Using Goal Setting to Enhance Positive Affect

7/27/2019 Using Goal Setting to Enhance Positive Affect

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Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 2010, 4, 53-68

2010 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Using Goal Setting to Enhance PositiveAffect Among Junior Multievent Athletes

Paul J. McCarthy

Glasgow Caledonian University

Marc V. JonesStaffordshire University

Chris G. Harwood

Loughborough University

Laura Davenport

Staffordshire University

Positive affect is linked to enhanced motivation, commitment, and performanceamong youth sport performers; yet, few psychological interventions have speci-

cally attempted to enhance positive affect among these athletes. To address this

circumstance, we implemented a single-subject multiple-baseline design to exam-

ine the effects of a goal-setting intervention on the positive and negative affective

responses of three competitive youth athletes. Statistical analysis coupled with

visual inspection criteria revealed a signicant overall increase in positive affect

for participants 1 and 2. A statistically signicant increase in positive affect also

emerged for participant 3, yet it was not possible to detect a signicant experimen-

tal effect using visual inspection criteria. No statistically signicant decreases in

negative effect emerged for any of the three participants. These results show somesupport for the hypothesis that goal setting may enhance positive affect among

junior multievent athletes.

Keywords: well-being, youth sport, performance, mental skills

Positive affect, or the extent to which a person feels enthusiastic, active, andalert (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), promotes exible, creative, and recep-tive thought patterns (Isen, Daubman, & Nowicki, 1987) and broadens attentionand cognition to improve emotional well-being (Fredrickson, 1998). Although

enhancing emotional well-being is a fundamental goal among sport psychologists


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54 McCarthy et al.

in professional practice, it is rarely the sole focus of psychological interventions(Beauchamp, Halliwell, Fournier, & Koestner, 1996). Research on negative emo-tions (typically anxiety and anger) has dominated the sport psychology literature

(Jackson, 2000); however, greater emphasis on experiences that make ones lifebetter is emerging with the developing eld of positive psychology (Seligman &Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). As current sport psychology practice appears to recognizethe value of positive emotions, enhancing psychological well-being by measuringchanges in positive and negative affect is a key function in evaluating sport psychol-ogy practice (Anderson, Miles, Mahoney, & Robinson, 2002) and has implicationsfor talent development (Ct, 1999) and continued involvement in sport (McCarthy,Jones, & Clark-Carter, 2008; Scanlan, Babkes, & Scanlan, 2005).

One technique to enhance positive affect is goal setting (Wiese, 2007). Goal set-ting is a popular motivational technique for enhancing productivity and performance

in achievement domains like business and sport (Weinberg, 1994) and is thoughtto improve performance by helping individuals focus attention on a task, mobi-lize effort, persist longer at the task, and develop new learning strategies (Locke,Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981). In addition, changes in performance achievementsmay produce changes in affect. To help explain this further, Harters (1978, 1981)competence motivation theory suggests that individuals have an inherent desire toexperience feelings of competence, and these feeling may be attained through mas-tery experiences in achievement domains (e.g., sport). Positive affective experienceslike enjoyment and satisfaction are hypothesized to be associated with these feel-ings of mastery, which in turn would increase intrinsic motivation as demonstratedby a desire to exert effort, seek challenges, and exhibit perseverance regardless ofunsuccessful outcomes. Similarly, achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1984, 1989)argues that task-involved performers derive positive affect if they perform at a levelthat reects how they have mastered a task or made personal improvements (Duda,Chi, Newton, Walling, & Catley, 1995). Conversely, when people perceive thatthey lack the competence to master an achievement challenge or have inadequatecontrol over specic achievement outcomes, unfavorable affective experiences,particularly anxiety, can ensue (Brustad, Babkes, & Smith, 2001). These theoreti-cal suggestions imply that setting and achieving challenging goals to master sport

skills would potentially enhance ones positive affect. Indeed, elite track and eldathletes have explained that performance accomplishments achieved through goalsetting were strongly associated with increased enjoyment because improvementwas clearly recognizable (Mallett & Hanrahan, 2004).

Progress on goal-setting research in youth sport has been gradual. One reasonfor this slow development is that sport psychology researchers typically conductgoal-setting studies with high school- or college/university-aged participants, asthese populations are readily available (Weinberg, 1994). Specically, nonathletepsychology undergraduates are often research participants in laboratory experimentsbecause of their availability (Sears, 1986). Despite this issue, some researchers

have examined the effects of goal setting on performance among competitiveyouth sport participants (Boyce, 1990; Erbaugh & Barnett, 1986; Filby, Maynard,& Graydon 1999; Mooney & Mutrie 2000; Wanlin Hrycaiko Martin & Mahon


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Youth Goal Setting and Affect 55

and competition. Challenging goals centered on performance aspects under directcontrol of the individual t neatly with Csikszentmihalyis (1990) theory of ow,suggesting that people are happiest when the challenge they are facing is equal to

the skills they possess. Thus, based on Harters (1978, 1981) competence motiva-tion theory, the goal-setting process would theoretically result in greater positiveaffect among youth athletes. Unknown, however, is whether goal setting actuallyinuences affective experiences of youths involved in sport.

Goals set by athletes tend to vary depending on their developmental andcompetitive involvement in sport. Weinberg, Burke, and Jackson (1997) examinedgoal-setting practices among youth tennis players, who ranked the following goalsin order of importance: improving performance, having fun, and winning. In anearlier study, collegiate athletes revealed similar goals; however, they ranked theimportance of their goals in the following order: improving performance, winning,

and having fun (Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 1993). This goal reversalis predictable considering the developmental and competitive focus of the twogroups. In particular, improving performance and enjoying sport are the foci ofmost youth athletes (McCarthy & Jones, 2007), whereas improving and winningare typically the foci of older athletes (Weinberg et al., 1997).

Goal-setting research has focused primarily on understanding how establishinggoals affect performance on a task. One limitation of this research model, however,is that it does not attempt to examine the psychological processes such as cogni-tions, motivation, and affective responses resulting from the goals an individualmay set (Hall & Kerr, 2001; Li & Lee, 2004). To address whether goal settinginuences affective responses, this study examines the effects of a goal-settingintervention on positive and negative affect using a single-subject multiple-baselineacross-subjects design.

Method

Participants

Three female junior multievent athletes participated in this 7-week intervention

study. Participants 1 and 2 were 12 years old and participant 3 was 13 years old(M

age= 12.3 years, SD = 0.58). All athletes had a minimum of three years of com-

petitive athletics experience and competed at county and regional level athleticevents in Central England. Junior multievent athletes compete in events including100m, 800m, long- and high- jump, javelin, shot-putt, and hurdles. Prescreeningdetermined that no participant had previously received training in goal setting orused the technique before or during performance.

Experimental Design

A single-subject multiple-baseline design examined the effects of a goal-settingintervention on the affective responses of competitive youth athletes. This designallowed the evaluation of affect at the point when each participant received the


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reects the extent to which a person feels enthusiastic, active, and alert (Watson etal., 1988). High positive affect signals high energy, concentration, and full engage-ment. Negative affect, on the other hand, is a general dimension of subjective distress

and unpleasant engagement (Watson et al., 1988).

Measures

Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The PANAS (Watson et al.,1988) is a self-report measure of positive and negative affect and comprises two10-item subscales. The Positive Affect subscale consists of 10 items (interested,alert, excited, inspired, strong, determined, attentive, enthusiastic, active, andproud), and the Negative Affect subscale consists of 10 items (irritable, distressed,

ashamed, upset, nervous, guilty, scared, hostile, jittery, afraid). Participants ratedthe extent to which they experienced each of the 20 emotions on a 5-point Likertscale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely). Crocker (1997) conrmed thetwo-factor structure of the PANAS among a sporting youth sample. The genericstem of the PANAS asked participants how they felt after each training session.

Goal-Setting Diary

Participants maintained a weekly diary while involved in the intervention. Thisdiary served as a reective account of their goal-setting experiences (Evans, Jones,

& Mullen, 2004; McNiff, Lomax, & Whitehead, 1996). Participants recorded thedate that they used goal setting in training and any comments about the goal-settingexperience on each occasion. For example, the participants recorded their cogni-tions, emotions, and any other information that they believed was relevant to theintervention process. The diary served to increase adherence to the interventionby personalizing the goal-setting intervention and providing a record of progress(Bull, Albinson, & Shambrook, 1996; Shambrook & Bull, 1999).

Social Validity

Social validation of an intervention establishes a participants reaction to treatmentprocedures and experimental outcomes (Kazdin, 1982). Participants assessed theacceptability of the intervention by writing responses to three open-ended ques-tions: Do you think the intervention changed your feelings? Were you satisedwith the goal-setting intervention? and Which aspects of the intervention wouldyou change?

Procedure

The relevant research ethics committee and the chairperson of the athletics club gave

permission to conduct this study. Three female multievent athletes volunteered forthis study, and their parents received a letter detailing the nature of the interventionand their right to withdraw their child from participating at any time Data collec-


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ing session. Each participant received the intervention at different times, with aminimum of four assessment times during baseline measurement (Barlow & Hersen,1984; Kazdin, 1982). Participant 1 received the intervention after 4 training sessions,

participant 2 after 7 training sessions, and participant 3 after 10 training sessions.

Treatment: The Goal-Setting Intervention

The rst author, an accredited sport psychologist, delivered the goal-setting interven-tion at the participants athletic track after they completed the baseline phase. Theinitial intervention session lasted 30 min to avoid exceeding the childs attentionspan (Bailey, 2001). Each participant received the intervention individually andthe sport psychologist followed strict instructions for delivering the interventionto reduce the possibly of experimenter bias. The purpose of this initial session

was to set process and performance goals for training. The sport psychologistexplained the principles of goal setting and helped the athlete set goals to improveperformance in multievent athletics. Using a psychoeducational workbook, eachathlete read examples of goal setting and wrote examples of different goals (i.e.,short-term, process) for the sport psychologist to conrm her understanding of thetask (Stallard, 2002, 2005).

The psychoeducational booklet contained three sections. The rst sectionintroduced psychological skills training (PST) procedures and their value for sportperformers focusing on basic psychological skills development (goal setting, inparticular; Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). The second section detailed three types

of goals: outcome goals, performance goals, and process goals with examples ofeach goal type. Outcome goals focus on the result of an event, for example, winninga race or a medal. Performance goals focus on achieving a certain standard suchas improving the percentage of genuine long jumps made in training from 50% to60%. Finally,process goals focus on actions to perform to attain a performance goal.For instance, if a performance goal was to hit the long jump board on target veconsecutive times, a process goal might be to focus on a single cue before hittingthe board. Because process goals are usually regarded as more motivational thanoutcome goals, participants were encouraged to set process goals using the SMARTprinciple (Bull et al., 1996). This acronym explains that goals should be specic,measurable, adjustable, realistic, and time-tabled to be effective. Kyllo and Land-ers (1995) meta-analytic review of the literature investigating the effects of goalsetting on performance suggested that moderate, absolute, and combined short- andlong-term goals were associated with the greatest effects on performance in sport.Short-, medium-, and long-term goals were also introduced using examples, andthe common pitfalls of goal setting (e.g., setting too many goals, setting goals thatare too easy or too difcult) were outlined. The third section contained a diary foreach athlete to detail her process goals and use of goal setting during each weekof the intervention. This practice was necessary because research on goal-setting

effectiveness in the sport and industrial/organizational psychology literature indi-cated that goals should be written in a manner to increase commitment (e.g., Locke& Latham 1990; Weinberg 2002) The psychoeducational booklet on goal setting


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because not all clients can afford to pay sport psychologists for their services.Second, clients can use these materials on their own time and work at their ownpace, especially if they live far from a sport psychologist. Finally, the client can

return to the materials as often as the client wishes without incurring additional cost.The studys design and the psychoeducational booklet considered the cognitive

developmental characteristics of the participants. Brustad (1998) drew attention todevelopmental differences in information processing capacity and abstract reason-ing of children of different ages. Participants in this study were in the early stagesof formal operations (Piaget, 1963, 1970), suggesting a reasonably sophisticatedunderstanding of abstract concepts such as goal setting. These participants wouldhave developed reversibility of thought (i.e., being mentally able to reverse anoperation back to its original state) and the ability to decenter (i.e., focus on morethan one aspect of a situation; Foster & Weigand, 2008). To examine this contention,

participants explained to the sport psychologist how they felt at their last competi-tion and why they felt as they did. Answering these questions requires an abilityto reverse temporal aspects of performance, to recall emotions, and to decenter toascertain possible causes. All three participants demonstrated this ability.

The sport psychologist attended all training sessions during the intervention toobserve the athletes, reinforce the principles of goal setting, and answer any ques-tions that the athletes had regarding the goal-setting process. This reinforcementand feedback was normally a short conversation at the beginning of each trainingsession. The sport psychologist asked each athlete the following questions: Whatare your goals for todays session? and Are your goals SMART (specic, mea-surable, adjustable, realistic, and time-tabled)? The sport psychologist could alsoexamine each athletes goals in the athletes diary.

Data Analysis

Positive and negative affect data underwent visual inspection and statistical analy-sis. Five criteria established a signicant experimental effect for visual inspection(Hrycaiko & Martin, 1996): (a) a stable baseline, (b) consistency of effect acrossparticipants, (c) few overlapping data points between baseline and interventionphases, (d) how soon the effect occurred after the intervention, and nally (e) themagnitude of the effect during the intervention in comparison with baseline. Visualinspection is the traditional method to analyze single-subject data (Parsonson &Baer, 1978); however, other researchers have identied some shortcomings in thismethod (Crosbie, 1993, Fisch, 2001; Kazdin, 1982). For example, visual inspectiondecision rules are subject to bias (Wolery & Harris, 1982), have difculty detectingweak effects (Kazdin, 1982), and may lead to biased judgments due to autocor-relation (Bloom, Fischer & Orme, 2003); and there are difculties associated withan unstable baseline (Kazdin, 1982). Statistical methods could reduce these weak-nesses. Parametric tests, however, assume independence of error terms. Adjacent

data points, correlated over time in single-subject designs violate this assumptionknown as serial dependency. Calculating autocorrelations separately for baselineand intervention data points resolves this difculty If parametric assumptions


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intervention; statistical analyses contain this occurrence and provide informationthat may be difcult to obtain through visual inspection.

Results

Participant 1

Visual Inspection. Participant 1s positive affect increased initially after theintervention; however, it dropped slightly in the following two sessions beforeincreasing and stabilizing for the remainder of the intervention. Two overlappingdata points were observed between baseline and postintervention (see Figure 1).Negative affect decreased slightly from a mean of 1.45 during the baseline to 1.26

at postintervention assessment (a 13.1% decrease); this effect was not immediate,as negative affect only begins to decrease three sessions into the intervention.Four overlapping data points appeared between baseline and intervention phases(see Figure 2).

Statistical Analyses. The positive affect scores fullled the requirements ofnormality of distribution, homoscedasticity, and data independence. Change wassignicant for positive affect (t= 3.57, df= 12,p < .01) after the intervention witha large effect size (d= 2.06). Negative affect scores did not fulll the requirementsof normality of distribution, homoscedasticity, and data independence; therefore,

a Mann-Whitey test was used. Participant 1 did not demonstrate a statisticallysignicant reduction in negative affect (U= 6.5, p < .05) after the intervention.

Practical Assessment Diary. Participant 1s comments within the goal-settingdiary suggested that her goal setting provided a motivational function: Myrunning is improving, I feel somewhat motivated by this diary, and it makes mewant to do well. She also suggested that her shot-putt technique also improvedsince starting to set goals: I am very pleased with the outcome (of my shot-puttattempts). Her diary provided evidence of progress each week based on herprocess and performance goals. For example, she nished each race stronglyto improve her running times. Each goal in her diary detailed the aspects of theSMART principle.

Participant 2

Visual Inspection. Participant 2 reported a mean positive affect increase from 3.4in the baseline to 4.1 postintervention (an increase of 20.6%). No overlapping datapoints in addition to an immediate effect after the intervention suggested that aneffect had occurred; however, an increasing trend in the data appeared before theintervention. The trend in the data stabilized after the intervention (see Figure 1).

Negative affect decreased slightly after the intervention; the effect was immediate,but small, a decrease of only 10%. Four overlapping data points emerged betweenth b li d i t ti hi h li it th ff t ( Fi 2)


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Training Session


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0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.21.4

1.6

1.8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

INTERVENTIONBASELINE

0

0.2

0.40.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

NEG

ATIVEAFFECT

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14


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therefore, a Mann-Whitney test was used. Participant 2 reported a statisticallysignicant increase in positive affect with a large effect size (U= 0.000, p < .01, r= 0.84) and a nonsignicant reduction in mean negative affect (U= 14, p > 0.05)

after the intervention.

Practical Assessment Diary. Participant 2 reported that she set a process goal ofimproving her long jump technique and a performance goal of distance jumped.Although these goals were a combination of process and performance goals, sheadhered to the goals in her diary using the SMART principle. She demonstratedthat by practicing her long jump every Tuesday night, she was able to improve hertechnique and hit the board every time. Thus, by following the recommendedgoal-setting principles, she was able to achieve her goal of improving her technique,which pleased her.

Participant 3

Visual Inspection. Participant 3s mean increase in positive affect emerged afterthe intervention, with no immediate effect and seven overlapping data points. Theeffect of the increase was small at only 10.86% (see Figure 1). Positive affect scoresdid not achieve a stable baseline. Negative affect decreased from 1.44 to 1.25 (a13.19% decrease) after the intervention; again, a stable baseline was not achieved.No immediate effect of the intervention was evident and seven overlapping datapoints occurred between baseline and intervention phases (see Figure 2).

Statistical Analyses. The requirements of normality of distribution, homo-scedasticity, and data independence were fullled for the positive affect scoresbut not the negative affect scores. Therefore, a ttest and a Mann-Whitey test wereused, respectively. Participant 3 demonstrated a statistically signicant increase inpositive affect (t= 2.2, df= 12,p < .05) with a large effect size (d= 1.27). Negativeaffect did not demonstrate a statistically signicant reduction (U= 15, p > 0.05).

Practical Assessment Diary. Participant 3 also adhered to the SMART principlein her diary. In particular, she wanted to improve her shot-putt technique during

the intervention. Because she did not have adequate time to practice her shot-puttin training, she decided to practice the action at home in front of the mirror. Sheused her intervention time to work on coordinating the shot-putt action (e.g., chin,knee, toe, make a bow, see it go). She also revealed the positive affect associatedwith improvement in the shot-putt: Im improving bit by bit . . . its coming on,so Im happy.

Social Validation

The results of the social validation questionnaire revealed that all three participants

perceived improvement in specic aspects of their performances in multievent ath-letics, which was enjoyable. Furthermore, they all indicated that they were satisedwith the delivery and content of the intervention suggesting that the intervention


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Discussion

This study investigated the effect of goal setting on affect using a single-subject,

multiple-baseline across participants design. The results show initial support forthe hypothesis that goal setting could enhance the positive affect experienced byjunior multievent female athletes. Statistical analysis coupled with visual inspec-tion revealed a signicant overall increase in positive affect for participants 1 and2. Participant 3 also demonstrated a statistically signicant increase in positiveaffect, yet it was not possible to detect a signicant experimental effect using visualinspection criteria. No statistically signicant decreases in negative affect emergedfor the participants. The participants set appropriate process and performance goalsunder the guidance of the sport psychologist and mastered the tasks they set forthemselves. These ndings are in line with the assumptions of competence moti-

vation theory (Harter, 1978, 1981) and achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1984,1989), suggesting that individuals may derive positive affect by performing to alevel that reects how one has mastered a task or made personal improvements.Locke et al. (1981) noted that goal setting operates primarily as a motivationalmechanism to inuence ones degree of effort and persistence in striving towarda goal. Striving toward and achieving ones goals provide indications that one iscompetent and able, which is satisfying.

The goal-setting diaries unveiled the goal-setting practices of these youthathletes. The diaries from each participant revealed that the goal-setting techniquespresented a specic and motivating focus for training. Based on data from thesediaries, goal setting appeared to help the participants gain control in the trainingenvironment and realize their self-set goals, which provided a positive affectiveexperience. Improving performance and having fun were key goals for the partici-pants. This testimony supports Bulls (1997) claim that goal setting is a techniquecommonly used to promote positive affective experiences, enhance condence,and give purpose to training. The design of the goal-setting diary allowed eachparticipant to adhere to the SMART principle and enter any reections about goalsetting after each training session during the intervention. This structure made goalsetting easier for participants to understand and gave the sport psychologist an

opportunity to assess and discuss each participants goals at each training session.Participants set at least one goal for each session during the intervention, with mostgoals being process oriented. Anchored in the results of the current study, integratinga psychological skill (goal setting) into physical practice is achievable, understood,and valued by youth athletes to enhance positive affect. In fact, Sinclair and Sin-clair (1994) created a model of mental management that embedded PST in theprocess of learning physical skills. They suggested that mental skills were taught,learned, and remembered more easily when developed along with physical skills.

Kingston and Hardy (1997) established that focusing on process goals not onlyled to enhanced performance but also improvement in psychological factors such as

concentration, cognitive anxiety, and self-efcacy. Results from the current studypropose a credible argument that process and performance goals can also lead toincreased positive affect In particular the use of goal setting focusing on process


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lend some support to the theory that positive affect is strongly related to masteryexperiences in achievement situations (Harter, 1978, 1981).

A principal function of this study was that the young athletes had sole authority

and responsibility for setting their goals, which has been described as a key featureof effective goal setting (Weinberg et al., 1997). Festinger (1954) suggested thatindividuals have a need to assess competence and to engage in self-evaluation.Through appropriate education and instruction, youth athletes can learn to enhancepositive affect and competence through appropriate self-directed goal setting. Inthis way, it should be possible to maintain motivation and participation in sport,and perhaps other domains such as physical education.

Limitations

To prevent unjustied extrapolation from these results, the following limitations arerecognized. First, with unstable baselines, it is difcult to judge that the interventionalone had an effect on the variables under examination. One way to overcome thisdifculty would be to wait for the baseline to stabilize, showing no trend beforeintervening (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968). Second, it was not possible to collectfollow-up data because the coach decided that further data collection would disrupttraining. Therefore, the long-term effect of goal setting on the affective responsesof the participants could not be determined. In addition, given the empirical nd-ings in professional psychology suggesting that relationship factors account formuch of improvements seen in psychosocial interventions, the lack of measurement

of the alliance between the sport psychologist and the participants suggests thatnonspecic factors cannot be ruled out as reasons for these ndings. Despite theselimitations, this study presents some methodological strengths. Visual inspection,statistical analyses, and the systematic checking of conditions required to useappropriate parametric or nonparametric tests contributes to the credibility of thendings. Statistical tests are valuable because unstable baselines conceal whethera change occurred because of the intervention, and statistical analysis restrains thisoccurrence by providing information that may be difcult to obtain through visualinspection (Kazdin, 1982).

Conclusion

Children and adolescents cite many motives for participating in sport, yet havingfun and enjoying the experience remain consistent priorities for them (McCarthy &Jones, 2007). As such, practitioners are encouraged to keep enjoyment the centralfocus of physical activity pursuits for youth athletes. Research examining importantpsychological variables (e.g., affect, motivation, commitment) associated with goalsetting and other mental skills in youth sport is limited. This circumstance is regret-table because mental skills may impact their enjoyment and commitment as well

as performance. Future research studies could explore whether other mental skills(e.g., self-talk, mental imagery) enhance positive affect, motivation, and commit-

h f ( h l 1996) S h di h ld


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young athletes to enhance positive affect. Rather than examining performance,this intervention focused on positive affect because it signals well-being, guidesbehavior in-the-moment, and can shorten the duration of negative emotional arousal

(Fredrickson, 2001). Understanding the value of positive affect for sport performersis a research area in need of further attention.

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