User and Task Analysis

• Determine the boundaries of the system/network

• Identify users• Collect information from/about uses

– Interviews• Interviewing methods

– Observations• Environment• Work practices, tools

– Document analysis

• Generate a user-task matrix

Grade system

USERS

TASKS Faculty students staff

View student list

x x

Enter grades

x

View grades

x Only own x

Generate summary reports

x

Identifying users

• What is the system (service, product, and so forth)?– Goals– Boundaries

• How decided– mandated – by organizational goals,

client…– In the course of interviews– In discussions with client, team…

Social Construction of Technology (SCOT)

• Identify & describe relevant social groups• Sociologically deconstruct the artifact for

what it means for each group• Develop requirements, design that meets

various groups’ needs, preferences• The same artifact may solve different

problems for different user groups– Any one problem/need has multiple solutions– Trying to find the overlap where one design

will satisfy multiple groups with different needs

Sociotechnical networks

• Amalgam of people, practices, standards, rules, understandings, tools….

• Social and material

Types of Users

• Decision makers (e.g., purchasers) – Market researchers tend to concentrate on the

people who buy; designers on the people who perform tasks.

• Primary users (do the work)• Secondary users -- E.g., the customer of the

travel agent• Surrogate users -- e.g., librarians, customer

service reps– May not speak effectively for the products’

users.– (But may be efficient source of information –)

• Gatekeepers, early adopters

CourseWeb: course web pages

Users’ characteristics

• Job/task/domain-related• When relevant, technology-related • Personal

– Physical, cultural, motivational…

• Other?

H&R: users based on stages of use (expertise)

• Novices– May be new to subject, technology, product– Are goal and task-oriented– May not want to learn, but do

• Advanced beginners– Use infrequently and incidentally– Are focused on getting job done as quickly and

painlessly as possible– Have begun to form mental model or concept of how

system works– Concentrate on a few needed tasks which can

perform well

H&R: users based on stages of use (expertise) II• Competent performers

• Have learned enough tasks that they have sound mental model of subject and product

• Can recognize incorrect series of actions and correct them

• Expert performers– Use frequently as integral part of activity– Have considerable subject matter

knowledge– Are skilled at solving problems– Have comprehensive understanding of

whole

Goals, Tasks,

Activities

Goals

• Defined in USERS’ terms (I.e., not YOURS)

• Multiple• Sometimes conflicting

– Between individual and organization– Between individuals, workgroups, etc.– Within individual

• Can change over time• What do people do when problems,

conflicts?

Tasks

• What someone does to achieve a goal• Multi tasks, same goal• See how people choose tasks to achieve goals

• Time, effort, what they already know, history, habit, social pressure/models…

• Differences across users…• What people do when problems – give up goal,

change tasks…• Changing tasks, goals• Improvisation

Activities

• Specific actions• Intentional and otherwise

– Importance of unintentional consequences of intentional action

Suchman on plans and situated action

• Some see plans as either formal structures that control action or abstractions across instances.

• Instead, argues plans are resources for situated action.

• Inherently vague; detail of intent and action contingent on circumstantial and interactional particulars of situation.

• Foundation of action is not plans but local interactions with our environment more or less informed by abstract representations of situations and actions.

• They position us to, thru local interactions, exploit some contingencies and avoid others.

• Rafting as an example.

Types and levels of task analysis

• Workflow analysis• Job analysis• Process analysis, task sequence• Task hierarchies• Procedure analysis:

– how they do it now. Technology-dependent.

Pay attention to exceptions

Doing task analysis – possible foci

• Job – multi people this job• Person – not just in the job • Task – more than one person • Place • Flow of information, artifacts

Types of Interviews

• Structured• Semi-structured• Informal, conversational-------------• Group• Individual

Related:

• Mental models• Scenarios• Personas

Collecting data from users

• Questionnaires• Interviews• Focus groups

Setting Up Field Studies

• Write down issues and objectives• Identify participants to represent groups

that you need to talk with• Plan 1-2 hour visits with time between

users • Screen users with a questionnaire

Selecting participants

• People who represent various activities, points of view, experience and skill levels

• Look for people who are thoughtful and articulate

• Ask around – see who gets recommended• Beware of the person who wants to be your

‘best friend’• But key informants are invaluable: people

who know a lot and will share it with you

Preparing for Field Studies

• Form team – 1-2 observers for each user, include marketing and development

• Train team to observe and interview and to avoid being experts or defensive

• Demographic questionnaire, release forms

• Audio taping equipment, camera• Notebook for taking notes, sketching

environment

Preparing for interviews

• Do it in their environment if you can – but be aware of problems of noise, interruption, confidentiality– NOTICE things

• Send them email ahead of time about purpose of study, who you are, why you are coming, what you will ask them about

• Tell them how much time you expect to need, and don’t run overtime without their agreement

The interview

• Begin by establishing rapport• Who you are, purpose, confidentiality• Establish stop time and how firm• Tape if you can; offer to turn the tape

off at any time– Note-taking

• ‘Walking out the door’ comments – often the most useful!

Observing in Field Studies

• Take pictures, sketch the environment• Note everything the user does, what

triggers it• Who does the user interact with• What paper or information is passed• Get copies of artifacts, preferably used• Where does task end, does the user know

what happens next

Interviewing in Field Studies

• Ask about goals, don’t just focus on tasks, listen for goals for the benefit of others

• Probe goals, tasks presented as goals• Neutral vs. leading or blaming questions• Don’t be shy, ask for more information,

provide active feedback that you are listening

• Ask user if your interpretation is correct, listen for “no” in pauses, maybes

Gaining Trust

• Explain clearly the purpose of study, why you want to talk to them

• PROMISE CONFIDENTIALITY• Be honest• Be interested• Be sympathetic – but not artificially so• LISTEN• How you talk about others is how they

assume you will talk about them– Re sources of conflict

Contextual inquiry