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federal bureaucracy personnel and units &ithout interference from the other federalbranches.

9histle$blo&ers 5eople &ho bring official misconduct in their agencies to public attention.

Chapter 1:

Amicus curiae Latin for a friend of the court;( describes a brief in &hich individuals notparty to a suit may have their vie&s heard.

Appellate courts Courts that hear cases on appeal from other courts.

"riefs +ocuments setting out the arguments in legal cases, prepared by attorneys andpresented to courts.

Class action suit A suit brought on behalf of a group of people &ho are in a situationsimilar to that of the plaintiffs.

Constitutional courts )ederal courts created by Congress under the authority of Article 444 of

the Constitution.

Circuit courts !he 1< geographical *urisdictions and one special court that hear appealsfrom the federal district courts.

Concurring opinion the opinion of one or more *udges &ho vote &ith the ma*ority on a casebut &ish to set out different reasons for their decision.

+issenting opinion !he opinion of the *udge or *udges &ho are in the minority on aparticular case before the upreme Court.

=xecutive privilege A presidential claim that certain communications &ith subordinatesmay be &ithheld from Congress and the courts.

#rand *uries #roups of citi%ens &ho decide &hether there is sufficient evidence to bring anindictment against accused persons.

4n forma pauperis +escribing a process by &hich indigents may file a suit &ith the upremeCourt free of charge.

>udicial activism Actions by the courts that go beyond the strict role of the *udiciary asinterpreter of the la& and ad*udicator of disputes.

>udicial revie& !he po&er of the upreme Court to declare actions of the other branchesand levels of government unconstitutional.

Laisse%$faire !he political$economic doctrine that holds that government ought not

interfere &ith the operations of the free mar'et.

Legislative courts ?ighly speciali%ed federal courts created by Congress under theauthority of Article 4 of the Constitution.

8pinion !he explanation of the ma*ority@s reasoning that accompanies a court decision.

8pinion of the court !he ma*ority opinion that accompanies a upreme Court decision.

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8riginal intent !he doctrine that the courts must interpret the Constitution in &aysconsistent &ith the intentions of the framers rather than in light of contemporary conditionsand needs.

8riginal *urisdiction !he authority of a court to be the first to hear a particular 'ind of case.

5etit trialB *uries >uries that hear evidence and sit in *udgment on charges brought in civil

or criminal cases.

5laintiff 8ne &ho brings suit in a court.

5recedents 7ulings by courts that guide *udicial reasoning in subseuent cases.

7emedy An action that a court determines must be ta'en to rectify a &rong.

7ule of four An unwrittenpractice that reuires at least four *ustices of the upreme Courtto agree that a case &arrants revie& by the Court before it &ill hear the case.

enatorial courtesy !he tradition that *udicial nominations for federal district courtappointments be cleared by the senior senator of the president@s party from the relevantstate.

eparate but eual doctrine$ !he principle articulated in Plessyv. Ferguson1DEFB that la&sprescribing separatepublic facilities and services for non&hite Americans are permissible ifthe facilities and services are equalto those provided for &hites.

tanding$ Authority to bring legal action because one is directly affected by the issues athand.

tar decisis !he legal doctrine that says precedent should guide *udicial decision ma'ing.

trict construction !he doctrine that the provisions of the Constitution have a clearmeaning and that *udges must stic' closely to this meaning &hen rendering decision.

uperprecedent Landmar' rulings, that have been reaffirmed by the Court over the courseof many years and &hose reasoning has become part of the fabric of American la&.

!est case A case brought to force a ruling on the constitutionality of some la& or executiveaction.

9rit of certiorari An announcement that the upreme Court &ill hear a case on appeal froma lo&er court( its issuance reuires the vote of four of the nine *ustices.

Chapter 1G

Civil liberties )reedoms found primarily in the "ill of 7ights that are protected from

government interference.

"ill of attainder A governmental decree that a person is guilty of a crime that carries thedeath penalty, rendered &ithout benefit of a trial.

Capital Crime Any crime for &hich death is a possible penalty.

Contract clause !he portion of Article 4, ection 1H, of the Constitution that prohibits statesfrom passing any la& impairing the obligations of contracts.;

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+ue process clause !he section of the )ourteenth Amendment that prohibits states fromdepriving anyone of life, liberty, or property &ithout due process of la&,; a guaranteeagainst arbitrary of unfair government action.

=xclusionary rule A standard promulgated by the upreme Court that prevents police andprosecutors from using evidence against a defendant that &as obtained in an illegal search.

=conomic liberty !he right to o&n and use property free from excessive governmentinterference.

=stablishment clause !he part of the )irst Amendment to the Constitution that prohibitsCongress from establishing an official religion( the basis for the doctrine of the separation ofchurch and state.

=x post facto la& A la& that retroactively declares some action illegal.

)ull faith and credit !he provision in Article 42, ection 1, of the Constitution that providesthat states must respect the public acts, la&s, and *udicial rulings of other states.

)ree exercise clause !he portion of the )irst Amendment to the Constitution that prohibits

Congress from impeding religious observance or impinging upon religious beliefs.

?abeas corpus !he legal doctrine that a person &ho is arrested must have a timely hearingbefore a *udge.

ationali%ing !he process by &hich provisions of the "ill of 7ights become incorporated.4ncorporation !he process by &hich the upreme Court has made most of the provisions ofthe "ill of 7ights binding on the tates.

8bscenity As defined by the upreme Court, the representation of sexually explicitmaterial in a manner that violates community standards and is &ithout redeeming socialimportance or value.

8rdinary scrutiny !he assumption that the actions of elected bodies and officials are legal

under the Constitution.

5rior restraint !he government@s po&er to prevent publication, as opposed to punishmentafter&ard.

5rivileges and immunities clause the portion of Article 42, ection

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Affirmative action 5rograms of private and public institutions favoring minorities and&omen in hiring and in admissions to colleges and universities in an attempt to compensatefor past discrimination.

Civil 7ights #uarantees of eual treatment by government officials regarding politicalrights, the *udicial system, and public programs.

Civil union A status in &hich same$sex couples have the same legal rights, benefits, andprotections as married couples.

+e facto discrimination Uneual treatment by private individuals, groups, andorgani%ations.

+e *ure discrimination Uneual treatment based on government la&s and regulations.

+ue process clause !he section of the )ourteenth Amendment that prohibits states fromdepriving anyone of life, liberty, or property &ithout due process of la&,; a guaranteeagainst arbitrary or unfair government action.

=ual protection clause !he section of the )ourteenth Amendment reuiring states toprovide eual treatment to all people &ithin its boundaries.

#randfather clause A device that allo&ed &hites &ho had failed the literacy test to voteany&ay by extending the franchise to anyone &hose ancestors had voted prior to 1DFI.

4ntermediate scrutiny A legal test falling bet&een ordinary and strict scrutiny relevant toissues of gender( under this test, the upreme Court &ill allo& gender classifications in la&sif they are substantiallyrelated to an importantgovernment ob*ective.

>im Cro& 5opular term for the system of legal racial segregation that existed in theAmerican outh until the middle of the t&entieth century.

Literacy test A device used by the southern states to prevent African American from votingbefore the passage of the 2oting 7ights Act of 1EFG, &hich banned its use( usually involvedinterpretation of a section of a state@s constitution.

5oll tax A tax to be paid as a condition of voting( used in the outh to 'eep AfricanAmericans a&ay from the polls.

5rivileges and immunities clause !he portion of Article 42, ection

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Appropriation committees !he committees in the ?ouse and enate that set specificspending levels in the budget for federal programs and agencies.

"alance of payments !he annual difference bet&een payments and receipts bet&een acountry and its trading partners.

"udget deficit !he amount by &hich annual government expenditures exceed revenues.

Congressional "udget 8ffice C"8B An agency of the U.. Congress that provides technicalsupport and research services on budget issues for its members and committees.

+eficit ha&'s 5eople committed to reducing budget deficits.

+epression A severe and persistent drop in economic activity.

+eregulation !he process of diminishing regulatory reuirements for business.

+iscretionary spending !hat part of the feral budget that is not tied to a formula thatautomatically provides money to some program or purpose.

+istributive policies #overnment policies targeted at narro&ly defined groups or

individuals.

=fficiency, public policy ?o& &ell resources are used to meet policy ob*ectives.

=ffectiveness, public policy !he degree to &hich the ob*ectives of public policies are met.

=xternalities !he positive and negative effects of economic activities on third parties.

)ederal 7eserve "oard )edB !he body responsible for deciding the monetary policies ofthe U..

)iscal policy #overnment efforts to affect overall output and incomes in the economythrough spending and taxing policies.

#ross domestic product #+5B Jonetary value of all goods and services produced in anation each year, excluding income residents earn abroad.

4nflation A condition of rising prices and reduced purchasing po&er.

Keynesians Advocates of government programs to stimulate economic activity through taxcuts and government spending.

Jacroeconomic policy 5olicy that has to do &ith the performance of the economy as a&hole.

Jonetary policy #overnment efforts to affect the supply of money and the level of interestrates in the economy.

Jonetarists Advocates of a minimal government role in the economy, limited to managingthe gro&th of the money supply.

ational debt !he total outstanding debt of the federal government( the sum total of allannual budget deficits and surpluses.

e& gro&th theory !he economic theory that ties economic gro&th to innovation andinvention.

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8ffice of Janagement and "udget 8J"B 5art of the =xecutive 8ffice of the 5residentcharged &ith helping the president prepare the annual budget reuest to Congress( alsoperforms oversight of rule$ma'ing by executive branch agencies.

5ayroll tax !ax levied on salaries and &ages for ocial ecurity and Jedicare.

5rogressive taxation A tax system in &hich higher income individuals are taxed at a higher

rate than those belo& them.

5ublic goods #overnment policies that provide benefits for everyone.

5ublic policy 9hat government does, usually in the form of ne& la&s and regulations or inthe interpretation and implementation of existing la&s and regulations.

7ecession !&o uarters of declining gross domestic product.

7edistributive policies #overnment policies that transfer resources from one group or classto another.

7egressive taxation A tax system in &hich lo&er income individuals are taxed at a higherrate than those above them.

7egulation !he issuing of rules by government agencies &ith the aim of reducing the scaleof negative externalities produced by private firms.

7egulatory policies #overnment policies that reuire a group or class of groups to changeits behavior to some public purpose.

upply$siders Advocates of supply$side economics featuring lo& taxes and minimalregulation.

Chapter 1D

Aid to )amilies &ith +ependent Children A)+CB !he federal entitlement program thatprovided income support for poor families until it &as replaced by !A) in 1EEF.

Cost$of$living ad*ustment C8LAB Automatic annual ad*ustment made to ocial ecuritybenefits.

=ntitlements #overnment benefits that are distributed automatically to citi%ens &ho ualifyon the basis of a set of guidelines set by la&( for example, Americans over the age of FG areentitled to Jedicare coverage.

#reat +epression !he period of economic crisis in the U.. that lasted from the stoc'mar'et crash of 1E

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Jedicare )ederal health insurance program for the elderly and the disabled.

e& +eal 5resident )ran'lin 7oosevelt@s programs for economic recovery, income support,and business regulation during the #reat +epression.

5overty line !he federal government@s calculation of the amount of income families ofvarious si%es need to stay out of poverty.

5ublic assistance 5rograms funded by general tax funds that provide money or services forthe poor.

afety net #overnment programs that protect the minimum standard of living of familiesand individuals against loss of income.

ocial insurance #overnment programs that provide services or income support inproportion to the amount of mandatory contributions made by individuals to a governmenttrust fund.

ocial ecurity ocial insurance program that provides income support for the elderly,those &ith disabilities, and family survivors of &or'ing Americans.

tate Child ?ealth 4nsurance 5rogram C?45B 5rogram that pays for health care servicesfor children in households &ith income up to

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?egemon !erm used to refer to the dominant po&er during various historical periods thatta'es on responsibilities maintaining and protecting a regional or global system.

>oint Chiefs of taff >CB !he military officers in charge of each of the armed services.

Jillennium Challenge Account A "ush administration initiative to distribute developmentaid o the basis of a country@s degree of improvement in areas such as the rule of la&,

&omen@s rights, protection of property rights, anticorruption measures, and political and civilrights.

Jultilateralists !hose &ho believe the U.. should use its military and diplomatic po&er inthe &orld in cooperation &ith other nations and international organi%ations.

ational interest 9hat is of benefit to the nation as a &hole.

ongovernmental organi%ation #8B A nonprofit advocacy group that tries to influencethe public, national governments, andor international organi%ations on issues of concern toit.

orth American )ree !rade Agreement A)!AB An agreement among the U.., Canada,

and Jexico to eliminate nearly all barriers to trade and investment among the threecountries.

uclear proliferation !he spread of nuclear &eapons to additional countries or to terroristgroups.

oft po&er 4nfluence in &orld affairs that derives from the attractiveness to others of anation@s culture, products, and &ay of life.

uperpo&er A nation armed &ith nuclear &eapons and able to pro*ect force any&here onthe globe.

!errorism !he use of deadly violence against civilians to further some political goal.

Unilateralists !hose &ho believe the U.. should vigorously use its military and diplomaticpo&er to pursue American national interests in the &orld, but on a go it alone; basis.

9eapons of mass destruction uclear, biological, or chemical &eapons &ith the potentialto cause vast harm to human populations.

9orld !rade 8rgani%ation 9!8B An agency designed to enforce the provisions of the#eneral Agreement on !ariffs and !rade and to resolve trade disputes bet&een nations.

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