2004). The plurality of literacy and its implications for policies and programs: Position paper. Paris, France: Author.

Willms, J. D. (2003). Student engagement at school: A sense of belonging and participation: Results from PISA 2000. Paris, France: Organiza-tion for Economic Co-Operation and Development.

Yazzie-Mintz, E. (2010). Charting the path from engagement to achieve-ment: A report on the 2009 High School Survey of Student Engagement. Retrieved from http://ceep.indiana.edu/hssse S

David A. Wachob ([email protected]) is an assistant professor in the De-partment of Kinesiology, Health, and Sport Science at Indiana University of Pennsylvania in Indiana, PA.

One of the best ways to build on listening and speaking skills is through cooperative activities, or tasks that require students to work together to be successful.

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