Research ArticleUse of Secondary Crystallization and Fly Ash in WaterproofingMaterials to Increase Concrete Resistance to Aggressive Gasesand Liquids

Rostislav Drochytka 1 Matej Ledl 1 Jiri Bydzovsky 1 Nikol Zizkova 1

and Johannes Bester 2

1Institute of Technology of Building Materials and Components Brno University of Technology Faculty of Civil EngineeringBrno 602 00 Czech Republic2Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment University of Johannesburg Johannesburg 2094 South Africa

Correspondence should be addressed to Matej Ledl ledlmfcevutbrcz

Received 21 January 2019 Revised 25 March 2019 Accepted 15 April 2019 Published 29 May 2019

Academic Editor Emilio Bastidas-Arteaga

Copyright copy 2019 Rostislav Drochytka et al is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work isproperly cited

is paper describes the use of cement-based waterproofing screed and waterproofing coating in which 10 of the originalamount of cement was replaced by fly ash and 2 of the crystallization admixture was added by weight of cement as a mean ofprotection of concrete against aggressive environments e modified materials were applied to the underlying concrete andsubjected to testing of physical andmechanical properties after exposure to effects of aggressive environments for up to 18monthse results of the analysis have shown that after the application of waterproofing materials there is a sufficient development of thecrystals in the underlying concrete to enhance its durabilityus it is possible to use fly ash functionally and efficiently in polymercement systems as a substitute for the cement together with the crystallization admixture

1 Introduction

e concrete is probably the most commonly used con-struction material due to its versatility [1] Unfortunatelydurability is not an intrinsic property of concrete and incertain instances concrete needs protection from the ag-gressiveness of the environment e aggressive environ-ment may be due to chemical and physical attacks [2 3]Concrete is a multi-component composite containing ce-ment sealant in which there are significantly more pores andcapillaries than in dense aggregates For this reason it ismuch more susceptible to physical and chemical degrada-tion A basic factor which is a major contributor to thedegradation processes is water It may be in liquid formvapour or any dissolved substances It may by means ofdiffusion capillarity and ion exchange penetrate into theconcrete through a system of open and interconnectedcapillary pores and interfere with the cement sealant Mehtaand Monteiro [4] and Kumar and Bhattacharjee [5] found

that the diameter of capillary pores ranges from 10 nm tohundreds of microns Capillary flow is defined by thefollowing

Q π middot r4 middot pt middot t

8 middot η middot l (1)

where Q volume flow (m3middotsminus1) π Ludolphrsquos number(31415 ) pt air pressure in the capillary (Pa) t time (s) ηdynamic viscosity (Pamiddots) r radius of the capillary (m) and lcapillary length (m)

From equation (1) it is evident that the radius of thecapillary in the fourth power is the critical flow factor andit is therefore appropriate to reduce the capillary diameterto slow down the rate of degradation e affection ofcement sealant by aggressive gases generated by industrialprocesses combustion engines living organisms etc isconditioned by humidity along with the most commonaggressive gases such as CO2 SO2 NO2 HCl H2S HFNH3 and Cl2

HindawiAdvances in Civil EngineeringVolume 2019 Article ID 7530325 12 pageshttpsdoiorg10115520197530325

Diluting acidic gaseous exhalants in water creates dilutedsolutions of inorganic acids which react with components ofcement sealant especially Ca(OH)2 [6] e products ofcement paste corrosion occupy a larger volume thusbreaking the cohesion of hardened cement paste leading todecrease in pH and cracking ese cracks consequentlyallow for an accelerated corrosion of steel reinforcement dueto a quicker decrease of pH [7 8]

e main factors that have the greatest impact on theassessment of aggressive gaseous environments include thefollowing

(i) Gas concentration in the air(ii) Relative air humidity(iii) Temperature(iv) Activity of more aggressive agents at the same time

Aggressive waters contain dissolved acid gases andvarious salts in varying concentrations Emmons andEmmons [9] stated that depending on the nature of thecorrosion products there are three types of degradation

Type I degradation related to the action of water mediawith low salt content and predominantly neutralreactionType II degradation under the influence of very ag-gressive media such as acids alkali some salts such assodium or magnesium chlorideType III degradation due to the penetration of liquidmedia into the pores which form an insoluble crys-talline compound of larger volume with the pore fluidor cement sealant

Broomfield [10] mentions that one of the options forprotection against corrosion media is a concrete finish thatcan reduce or prevent water and aggressive substances fromentering its structure Such a finish is usually used in order toprotect concrete from the harmful effects of these aggressivesubstances One such commonly used method is calledsecondary protection For the design of secondary pro-tection itself the degree of aggressiveness of the environ-ment the type of the substrate and the correct choice of thematerial for the protection must be considered One of thesubgroups of waterproofing and surface treatments arepolymer cement waterproofing coatings and screeds eyrepresent a proven affordable and environmentally ac-ceptable alternative to traditional asphalt- or polymer-basedwaterproofing Flexible polymer cementitious sealants existas two-component systems with a liquid polymeric com-ponent mostly based on styrene-acrylate dispersion cementbinder and suitable dry filler Alternatively these systems areformulated on the basis of polymeric redispersible powdersthat allow the formation of single-component systems whichare only mixed with water prior to processing [11]

Screeding and smoothing compounds often based onethylene-vinyl acetate are used to level and smooth outconventional concrete beddings (monoliths and pre-fabricates) cement screed or reprofilable mortars for therehabilitation of reinforced concrete ese cement-based

repair mortars present a very suitable and cost-effectivesolution for concrete protection as they have very similarproperties as concrete thus ensuring their mutual com-patibility moreover such materials are partially permeablefor water vapour which allows for drying concrete outImpermeable polymer coatings entrap the moisture in theporous cementitious substrate causing additional damage toconcrete in freezing and thawing cyclese aim is achievinga sufficiently smooth and level surface with a waterproofingfunction serving as a final treatment or as a suitable basisunder the coating system Current technologies allow for theuse of levelling and smoothing screeds that can be applied inlayers from less than 1mm to 5mm At the same time it ispossible to produce a material with waterproofing functioneven with very low thickness of the applied layer by meansof suitable formulations and using sealing materials

e cementitious and polymeric components of thesematerials increase their cost and for that reason there areattempts to find methods of reducing the cementitiouscontent One of these attempts is the partial replacement ofcement with waste or secondary raw materials such aspowder fly ash or slag e inclusion of such secondary rawmaterials has the added benefit of reducing the environ-mental impact associated with the issues of depositing wastematerials and CO2 production during clinker burningUsing the fly ash as a partial replacement for cement alsocontributes to the increase in durability of cement com-posites as the fly ash is capable of pozzolanic reaction withcalcium hydroxide which produces additional calcium-silicate hydrates (C-S-H) and calcium-aluminium-silicatehydrates (C-A-S-H) ey additionally cause refinementand reduction of permeability of pore structure of cementmatrix as the pozzolanic reaction is slower than hydration ofcement as presented in the studies of Moffatt et al [12] andFeng et al [13]

Another effective means of protecting and improving thedurability of cement composites are surface coatings [14]Pan et al [15] described many advantages and disadvantagesof various types of concrete surface treatments e devel-opment of new waterproofing materials also leads to the useof special crystallization admixtures to enhance the pro-tective functionMostly they are powdered substances basedon finely ground cement treated fine silica sand and anactive chemical Conventional coatings and screeds fulfilonly the surface protection function while crystallizationadmixtures penetrate the pore system into the concretestructure where it is sealede principle action is a catalyticchemical reaction conditioned by sufficient relative hu-midity is leads to an additional crystallization process ofthe still unhydrated clinker minerals in the pore system ofconcrete resulting in filling practically all the capillary activepores of the concrete with needle-like crystals e in-troduced active chemical therefore is not a source ofcrystals but merely a catalyst that allows for the growth ofcrystals within the pores of concrete from the untreatedclinker minerals present in the cement sealant During thehydration process Ca(OH)2 is temporarily produced fol-lowed by the catalytic crystallization process and the growthof the resulting crystals directly into the concrete pore

2 Advances in Civil Engineering

structure is is probably the accumulated process ac-companied by the formation of 3CaOmiddot2SiO2middot3H2O togetherwith the formation of 3CaOmiddotAl2O3middotCa(OH)2middot12H2O In thischemical reaction branched needle-like crystals are formede active substances penetrate into the pores with mois-ture to a distance of up to ten centimetres from their sourceand catalyze the reactions in which crystals form in the poresystem of the cement sealant [16 17] According to X-rayfluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) the needle-like crystals(Figure 1) probably contain calcium or silicon [18]

e speed and depth of crystal growth through the cracksand pore system of the concrete depend on many factorssuch as the extent of the concretersquos treatment the presence ofsufficient volume of pore water type of cement concreteproportioning pore structure and temperature of theconcrete [19ndash24] e general process of action has beendescribed by Roig-Flores et al [25] where the crystallizationagent MxRx reacts with the tricalcium silicate and the waterto form clots blocking the pores is is represented by thefollowing equation

3CaO middot SiO2 + MxRx + H2O⟶ CaxSixOxR middot H2O( 1113857x

+ MxCaRx middot H2O( 1113857x

(2)

Research on secondary crystallization in cementcomposites has previously been dealing with the sealing ofpore structures and sealing cracks e benefits of uti-lisation of crystalline admixtures are well demonstrated inpreviously published studies [25ndash30] however improvingthe properties of concrete remains an important task eventoday [19] Improving the durability of cementitiouscomposites helps extend their longevity thereby reducingrepair costs associated with moisture damage of concretestructures [31] is study pays attention to the use of thecrystallization admixture in the cement-polymer water-proofing materials applied to the surface of concrete suchas coating and screed capable of breathability crackhealing ability good compatibility with concrete andchemical resistance In order to reduce the overall costs forcrystalline admixtures and polymer compounds fly ash isconsidered to be an environmentally friendly partial re-placement for cement with a positive impact on durabilitydue to pozzolanic reaction

2 Materials and Methods

21 Materials In order to decrease the permeability of theconcrete surface against water gaseous and liquid ag-gressive environments two insulating materials were de-veloped and applied to the surface of the concrete einsulating materials were applied as a coating (CT) and ascreed (SC) Both materials utilized a crystallization ad-mixture (Xypex Admix) and fly ashas a secondary rawmaterial

e thin coating layer copying the concrete surface isapplied to the concrete with the use of a brush or rollerwhereas the screed that compensates for the unevenness ofthe concrete is applied using a steel trowel e concrete

specimens (150mm cubes) of C 4555 reference concretewere used e reference concrete was tested according toEN 1542 [32] and EN 12390-3 [33] and yielded a com-pressive strength of 52MPa and tensile strength of 32MPae composition of the reference concrete (REF) is given inTable 1 Specimens were matured for 28 days at an ambienttemperature of 21plusmn 3degC and a relative humidity of 60plusmn 10followed by epoxy coating on the sides and immersed inwater for 48 hours Subsequently the surface without epoxywas wiped with a rug and an insulating screed or a coatingwas applied to the damp surface of the concrete specimens(Figure 2) using a brush (coating) and a steel trowel (screed)After application the specimens were covered with a plasticfoil After 72 hours the plastic foil was removed and thespecimens were cured for another 28 days in an environmentwith a relative humidity of 60plusmn 10 and a temperature of21plusmn 3degC which lead to the start of the test or to the exposureto the aggressive environments is storage enabled theactive substances to penetrate into the pore structure of theunderlying concrete and thus allowed for the formation ofsecondary crystallization products reducing the pore di-ameter in concrete

As a waterproofing material with a crystallization ad-mixture a polymer cement coating (CT) with 10 cementreplacement by fly ash and addition of 2 of crystallizationadmixture by weight of cement was developed e secondtested material was a screed (SC) with 10 cement re-placement by fly ash and addition of 2 of crystallizationadmixture by weight of cement e composition of bothmaterials is shown in Tables 2 and 3 e mix design of bothwaterproofing materials was based on the general knowledgeof the behaviour of individual components and industriallyused products e average thickness of the coating isdesigned to be 15mmndash2mm with respect to the maximumgrain size of sand e screed was applied in designedthickness of 3mmndash5mm

Figure 1 SEM image of the crystalline form inside the concretepore at a depth of 15mm below the surface 12 days after applicationof the Xypex Concentrate crystallization coating [18]

Advances in Civil Engineering 3

e physical and chemical compositions of the rawmaterials used are given in Table 4 and in Figure 3 Phasecomposition of crystalline admixture in Figure 4

22 Testing Methods 3 batches of concrete specimens wereprepared (REF REF treated with CT and REF treated withSC) for 7 selected environments (Table 5) For 6 12 and18months they were exposed to the environment and aftereach interval a complex testing programme was carriedout allowing to assess the state of the secondary crystal

development their possible degradation their impact on thedurability of the concrete and its resistance to the selectedenvironment compared to untreated reference concretee testing programme included the following

(1) e water absorption was determined on 3 speci-mens (150mm concrete cubes) of each batchaccording to EN 14617-1 [34]

(2) Depth of penetration of water under pressure wasdetermined on 3 specimens (150mm concrete cubes)at different ages according to EN 12390-8 with waterpressure of 500plusmn 50 kPa for 72plusmn 2 h [35]

(3) Scanning electronmicroscopy (SEM) was carried outafter the exposure of the specimens to an aggressiveenvironment for 18months e presence of crystalsand their evolution with respect to the age and effectsof degradation were observed on test specimens cutout of the remains of 150mm concrete cubes afterdetermination of depth of penetration of water underpressure using a circular saw with a diamond bladee fragments of concrete were taken from the depthof 15mm below the interface of treatment and thesound concrete dried out and sized down to the sizeapproximately 5mmtimes 5mmtimes 5mm A thin layer ofgold 300ndash400 A was applied to the samples using theQuorum Q150r Gold-plated now conductivesamples were inserted into the body of the FEI Nova200 and the shots were taken at a suitable resolution(magnification of 4000x to 25000x)

(4) For the determination of pH values of concrete withtreated and untreated surfaces respectively thesamples were extracted from 3 specimens (150mmconcrete cubes) at a depth of approximately 15mmFirst the samples were taken before placing thespecimens in an aggressive environment After18months of exposure the pH test was performedagain e samples were extracted from the cubesusing 40mm diamond core drill Consequently theholes were filed up with epoxy resin in order toprevent aggressive environment from penetratingthe specimens is allowed reuse of the specimensfor the pH test after 18months For the pH test

Table 2 Composition of polymer cement coating (CT)

Material Dosage (kg)Cement EN 197-1 CEM IIA-S 425 R 270Silica sand 700Silica fume (5 aqueous dispersion) 8Silica filler 20Fly ash (10lowast) 30Xypex Admix (2lowast) 6Water 300Carboxymethyl cellulose 10Styrene-acrylate dispersion 700Defoaming agent on synthetic copolymer base 5lowastPercentual substitute for cement was based on the initial dose 300 kgm3 ofcement

Table 3 Composition of polymer cement screed (SC) lowastpercentualsubstitute for cement was based on the initial dose 270 kgm3 ofcement

Material Dosage (kg)Cement EN 197-1 CEM IIA-S 425 R 248Silica sand 450Ground limestone 250Silica filler 120Polymeric dispersion powder on vinyl acetate andethylene base 35

Polypropylene fibres 05Water 220Superplasticizer on polycarboxylates base 1Carboxymethyl cellulose 1Fly ash (10lowast) 275Xypex Admix (2lowast) 54

Table 1 Composition of reference concrete (REF)

Material Dosage (kg)Cement EN 197-1 CEM IIA-S 425 R 340Sand 04 1280Gravel 48 mined 200Gravel 48 crushed 221Silica fume (5 aqueous dispersion) 120Water 150

Figure 2 Concrete specimen with the screed applied on the faceand epoxy coating on remaining sides of concrete (REF)

4 Advances in Civil Engineering

Table 4 Physical and chemical characteristics of materials

ComponentContent ()

CEM Fly ash Silica filler Silica sand Silica fume Crystalline admixtureSiO2 1828 5682 991 99 9197 115Al2O3 496 2893 027 03 01 234Fe2O3 367 618 0098 003 067 174TiO2 mdash 202 038 005 002 0129CaO 649 179 mdash mdash 019 457MgO 200 131 mdash mdash 124 0734MnO mdash 003 mdash mdash mdash 0102K2O 102 179 mdash mdash 332 0387Na2O 020 032 mdash mdash 05 661SO3 371 036 mdash mdash 067 205S mdash 02 mdash mdash mdash mdashSpecific surface (m2kg) 378 250 175 mdash 150 000 386

020406080

100

0031 0063 0125 0250 0500 1000

Cum

mul

ativ

epa

ssin

g (

)

Sieve size (mm)

Ground limestoneSilica sand

Silica fillerFly ash

Figure 3 Particle size distribution of raw materials

8000

6000

4000

Inte

nsity

(cou

nts)

2000

010

1 alite (C3S)2 belite (C2S)3 tricalcium aluminate (C3A)4 brownmillerite (C4AF)5 portlandite (C4AF)6 calcite7 gypsum

7

411

7

5

164

2

2257

16

12

2

25

5

1

1 2 2 33

15

6 6

12

15 20 25 302θ (deg)

35 40 45 50 55

Figure 4 X-ray diffraction analysis of crystalline admixture

Table 5 Description of aggressive environments

Environment Concentration Relative humidity Temperature

GaseousCO2 Low 1-2

60plusmn 10 21plusmn 2degCCO2 High 5ndash10SO2 High 5ndash10

LiquidSO4

2minus Na2SO4middot10 gl21plusmn 2degCSO4

2minus Na2SO4middot346 glClminus NaClmiddot100 gl

Real outdoor environmentlowastlowaste real environment shows the effects of climatic influence on samples stored outdoors where during the exposure the temperatures alternate ranging fromminus159degC to + 348degC Samples were also exposed to irregular precipitation direct sunlight air pollution and biological agents

Advances in Civil Engineering 5

10mm thick section of the core sample was cut out ata distance of 10mm from the interface of treatmentand sound concrete or from the untreated surface ofREF concrete respectively Oven-dried (60degC for24 h) sections were then milled and sieved throughthe mesh (0063mm) After that 10 g of material wasseparated and dispersed in 100 g of distilled waterAfter mixing in electromagnetic mixer for30minutes the solution was filtered and the pHvalue determined in solution using pH meter

23 Exposure Environment e resistance of the proposedwaterproofing materials was verified by placing the speci-mens in the aggressive media defined in Table 5 for6ndash18months

e gaseous environments were created in the KohlerAutomobiltechnik GmbH salt spray chambers HK 400-800MWTG (Figure 5) which can accommodate 32 specimensin 4 layers separated vertically with polymer grids Speci-mens were placed in chamber with the treated side againstthe door in order to prevent the aggressive condensates fromremaining on the treated side of the specimen

3 Results and Discussion

31 Water Absorption Based on the evaluation of the re-sults of the water absorption test of concrete samplestreated with the coating and the screed it is suggested thatthese materials significantly reduce the water absorptionChanges in the water absorption after the exposures inliquid aggressive environments can be clearly seen inFigures 6 and 7 in the case of exposure to gaseous media Inall environments untreated concrete (REF) showed ahigher total water absorption than concrete with a wa-terproofing coating or screed Especially after 18months inthe liquid environment the greatest differences in absor-bency between the treated concrete and the referenceconcrete are observed is indicated the effectiveness ofthe use of the screed and especially the coating which hasin all cases the lowest absorption even after exposure in ahighly concentrated sulphate environment In an envi-ronment with NaCl however the coating appears to be lessresistant than in the environment with a high concentra-tion of sulphates

Gaseous environments with a high SO2 concentrationand in particular CO2 have significantly influenced thewater absorption of the samples is suggests that a coatingmay be a more effective protective material against gaseousaggressive environments than a screed

e real environment compared to a highly concen-trated long-term liquid and gas environment (18months)shows much less aggressiveness and less damage to treatedand untreated concrete

Absorbance values generally fluctuated at low values dueto the possibility of penetration of the liquid through onlyone nonepoxy surface therefore it was also necessary toverify this test with the depth of penetration of water underpressure

32 Depth of Penetration of Water under Pressure e testfor the determination of penetration of water under pressureaccording to EN 12390-8 due to the effect of increased waterpressure on the tested sample provides a sharper and moreconclusive possibility of comparing the ability of treatedconcrete to resist water and aggressive substances as op-posed to untreated concrete e screed and coating in-creased the resistance of concrete structures againstpenetration of water under pressure as opposed to untreatedconcrete (REF)

Figures 8 and 9 compare the absorption values of bothtreated and untreated concrete samples in the corrosiveenvironment after six twelve and eighteen months in theaggressive environment

Untreated concrete always exhibited a higher depth ofpenetration of water under pressure than concrete treatedwith a coating and with the screed which was also con-firmed by the water absorption tests e samples were alsoassessed according to the design limit values for thecomposition and properties of the concrete according toEN 206 +A1 All concrete samples with an applied treat-ment after 18months of storage had a depth of pene-tration of water under pressure lower than 50mm a valuecorresponding to the resistance to XA1 XS4 XF1 XF2 andXD2 environments Samples treated with a coating spe-cifically for XD3 environment corrosion caused by chlo-rides other than the sea and chemically aggressive XA3environments had withstood the test with the exception ofenvironments with high concentrations of CO2 and SO2ions because the limit values of the depth of penetration are20mm [36] Based on these results it can be stated that interms of water permeability the tested crystallizationmaterials are suitable for structures exposed to water underpressure Regarding the resistance of the tested materialsagainst the penetration of aggressive gases leakage resultsindicate that the resistance is comparable to the influence ofthe liquid medium

33 SEMAnalysis of Crystal Growth SEM was performed inorder to detect secondary crystallization products and tomonitor the impact of aggressive media on the concretemicrostructure Images for the two most aggressive liquidand two gaseous environments were selected

In the liquid NaCl and Na2SO4 medium shown inFigures 10 and 11 a more pronounced developed elongatedflattened crystals of about 20 μm can be observed filling thepores ese crystals are incompletely shaped but theiramount and size indicate that the initial absorption and theliquid environment have provided sufficient moisture to fillthe pores with secondary crystallization ere are no clearlyidentifiable crystals in the images that would indicate sig-nificant signs of carbonation sulphation or degradation dueto aggressive environments On the contrary a sufficientlydense cement matrix is evident Larger pores can also beexpected to be filled

Figures 12 and 13 from the CO2 and SO2 gaseous mediaagain show rod-like crystals penetrating the pores Crystalsfilling the pores differ in shape and size their amount and

6 Advances in Civil Engineering

size are substantially smaller and their clusters are of asmaller and finer structure than the samples stored in theliquid environment e humidity inside the pores probablywas not sufficient enough for crystal growth to a largerextent It can be concluded that most of the pores filled had adiameter of less than 20 μm

34Changes in the pHofConcrete Figure 14 shows pH valuesbefore storage and after 18months in aggressive environ-mentse graph is sorted downwards according to the changeof pH during the exposure to the aggressive environment

e most obvious decrease in pH can be clearly seen inthe untreated concrete (REF) Mostly in NaCl and real

014 016

075

022 026

088

034

033

099

022

021

0190

39 049

142

057 059

189

056

052

136

028 041 049

019

02

155

051 0

66

30

05

032

18

036 049 055

005

115

225

335

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 6 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to liquid aggressive media and the real environment e error bars representthe range of measurements for 3 samples

017

015 021

071 075 081

032 041

04

022

021

019

017 021 025

079

079

08

038 042 052

028 0

41 049

019 022 03

083 092 107

048 057 0

73

036 0

49 055

00

05

10

15

20

25

30

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

CTSCREF

Figure 7 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to gaseous aggressive environments and the real environment e error barsrepresent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Figure 5 Salt spray chamber for the gaseous environment

Advances in Civil Engineering 7

14 13 15 18

12

18 17 15

19

15 15 1618 16 18

24

19 21 19 17 20 23 22 23

27 27

31

35 37 39

28 25

30 31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 8 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a liquid aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

14

11

15

19 19 21 22 21

24

15 15 1617

13

16

24

22 23

28 28

29

23 22 23

26 24

28 30 28

32

42

36

42

31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

CTSCREF

Figure 9 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a gaseous aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

(a) (b)

Figure 10 (a) e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid NaCl environment (b) a detail of the formedFriedelrsquos salt crystals (3CaOmiddotAl2O3middotCaCl2middot10H2O)

8 Advances in Civil Engineering

(a) (b)

Figure 11 (a)e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid Na2SO4 (b) a detail of the formed ettringite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 12 (a) e SEM shot of concrete treated with screed after 18months in gaseous CO2 environment (b) a detail of createdpseudomorphoses of aragonite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 13 (a) A shot of concrete treated with coat after 18months in gaseous SO2 environment (b) a detail of created pseudomorphosis ofgypsum crystals

Advances in Civil Engineering 9

environments the pH values of concrete with coatingshowed a significant decrease is may be due to coatbreakage during application manipulation and exposureand also due to the formation of Friedelrsquos salt within thepores In general it can be observed that the tested coatingsand screeds successfully helped to slow down the rate of pHreduction during the exposure of concrete to an aggressiveenvironment

It turned out that at a depth of 15mm from the surface ofconcrete even after 18months there was no significant pHdecrease (below 96) in concrete and as such it would notcease to perform the steel reinforcement protection function

4 Conclusions

(i) It has been demonstrated that the polymer cementwaterproofing materials with crystallization ad-mixture can be successfully modified with fly ashadditive in order to reduce the content of cementin the formulations by 10

(ii) e functionality of the crystallization admixturein polymer cement systems has been proved

(iii) e modification of the waterproofing materialsand therefore the reduction of Ca(OH)2 contentnecessary for crystallization and crystal formationin the proposed formulations did not cause a dropin the pH value to the critical limit of the moni-tored concrete samples where the reinforcementwould no longer be protected

(iv) It was confirmed that the type of environment hada significant influence on the properties of thetested concrete sample treated with the proposedwaterproofing materials

(v) roughout the whole 18-month exposure thecoating and screed modified by fly ash and crys-tallization admixture Xypex Admix have shown

increased resistance to aggressive environmentswith a much higher concentration than is common

(vi) e functionality of sealing technology of concretepores with crystalline neoplasm after 18months inan aggressive environment was verified at a depthof 15mm below the interface of sound concreteespecially if liquid water was available In concretewhere no liquid water was present in aggressiveenvironment the formation of crystals occurred toa much lesser extent

(vii) e needle-shaped crystals with the maximumlength of 15 μm of single crystals mostly filled outpores with sizes of about 20 μm

(viii) Designed formulations of crystallization coatingsand screeds with the admixture of fly ash haveshown very good complex properties in increasingthe protection of concrete even with long-termexposure to aggressive agents (CO2 SO2 SO4

2minusClminus and real outdoor conditions)

Data Availability

e data used to support the findings of this study are in-cluded within the article

Conflicts of Interest

e authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

is paper was created with the financial support of theGrant Agency of the Czech Republic (No 16-25472S)ldquoDynamics of degradation of cement composites modifiedby secondary crystallizationrdquo and the project (No LO1408)

1216 1211 12081199

1219

1181

12091224

1206 12061221

1154

118512

1117

1205 1212

11871173

1211

1192

1111 11131126 1132

1153

1118

11511166

115 1151

1176

1113

11461162

1081

1173118

1156

1142

11841168

106

108

11

112

114

116

118

12

122

124

REF REF REF CT REF REF REF CT REF SC SC CT CT CT SC SC CT SC CT SC SCReal NaCl

100 glCO2high

NaCl100 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2low

Real Sulph10 gl

NaCl100 gl

Real SO2high

Sulph346gl

Sulph10 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2high

Sulph10 gl

CO2low

CO2high

CO2low

pH (ndash

)

Recipes exposed to the given environment

Changes in pH values

28 days18 months

Figure 14 Changes in pH values in leachate for concrete samples before storage in aggressive environment and after 18months inaggressive environment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

10 Advances in Civil Engineering

ldquoAdMaS UP-Advanced Materials Structures and Technol-ogiesrdquo supported by the Ministry for Education Youth andSports of the Czech Republic under ldquoNational SustainabilityProgramme Irdquo

References

[1] B Addis Fundamentals of Concrete Cement and ConcreteInstitute Midrand South Africa 1st edition 2008

[2] J Basson and Y Ballim ldquoDurability of concreterdquo in FultonrsquosConcrete Technology p 153 7th edition Cement and Con-crete Institute Midrand South Africa 1994

[3] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoSelf-healing of surface cracks in mortars with expansive additiveand crystalline additiverdquo Cement and Concrete Compositesvol 34 no 4 pp 566ndash574 2012

[4] P K Mehta and P J M Monteiro Concrete MicrostructureProperties McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing New YorkUSA 2005

[5] R Kumar and B Bhattacharjee ldquoPorosity pore size distri-bution and in situ strength of concreterdquo Cement and ConcreteResearch vol 33 no 1 pp 155ndash164 2003

[6] ASM Handbook Materials Selection and DesignmdashDesign forOxidation Resistance Vol 20 ASM International GeaugaCounty OH USA 1997

[7] M Eglington Resistance of Concrete to Destructive AgenciesLearsquos Chemistry of Cement and Concrete Butterworth-Hei-nemann Oxford UK Fourth edition 1998

[8] S Xu N Xie X Cheng et al ldquoEnvironmental resistance ofcement concrete modified with low dosage nano particlesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 164 pp 535ndash5532018

[9] P H Emmons and B W Emmons Concrete Repair andMaintenance Illustrated Problem Analysis Repair StrategyTechniques (RSMeans) Rockland MA USA 1992

[10] J P Broomfield Corrosion of Steel in Concrete UnderstandingInvestigation and Repair Taylor amp Francis London UK 2003

[11] M Angel and H J DenuWaterproof Membranes for ConcreteSurface Protection Farbe amp Lack Hanover Germany 1997

[12] E G Moffatt M D A omas and A Fahim ldquoPerformanceof high-volume fly ash concrete in marine environmentrdquoCement and Concrete Research vol 102 pp 127ndash135 2017

[13] J Feng J Sun and P Yan ldquoe influence of ground fly ash oncement hydration and mechanical property of mortarrdquo Ad-vances in Civil Engineering vol 2018 Article ID 40231787 pages 2018

[14] M J Al-Kheetan M M Rahman and D A ChamberlainldquoInfluence of early water exposure on modified cementitiouscoatingrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 141pp 64ndash71 2017

[15] X Pan Z Shi C Shi T-C Ling and L Ning ldquoA review onconcrete surface treatment part I types and mechanismsrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 132 pp 578ndash5902017

[16] S Bohus and R Drochytka ldquoCement based material withcrystal-growth ability under long term aggressive mediumimpactrdquo Applied Mechanics and Materials vol 166ndash169pp 1773ndash1778 2012

[17] S Bohus R Drochytka and L Taranza ldquoFly-ash usage in newcement-basedmaterial for concrete waterproofingrdquoAdvancedMaterials Research vol 535ndash537 pp 1902ndash1906 2012

[18] R Drochytka and S Bohus ldquoMicrostructural analysis ofcrystalline technology by NANOSEMmdashFEI NOVA 200rdquo in

Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on CompositeMaterials pp 92ndash96 Jeju Island Korea August 2011

[19] T-L Weng and A Cheng ldquoInfluence of curing environmenton concrete with crystalline admixturerdquo Monatshefte furChemiemdashChemical Monthly vol 145 no 1 pp 195ndash2002014

[20] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoEffectof exposure conditions on self healing behavior of strainhardening cementitious composites incorporating variouscementitious materialsrdquo Construction and Building Materialsvol 42 pp 217ndash224 2013

[21] V Rahhal V Bonavetti A Delgado C Pedrajas andR Talero ldquoScheme of the Portland cement hydration withcrystalline mineral admixtures and other aspectsrdquo SilicatesIndustriels vol 74 no 11-12 pp 347ndash352 2009

[22] W Guiming Y Jianying and Y J Wuhan ldquoSelf-healingaction of permeable crystalline coating on pores and cracksin cement-based materialsrdquo Journal of Wuhan University ofTechnology-Mater Sci Edvol 20 no 1 pp 88ndash92 2005

[23] C Edvardsen ldquoWater penetrability and autogenous healing ofseparation cracks in concreterdquo Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik vol 62 no 11 pp 77ndash85 1996

[24] N Zizkova L Nevrivova and M Ledl ldquoDurability of cementbased mortars containing crystalline additivesrdquo Defect andDiffusion Forum vol 382 pp 246ndash253 2018

[25] M Roig-Flores F Pirritano P Serna and L Ferrara ldquoEffectof crystalline admixtures on the self-healing capability ofearly-age concrete studied bymeans of permeability and crackclosing testsrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 114pp 447ndash457 2016

[26] V G Cappellesso N D S Petry D C C D Molin andA B Masuero ldquoUse of crystalline waterproofing to reducecapillary porosity in concreterdquo Journal of Building Pathologyand Rehabilitation vol 1 no 1 p 9 2016

[27] K L Wang T Z Hu and S J Xu ldquoInfluence of permeatedcrystalline waterproof materials on impermeability of con-creterdquo Advanced Materials Research vol 446ndash449 pp 954ndash960 2012

[28] L Ferrara V Krelani and M Carsana ldquoA ldquofracture testingrdquobased approach to assess crack healing of concrete with andwithout crystalline admixturesrdquo Construction and BuildingMaterials vol 68 pp 535ndash551 2014

[29] R P Borg E Cuenca E M Gastaldo Brac and L FerraraldquoCrack sealing capacity in chloride-rich environments ofmortars containing different cement substitutes and crystal-line admixturesrdquo Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Ma-terials vol 7 no 3 pp 141ndash159 2018

[30] L Ferrara T Van Mullem M C Alonso et al ldquoExperimentalcharacterization of the self-healing capacity of cement basedmaterials and its effects on the material performance a state ofthe art report by COST Action SARCOS WG2rdquo Constructionand Building Materials vol 167 pp 115ndash142 2018

[31] N Z Muhammad A Keyvanfar M Z A MajidA Shafaghat and J Mirza ldquoWaterproof performance ofconcrete a critical review on implemented approachesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 101 pp 80ndash90 2015

[32] EN 1542 Products and Systems for the Protection and Repair ofConcrete Structures Test MethodsmdashMeasurement of BondStrength by Pull-off European Committee for Standardiza-tion Europe 1999

[33] EN 12390-3 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 3mdashCompressiveStrength of Test Specimens European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2002

Advances in Civil Engineering 11

[34] EN 14617-1 Agglomerated Stone Test Methods Part1mdashDetermination of Apparent Density and Water AbsorptionEuropean Committee for Standardization Europe 2005

[35] EN 12390-8 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 8mdashDepth ofPenetration of Water Under Pressure European Committeefor Standardization Europe 2017

[36] EN 206+A1 ConcretemdashSpecification Performance Pro-duction and Conformity European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2013

12 Advances in Civil Engineering

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structure is is probably the accumulated process ac-companied by the formation of 3CaOmiddot2SiO2middot3H2O togetherwith the formation of 3CaOmiddotAl2O3middotCa(OH)2middot12H2O In thischemical reaction branched needle-like crystals are formede active substances penetrate into the pores with mois-ture to a distance of up to ten centimetres from their sourceand catalyze the reactions in which crystals form in the poresystem of the cement sealant [16 17] According to X-rayfluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) the needle-like crystals(Figure 1) probably contain calcium or silicon [18]

e speed and depth of crystal growth through the cracksand pore system of the concrete depend on many factorssuch as the extent of the concretersquos treatment the presence ofsufficient volume of pore water type of cement concreteproportioning pore structure and temperature of theconcrete [19ndash24] e general process of action has beendescribed by Roig-Flores et al [25] where the crystallizationagent MxRx reacts with the tricalcium silicate and the waterto form clots blocking the pores is is represented by thefollowing equation

3CaO middot SiO2 + MxRx + H2O⟶ CaxSixOxR middot H2O( 1113857x

+ MxCaRx middot H2O( 1113857x

(2)

Research on secondary crystallization in cementcomposites has previously been dealing with the sealing ofpore structures and sealing cracks e benefits of uti-lisation of crystalline admixtures are well demonstrated inpreviously published studies [25ndash30] however improvingthe properties of concrete remains an important task eventoday [19] Improving the durability of cementitiouscomposites helps extend their longevity thereby reducingrepair costs associated with moisture damage of concretestructures [31] is study pays attention to the use of thecrystallization admixture in the cement-polymer water-proofing materials applied to the surface of concrete suchas coating and screed capable of breathability crackhealing ability good compatibility with concrete andchemical resistance In order to reduce the overall costs forcrystalline admixtures and polymer compounds fly ash isconsidered to be an environmentally friendly partial re-placement for cement with a positive impact on durabilitydue to pozzolanic reaction

2 Materials and Methods

21 Materials In order to decrease the permeability of theconcrete surface against water gaseous and liquid ag-gressive environments two insulating materials were de-veloped and applied to the surface of the concrete einsulating materials were applied as a coating (CT) and ascreed (SC) Both materials utilized a crystallization ad-mixture (Xypex Admix) and fly ashas a secondary rawmaterial

e thin coating layer copying the concrete surface isapplied to the concrete with the use of a brush or rollerwhereas the screed that compensates for the unevenness ofthe concrete is applied using a steel trowel e concrete

specimens (150mm cubes) of C 4555 reference concretewere used e reference concrete was tested according toEN 1542 [32] and EN 12390-3 [33] and yielded a com-pressive strength of 52MPa and tensile strength of 32MPae composition of the reference concrete (REF) is given inTable 1 Specimens were matured for 28 days at an ambienttemperature of 21plusmn 3degC and a relative humidity of 60plusmn 10followed by epoxy coating on the sides and immersed inwater for 48 hours Subsequently the surface without epoxywas wiped with a rug and an insulating screed or a coatingwas applied to the damp surface of the concrete specimens(Figure 2) using a brush (coating) and a steel trowel (screed)After application the specimens were covered with a plasticfoil After 72 hours the plastic foil was removed and thespecimens were cured for another 28 days in an environmentwith a relative humidity of 60plusmn 10 and a temperature of21plusmn 3degC which lead to the start of the test or to the exposureto the aggressive environments is storage enabled theactive substances to penetrate into the pore structure of theunderlying concrete and thus allowed for the formation ofsecondary crystallization products reducing the pore di-ameter in concrete

As a waterproofing material with a crystallization ad-mixture a polymer cement coating (CT) with 10 cementreplacement by fly ash and addition of 2 of crystallizationadmixture by weight of cement was developed e secondtested material was a screed (SC) with 10 cement re-placement by fly ash and addition of 2 of crystallizationadmixture by weight of cement e composition of bothmaterials is shown in Tables 2 and 3 e mix design of bothwaterproofing materials was based on the general knowledgeof the behaviour of individual components and industriallyused products e average thickness of the coating isdesigned to be 15mmndash2mm with respect to the maximumgrain size of sand e screed was applied in designedthickness of 3mmndash5mm

Figure 1 SEM image of the crystalline form inside the concretepore at a depth of 15mm below the surface 12 days after applicationof the Xypex Concentrate crystallization coating [18]

Advances in Civil Engineering 3

e physical and chemical compositions of the rawmaterials used are given in Table 4 and in Figure 3 Phasecomposition of crystalline admixture in Figure 4

22 Testing Methods 3 batches of concrete specimens wereprepared (REF REF treated with CT and REF treated withSC) for 7 selected environments (Table 5) For 6 12 and18months they were exposed to the environment and aftereach interval a complex testing programme was carriedout allowing to assess the state of the secondary crystal

development their possible degradation their impact on thedurability of the concrete and its resistance to the selectedenvironment compared to untreated reference concretee testing programme included the following

(1) e water absorption was determined on 3 speci-mens (150mm concrete cubes) of each batchaccording to EN 14617-1 [34]

(2) Depth of penetration of water under pressure wasdetermined on 3 specimens (150mm concrete cubes)at different ages according to EN 12390-8 with waterpressure of 500plusmn 50 kPa for 72plusmn 2 h [35]

(3) Scanning electronmicroscopy (SEM) was carried outafter the exposure of the specimens to an aggressiveenvironment for 18months e presence of crystalsand their evolution with respect to the age and effectsof degradation were observed on test specimens cutout of the remains of 150mm concrete cubes afterdetermination of depth of penetration of water underpressure using a circular saw with a diamond bladee fragments of concrete were taken from the depthof 15mm below the interface of treatment and thesound concrete dried out and sized down to the sizeapproximately 5mmtimes 5mmtimes 5mm A thin layer ofgold 300ndash400 A was applied to the samples using theQuorum Q150r Gold-plated now conductivesamples were inserted into the body of the FEI Nova200 and the shots were taken at a suitable resolution(magnification of 4000x to 25000x)

(4) For the determination of pH values of concrete withtreated and untreated surfaces respectively thesamples were extracted from 3 specimens (150mmconcrete cubes) at a depth of approximately 15mmFirst the samples were taken before placing thespecimens in an aggressive environment After18months of exposure the pH test was performedagain e samples were extracted from the cubesusing 40mm diamond core drill Consequently theholes were filed up with epoxy resin in order toprevent aggressive environment from penetratingthe specimens is allowed reuse of the specimensfor the pH test after 18months For the pH test

Table 2 Composition of polymer cement coating (CT)

Material Dosage (kg)Cement EN 197-1 CEM IIA-S 425 R 270Silica sand 700Silica fume (5 aqueous dispersion) 8Silica filler 20Fly ash (10lowast) 30Xypex Admix (2lowast) 6Water 300Carboxymethyl cellulose 10Styrene-acrylate dispersion 700Defoaming agent on synthetic copolymer base 5lowastPercentual substitute for cement was based on the initial dose 300 kgm3 ofcement

Table 3 Composition of polymer cement screed (SC) lowastpercentualsubstitute for cement was based on the initial dose 270 kgm3 ofcement

Material Dosage (kg)Cement EN 197-1 CEM IIA-S 425 R 248Silica sand 450Ground limestone 250Silica filler 120Polymeric dispersion powder on vinyl acetate andethylene base 35

Polypropylene fibres 05Water 220Superplasticizer on polycarboxylates base 1Carboxymethyl cellulose 1Fly ash (10lowast) 275Xypex Admix (2lowast) 54

Table 1 Composition of reference concrete (REF)

Material Dosage (kg)Cement EN 197-1 CEM IIA-S 425 R 340Sand 04 1280Gravel 48 mined 200Gravel 48 crushed 221Silica fume (5 aqueous dispersion) 120Water 150

Figure 2 Concrete specimen with the screed applied on the faceand epoxy coating on remaining sides of concrete (REF)

4 Advances in Civil Engineering

Table 4 Physical and chemical characteristics of materials

ComponentContent ()

CEM Fly ash Silica filler Silica sand Silica fume Crystalline admixtureSiO2 1828 5682 991 99 9197 115Al2O3 496 2893 027 03 01 234Fe2O3 367 618 0098 003 067 174TiO2 mdash 202 038 005 002 0129CaO 649 179 mdash mdash 019 457MgO 200 131 mdash mdash 124 0734MnO mdash 003 mdash mdash mdash 0102K2O 102 179 mdash mdash 332 0387Na2O 020 032 mdash mdash 05 661SO3 371 036 mdash mdash 067 205S mdash 02 mdash mdash mdash mdashSpecific surface (m2kg) 378 250 175 mdash 150 000 386

020406080

100

0031 0063 0125 0250 0500 1000

Cum

mul

ativ

epa

ssin

g (

)

Sieve size (mm)

Ground limestoneSilica sand

Silica fillerFly ash

Figure 3 Particle size distribution of raw materials

8000

6000

4000

Inte

nsity

(cou

nts)

2000

010

1 alite (C3S)2 belite (C2S)3 tricalcium aluminate (C3A)4 brownmillerite (C4AF)5 portlandite (C4AF)6 calcite7 gypsum

7

411

7

5

164

2

2257

16

12

2

25

5

1

1 2 2 33

15

6 6

12

15 20 25 302θ (deg)

35 40 45 50 55

Figure 4 X-ray diffraction analysis of crystalline admixture

Table 5 Description of aggressive environments

Environment Concentration Relative humidity Temperature

GaseousCO2 Low 1-2

60plusmn 10 21plusmn 2degCCO2 High 5ndash10SO2 High 5ndash10

LiquidSO4

2minus Na2SO4middot10 gl21plusmn 2degCSO4

2minus Na2SO4middot346 glClminus NaClmiddot100 gl

Real outdoor environmentlowastlowaste real environment shows the effects of climatic influence on samples stored outdoors where during the exposure the temperatures alternate ranging fromminus159degC to + 348degC Samples were also exposed to irregular precipitation direct sunlight air pollution and biological agents

Advances in Civil Engineering 5

10mm thick section of the core sample was cut out ata distance of 10mm from the interface of treatmentand sound concrete or from the untreated surface ofREF concrete respectively Oven-dried (60degC for24 h) sections were then milled and sieved throughthe mesh (0063mm) After that 10 g of material wasseparated and dispersed in 100 g of distilled waterAfter mixing in electromagnetic mixer for30minutes the solution was filtered and the pHvalue determined in solution using pH meter

23 Exposure Environment e resistance of the proposedwaterproofing materials was verified by placing the speci-mens in the aggressive media defined in Table 5 for6ndash18months

e gaseous environments were created in the KohlerAutomobiltechnik GmbH salt spray chambers HK 400-800MWTG (Figure 5) which can accommodate 32 specimensin 4 layers separated vertically with polymer grids Speci-mens were placed in chamber with the treated side againstthe door in order to prevent the aggressive condensates fromremaining on the treated side of the specimen

3 Results and Discussion

31 Water Absorption Based on the evaluation of the re-sults of the water absorption test of concrete samplestreated with the coating and the screed it is suggested thatthese materials significantly reduce the water absorptionChanges in the water absorption after the exposures inliquid aggressive environments can be clearly seen inFigures 6 and 7 in the case of exposure to gaseous media Inall environments untreated concrete (REF) showed ahigher total water absorption than concrete with a wa-terproofing coating or screed Especially after 18months inthe liquid environment the greatest differences in absor-bency between the treated concrete and the referenceconcrete are observed is indicated the effectiveness ofthe use of the screed and especially the coating which hasin all cases the lowest absorption even after exposure in ahighly concentrated sulphate environment In an envi-ronment with NaCl however the coating appears to be lessresistant than in the environment with a high concentra-tion of sulphates

Gaseous environments with a high SO2 concentrationand in particular CO2 have significantly influenced thewater absorption of the samples is suggests that a coatingmay be a more effective protective material against gaseousaggressive environments than a screed

e real environment compared to a highly concen-trated long-term liquid and gas environment (18months)shows much less aggressiveness and less damage to treatedand untreated concrete

Absorbance values generally fluctuated at low values dueto the possibility of penetration of the liquid through onlyone nonepoxy surface therefore it was also necessary toverify this test with the depth of penetration of water underpressure

32 Depth of Penetration of Water under Pressure e testfor the determination of penetration of water under pressureaccording to EN 12390-8 due to the effect of increased waterpressure on the tested sample provides a sharper and moreconclusive possibility of comparing the ability of treatedconcrete to resist water and aggressive substances as op-posed to untreated concrete e screed and coating in-creased the resistance of concrete structures againstpenetration of water under pressure as opposed to untreatedconcrete (REF)

Figures 8 and 9 compare the absorption values of bothtreated and untreated concrete samples in the corrosiveenvironment after six twelve and eighteen months in theaggressive environment

Untreated concrete always exhibited a higher depth ofpenetration of water under pressure than concrete treatedwith a coating and with the screed which was also con-firmed by the water absorption tests e samples were alsoassessed according to the design limit values for thecomposition and properties of the concrete according toEN 206 +A1 All concrete samples with an applied treat-ment after 18months of storage had a depth of pene-tration of water under pressure lower than 50mm a valuecorresponding to the resistance to XA1 XS4 XF1 XF2 andXD2 environments Samples treated with a coating spe-cifically for XD3 environment corrosion caused by chlo-rides other than the sea and chemically aggressive XA3environments had withstood the test with the exception ofenvironments with high concentrations of CO2 and SO2ions because the limit values of the depth of penetration are20mm [36] Based on these results it can be stated that interms of water permeability the tested crystallizationmaterials are suitable for structures exposed to water underpressure Regarding the resistance of the tested materialsagainst the penetration of aggressive gases leakage resultsindicate that the resistance is comparable to the influence ofthe liquid medium

33 SEMAnalysis of Crystal Growth SEM was performed inorder to detect secondary crystallization products and tomonitor the impact of aggressive media on the concretemicrostructure Images for the two most aggressive liquidand two gaseous environments were selected

In the liquid NaCl and Na2SO4 medium shown inFigures 10 and 11 a more pronounced developed elongatedflattened crystals of about 20 μm can be observed filling thepores ese crystals are incompletely shaped but theiramount and size indicate that the initial absorption and theliquid environment have provided sufficient moisture to fillthe pores with secondary crystallization ere are no clearlyidentifiable crystals in the images that would indicate sig-nificant signs of carbonation sulphation or degradation dueto aggressive environments On the contrary a sufficientlydense cement matrix is evident Larger pores can also beexpected to be filled

Figures 12 and 13 from the CO2 and SO2 gaseous mediaagain show rod-like crystals penetrating the pores Crystalsfilling the pores differ in shape and size their amount and

6 Advances in Civil Engineering

size are substantially smaller and their clusters are of asmaller and finer structure than the samples stored in theliquid environment e humidity inside the pores probablywas not sufficient enough for crystal growth to a largerextent It can be concluded that most of the pores filled had adiameter of less than 20 μm

34Changes in the pHofConcrete Figure 14 shows pH valuesbefore storage and after 18months in aggressive environ-mentse graph is sorted downwards according to the changeof pH during the exposure to the aggressive environment

e most obvious decrease in pH can be clearly seen inthe untreated concrete (REF) Mostly in NaCl and real

014 016

075

022 026

088

034

033

099

022

021

0190

39 049

142

057 059

189

056

052

136

028 041 049

019

02

155

051 0

66

30

05

032

18

036 049 055

005

115

225

335

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 6 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to liquid aggressive media and the real environment e error bars representthe range of measurements for 3 samples

017

015 021

071 075 081

032 041

04

022

021

019

017 021 025

079

079

08

038 042 052

028 0

41 049

019 022 03

083 092 107

048 057 0

73

036 0

49 055

00

05

10

15

20

25

30

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

CTSCREF

Figure 7 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to gaseous aggressive environments and the real environment e error barsrepresent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Figure 5 Salt spray chamber for the gaseous environment

Advances in Civil Engineering 7

14 13 15 18

12

18 17 15

19

15 15 1618 16 18

24

19 21 19 17 20 23 22 23

27 27

31

35 37 39

28 25

30 31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 8 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a liquid aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

14

11

15

19 19 21 22 21

24

15 15 1617

13

16

24

22 23

28 28

29

23 22 23

26 24

28 30 28

32

42

36

42

31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

CTSCREF

Figure 9 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a gaseous aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

(a) (b)

Figure 10 (a) e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid NaCl environment (b) a detail of the formedFriedelrsquos salt crystals (3CaOmiddotAl2O3middotCaCl2middot10H2O)

8 Advances in Civil Engineering

(a) (b)

Figure 11 (a)e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid Na2SO4 (b) a detail of the formed ettringite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 12 (a) e SEM shot of concrete treated with screed after 18months in gaseous CO2 environment (b) a detail of createdpseudomorphoses of aragonite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 13 (a) A shot of concrete treated with coat after 18months in gaseous SO2 environment (b) a detail of created pseudomorphosis ofgypsum crystals

Advances in Civil Engineering 9

environments the pH values of concrete with coatingshowed a significant decrease is may be due to coatbreakage during application manipulation and exposureand also due to the formation of Friedelrsquos salt within thepores In general it can be observed that the tested coatingsand screeds successfully helped to slow down the rate of pHreduction during the exposure of concrete to an aggressiveenvironment

It turned out that at a depth of 15mm from the surface ofconcrete even after 18months there was no significant pHdecrease (below 96) in concrete and as such it would notcease to perform the steel reinforcement protection function

4 Conclusions

(i) It has been demonstrated that the polymer cementwaterproofing materials with crystallization ad-mixture can be successfully modified with fly ashadditive in order to reduce the content of cementin the formulations by 10

(ii) e functionality of the crystallization admixturein polymer cement systems has been proved

(iii) e modification of the waterproofing materialsand therefore the reduction of Ca(OH)2 contentnecessary for crystallization and crystal formationin the proposed formulations did not cause a dropin the pH value to the critical limit of the moni-tored concrete samples where the reinforcementwould no longer be protected

(iv) It was confirmed that the type of environment hada significant influence on the properties of thetested concrete sample treated with the proposedwaterproofing materials

(v) roughout the whole 18-month exposure thecoating and screed modified by fly ash and crys-tallization admixture Xypex Admix have shown

increased resistance to aggressive environmentswith a much higher concentration than is common

(vi) e functionality of sealing technology of concretepores with crystalline neoplasm after 18months inan aggressive environment was verified at a depthof 15mm below the interface of sound concreteespecially if liquid water was available In concretewhere no liquid water was present in aggressiveenvironment the formation of crystals occurred toa much lesser extent

(vii) e needle-shaped crystals with the maximumlength of 15 μm of single crystals mostly filled outpores with sizes of about 20 μm

(viii) Designed formulations of crystallization coatingsand screeds with the admixture of fly ash haveshown very good complex properties in increasingthe protection of concrete even with long-termexposure to aggressive agents (CO2 SO2 SO4

2minusClminus and real outdoor conditions)

Data Availability

e data used to support the findings of this study are in-cluded within the article

Conflicts of Interest

e authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

is paper was created with the financial support of theGrant Agency of the Czech Republic (No 16-25472S)ldquoDynamics of degradation of cement composites modifiedby secondary crystallizationrdquo and the project (No LO1408)

1216 1211 12081199

1219

1181

12091224

1206 12061221

1154

118512

1117

1205 1212

11871173

1211

1192

1111 11131126 1132

1153

1118

11511166

115 1151

1176

1113

11461162

1081

1173118

1156

1142

11841168

106

108

11

112

114

116

118

12

122

124

REF REF REF CT REF REF REF CT REF SC SC CT CT CT SC SC CT SC CT SC SCReal NaCl

100 glCO2high

NaCl100 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2low

Real Sulph10 gl

NaCl100 gl

Real SO2high

Sulph346gl

Sulph10 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2high

Sulph10 gl

CO2low

CO2high

CO2low

pH (ndash

)

Recipes exposed to the given environment

Changes in pH values

28 days18 months

Figure 14 Changes in pH values in leachate for concrete samples before storage in aggressive environment and after 18months inaggressive environment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

10 Advances in Civil Engineering

ldquoAdMaS UP-Advanced Materials Structures and Technol-ogiesrdquo supported by the Ministry for Education Youth andSports of the Czech Republic under ldquoNational SustainabilityProgramme Irdquo

References

[1] B Addis Fundamentals of Concrete Cement and ConcreteInstitute Midrand South Africa 1st edition 2008

[2] J Basson and Y Ballim ldquoDurability of concreterdquo in FultonrsquosConcrete Technology p 153 7th edition Cement and Con-crete Institute Midrand South Africa 1994

[3] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoSelf-healing of surface cracks in mortars with expansive additiveand crystalline additiverdquo Cement and Concrete Compositesvol 34 no 4 pp 566ndash574 2012

[4] P K Mehta and P J M Monteiro Concrete MicrostructureProperties McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing New YorkUSA 2005

[5] R Kumar and B Bhattacharjee ldquoPorosity pore size distri-bution and in situ strength of concreterdquo Cement and ConcreteResearch vol 33 no 1 pp 155ndash164 2003

[6] ASM Handbook Materials Selection and DesignmdashDesign forOxidation Resistance Vol 20 ASM International GeaugaCounty OH USA 1997

[7] M Eglington Resistance of Concrete to Destructive AgenciesLearsquos Chemistry of Cement and Concrete Butterworth-Hei-nemann Oxford UK Fourth edition 1998

[8] S Xu N Xie X Cheng et al ldquoEnvironmental resistance ofcement concrete modified with low dosage nano particlesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 164 pp 535ndash5532018

[9] P H Emmons and B W Emmons Concrete Repair andMaintenance Illustrated Problem Analysis Repair StrategyTechniques (RSMeans) Rockland MA USA 1992

[10] J P Broomfield Corrosion of Steel in Concrete UnderstandingInvestigation and Repair Taylor amp Francis London UK 2003

[11] M Angel and H J DenuWaterproof Membranes for ConcreteSurface Protection Farbe amp Lack Hanover Germany 1997

[12] E G Moffatt M D A omas and A Fahim ldquoPerformanceof high-volume fly ash concrete in marine environmentrdquoCement and Concrete Research vol 102 pp 127ndash135 2017

[13] J Feng J Sun and P Yan ldquoe influence of ground fly ash oncement hydration and mechanical property of mortarrdquo Ad-vances in Civil Engineering vol 2018 Article ID 40231787 pages 2018

[14] M J Al-Kheetan M M Rahman and D A ChamberlainldquoInfluence of early water exposure on modified cementitiouscoatingrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 141pp 64ndash71 2017

[15] X Pan Z Shi C Shi T-C Ling and L Ning ldquoA review onconcrete surface treatment part I types and mechanismsrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 132 pp 578ndash5902017

[16] S Bohus and R Drochytka ldquoCement based material withcrystal-growth ability under long term aggressive mediumimpactrdquo Applied Mechanics and Materials vol 166ndash169pp 1773ndash1778 2012

[17] S Bohus R Drochytka and L Taranza ldquoFly-ash usage in newcement-basedmaterial for concrete waterproofingrdquoAdvancedMaterials Research vol 535ndash537 pp 1902ndash1906 2012

[18] R Drochytka and S Bohus ldquoMicrostructural analysis ofcrystalline technology by NANOSEMmdashFEI NOVA 200rdquo in

Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on CompositeMaterials pp 92ndash96 Jeju Island Korea August 2011

[19] T-L Weng and A Cheng ldquoInfluence of curing environmenton concrete with crystalline admixturerdquo Monatshefte furChemiemdashChemical Monthly vol 145 no 1 pp 195ndash2002014

[20] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoEffectof exposure conditions on self healing behavior of strainhardening cementitious composites incorporating variouscementitious materialsrdquo Construction and Building Materialsvol 42 pp 217ndash224 2013

[21] V Rahhal V Bonavetti A Delgado C Pedrajas andR Talero ldquoScheme of the Portland cement hydration withcrystalline mineral admixtures and other aspectsrdquo SilicatesIndustriels vol 74 no 11-12 pp 347ndash352 2009

[22] W Guiming Y Jianying and Y J Wuhan ldquoSelf-healingaction of permeable crystalline coating on pores and cracksin cement-based materialsrdquo Journal of Wuhan University ofTechnology-Mater Sci Edvol 20 no 1 pp 88ndash92 2005

[23] C Edvardsen ldquoWater penetrability and autogenous healing ofseparation cracks in concreterdquo Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik vol 62 no 11 pp 77ndash85 1996

[24] N Zizkova L Nevrivova and M Ledl ldquoDurability of cementbased mortars containing crystalline additivesrdquo Defect andDiffusion Forum vol 382 pp 246ndash253 2018

[25] M Roig-Flores F Pirritano P Serna and L Ferrara ldquoEffectof crystalline admixtures on the self-healing capability ofearly-age concrete studied bymeans of permeability and crackclosing testsrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 114pp 447ndash457 2016

[26] V G Cappellesso N D S Petry D C C D Molin andA B Masuero ldquoUse of crystalline waterproofing to reducecapillary porosity in concreterdquo Journal of Building Pathologyand Rehabilitation vol 1 no 1 p 9 2016

[27] K L Wang T Z Hu and S J Xu ldquoInfluence of permeatedcrystalline waterproof materials on impermeability of con-creterdquo Advanced Materials Research vol 446ndash449 pp 954ndash960 2012

[28] L Ferrara V Krelani and M Carsana ldquoA ldquofracture testingrdquobased approach to assess crack healing of concrete with andwithout crystalline admixturesrdquo Construction and BuildingMaterials vol 68 pp 535ndash551 2014

[29] R P Borg E Cuenca E M Gastaldo Brac and L FerraraldquoCrack sealing capacity in chloride-rich environments ofmortars containing different cement substitutes and crystal-line admixturesrdquo Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Ma-terials vol 7 no 3 pp 141ndash159 2018

[30] L Ferrara T Van Mullem M C Alonso et al ldquoExperimentalcharacterization of the self-healing capacity of cement basedmaterials and its effects on the material performance a state ofthe art report by COST Action SARCOS WG2rdquo Constructionand Building Materials vol 167 pp 115ndash142 2018

[31] N Z Muhammad A Keyvanfar M Z A MajidA Shafaghat and J Mirza ldquoWaterproof performance ofconcrete a critical review on implemented approachesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 101 pp 80ndash90 2015

[32] EN 1542 Products and Systems for the Protection and Repair ofConcrete Structures Test MethodsmdashMeasurement of BondStrength by Pull-off European Committee for Standardiza-tion Europe 1999

[33] EN 12390-3 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 3mdashCompressiveStrength of Test Specimens European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2002

Advances in Civil Engineering 11

[34] EN 14617-1 Agglomerated Stone Test Methods Part1mdashDetermination of Apparent Density and Water AbsorptionEuropean Committee for Standardization Europe 2005

[35] EN 12390-8 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 8mdashDepth ofPenetration of Water Under Pressure European Committeefor Standardization Europe 2017

[36] EN 206+A1 ConcretemdashSpecification Performance Pro-duction and Conformity European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2013

12 Advances in Civil Engineering

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Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom

e physical and chemical compositions of the rawmaterials used are given in Table 4 and in Figure 3 Phasecomposition of crystalline admixture in Figure 4

22 Testing Methods 3 batches of concrete specimens wereprepared (REF REF treated with CT and REF treated withSC) for 7 selected environments (Table 5) For 6 12 and18months they were exposed to the environment and aftereach interval a complex testing programme was carriedout allowing to assess the state of the secondary crystal

development their possible degradation their impact on thedurability of the concrete and its resistance to the selectedenvironment compared to untreated reference concretee testing programme included the following

(1) e water absorption was determined on 3 speci-mens (150mm concrete cubes) of each batchaccording to EN 14617-1 [34]

(2) Depth of penetration of water under pressure wasdetermined on 3 specimens (150mm concrete cubes)at different ages according to EN 12390-8 with waterpressure of 500plusmn 50 kPa for 72plusmn 2 h [35]

(3) Scanning electronmicroscopy (SEM) was carried outafter the exposure of the specimens to an aggressiveenvironment for 18months e presence of crystalsand their evolution with respect to the age and effectsof degradation were observed on test specimens cutout of the remains of 150mm concrete cubes afterdetermination of depth of penetration of water underpressure using a circular saw with a diamond bladee fragments of concrete were taken from the depthof 15mm below the interface of treatment and thesound concrete dried out and sized down to the sizeapproximately 5mmtimes 5mmtimes 5mm A thin layer ofgold 300ndash400 A was applied to the samples using theQuorum Q150r Gold-plated now conductivesamples were inserted into the body of the FEI Nova200 and the shots were taken at a suitable resolution(magnification of 4000x to 25000x)

(4) For the determination of pH values of concrete withtreated and untreated surfaces respectively thesamples were extracted from 3 specimens (150mmconcrete cubes) at a depth of approximately 15mmFirst the samples were taken before placing thespecimens in an aggressive environment After18months of exposure the pH test was performedagain e samples were extracted from the cubesusing 40mm diamond core drill Consequently theholes were filed up with epoxy resin in order toprevent aggressive environment from penetratingthe specimens is allowed reuse of the specimensfor the pH test after 18months For the pH test

Table 2 Composition of polymer cement coating (CT)

Material Dosage (kg)Cement EN 197-1 CEM IIA-S 425 R 270Silica sand 700Silica fume (5 aqueous dispersion) 8Silica filler 20Fly ash (10lowast) 30Xypex Admix (2lowast) 6Water 300Carboxymethyl cellulose 10Styrene-acrylate dispersion 700Defoaming agent on synthetic copolymer base 5lowastPercentual substitute for cement was based on the initial dose 300 kgm3 ofcement

Table 3 Composition of polymer cement screed (SC) lowastpercentualsubstitute for cement was based on the initial dose 270 kgm3 ofcement

Material Dosage (kg)Cement EN 197-1 CEM IIA-S 425 R 248Silica sand 450Ground limestone 250Silica filler 120Polymeric dispersion powder on vinyl acetate andethylene base 35

Polypropylene fibres 05Water 220Superplasticizer on polycarboxylates base 1Carboxymethyl cellulose 1Fly ash (10lowast) 275Xypex Admix (2lowast) 54

Table 1 Composition of reference concrete (REF)

Material Dosage (kg)Cement EN 197-1 CEM IIA-S 425 R 340Sand 04 1280Gravel 48 mined 200Gravel 48 crushed 221Silica fume (5 aqueous dispersion) 120Water 150

Figure 2 Concrete specimen with the screed applied on the faceand epoxy coating on remaining sides of concrete (REF)

4 Advances in Civil Engineering

Table 4 Physical and chemical characteristics of materials

ComponentContent ()

CEM Fly ash Silica filler Silica sand Silica fume Crystalline admixtureSiO2 1828 5682 991 99 9197 115Al2O3 496 2893 027 03 01 234Fe2O3 367 618 0098 003 067 174TiO2 mdash 202 038 005 002 0129CaO 649 179 mdash mdash 019 457MgO 200 131 mdash mdash 124 0734MnO mdash 003 mdash mdash mdash 0102K2O 102 179 mdash mdash 332 0387Na2O 020 032 mdash mdash 05 661SO3 371 036 mdash mdash 067 205S mdash 02 mdash mdash mdash mdashSpecific surface (m2kg) 378 250 175 mdash 150 000 386

020406080

100

0031 0063 0125 0250 0500 1000

Cum

mul

ativ

epa

ssin

g (

)

Sieve size (mm)

Ground limestoneSilica sand

Silica fillerFly ash

Figure 3 Particle size distribution of raw materials

8000

6000

4000

Inte

nsity

(cou

nts)

2000

010

1 alite (C3S)2 belite (C2S)3 tricalcium aluminate (C3A)4 brownmillerite (C4AF)5 portlandite (C4AF)6 calcite7 gypsum

7

411

7

5

164

2

2257

16

12

2

25

5

1

1 2 2 33

15

6 6

12

15 20 25 302θ (deg)

35 40 45 50 55

Figure 4 X-ray diffraction analysis of crystalline admixture

Table 5 Description of aggressive environments

Environment Concentration Relative humidity Temperature

GaseousCO2 Low 1-2

60plusmn 10 21plusmn 2degCCO2 High 5ndash10SO2 High 5ndash10

LiquidSO4

2minus Na2SO4middot10 gl21plusmn 2degCSO4

2minus Na2SO4middot346 glClminus NaClmiddot100 gl

Real outdoor environmentlowastlowaste real environment shows the effects of climatic influence on samples stored outdoors where during the exposure the temperatures alternate ranging fromminus159degC to + 348degC Samples were also exposed to irregular precipitation direct sunlight air pollution and biological agents

Advances in Civil Engineering 5

10mm thick section of the core sample was cut out ata distance of 10mm from the interface of treatmentand sound concrete or from the untreated surface ofREF concrete respectively Oven-dried (60degC for24 h) sections were then milled and sieved throughthe mesh (0063mm) After that 10 g of material wasseparated and dispersed in 100 g of distilled waterAfter mixing in electromagnetic mixer for30minutes the solution was filtered and the pHvalue determined in solution using pH meter

23 Exposure Environment e resistance of the proposedwaterproofing materials was verified by placing the speci-mens in the aggressive media defined in Table 5 for6ndash18months

e gaseous environments were created in the KohlerAutomobiltechnik GmbH salt spray chambers HK 400-800MWTG (Figure 5) which can accommodate 32 specimensin 4 layers separated vertically with polymer grids Speci-mens were placed in chamber with the treated side againstthe door in order to prevent the aggressive condensates fromremaining on the treated side of the specimen

3 Results and Discussion

31 Water Absorption Based on the evaluation of the re-sults of the water absorption test of concrete samplestreated with the coating and the screed it is suggested thatthese materials significantly reduce the water absorptionChanges in the water absorption after the exposures inliquid aggressive environments can be clearly seen inFigures 6 and 7 in the case of exposure to gaseous media Inall environments untreated concrete (REF) showed ahigher total water absorption than concrete with a wa-terproofing coating or screed Especially after 18months inthe liquid environment the greatest differences in absor-bency between the treated concrete and the referenceconcrete are observed is indicated the effectiveness ofthe use of the screed and especially the coating which hasin all cases the lowest absorption even after exposure in ahighly concentrated sulphate environment In an envi-ronment with NaCl however the coating appears to be lessresistant than in the environment with a high concentra-tion of sulphates

Gaseous environments with a high SO2 concentrationand in particular CO2 have significantly influenced thewater absorption of the samples is suggests that a coatingmay be a more effective protective material against gaseousaggressive environments than a screed

e real environment compared to a highly concen-trated long-term liquid and gas environment (18months)shows much less aggressiveness and less damage to treatedand untreated concrete

Absorbance values generally fluctuated at low values dueto the possibility of penetration of the liquid through onlyone nonepoxy surface therefore it was also necessary toverify this test with the depth of penetration of water underpressure

32 Depth of Penetration of Water under Pressure e testfor the determination of penetration of water under pressureaccording to EN 12390-8 due to the effect of increased waterpressure on the tested sample provides a sharper and moreconclusive possibility of comparing the ability of treatedconcrete to resist water and aggressive substances as op-posed to untreated concrete e screed and coating in-creased the resistance of concrete structures againstpenetration of water under pressure as opposed to untreatedconcrete (REF)

Figures 8 and 9 compare the absorption values of bothtreated and untreated concrete samples in the corrosiveenvironment after six twelve and eighteen months in theaggressive environment

Untreated concrete always exhibited a higher depth ofpenetration of water under pressure than concrete treatedwith a coating and with the screed which was also con-firmed by the water absorption tests e samples were alsoassessed according to the design limit values for thecomposition and properties of the concrete according toEN 206 +A1 All concrete samples with an applied treat-ment after 18months of storage had a depth of pene-tration of water under pressure lower than 50mm a valuecorresponding to the resistance to XA1 XS4 XF1 XF2 andXD2 environments Samples treated with a coating spe-cifically for XD3 environment corrosion caused by chlo-rides other than the sea and chemically aggressive XA3environments had withstood the test with the exception ofenvironments with high concentrations of CO2 and SO2ions because the limit values of the depth of penetration are20mm [36] Based on these results it can be stated that interms of water permeability the tested crystallizationmaterials are suitable for structures exposed to water underpressure Regarding the resistance of the tested materialsagainst the penetration of aggressive gases leakage resultsindicate that the resistance is comparable to the influence ofthe liquid medium

33 SEMAnalysis of Crystal Growth SEM was performed inorder to detect secondary crystallization products and tomonitor the impact of aggressive media on the concretemicrostructure Images for the two most aggressive liquidand two gaseous environments were selected

In the liquid NaCl and Na2SO4 medium shown inFigures 10 and 11 a more pronounced developed elongatedflattened crystals of about 20 μm can be observed filling thepores ese crystals are incompletely shaped but theiramount and size indicate that the initial absorption and theliquid environment have provided sufficient moisture to fillthe pores with secondary crystallization ere are no clearlyidentifiable crystals in the images that would indicate sig-nificant signs of carbonation sulphation or degradation dueto aggressive environments On the contrary a sufficientlydense cement matrix is evident Larger pores can also beexpected to be filled

Figures 12 and 13 from the CO2 and SO2 gaseous mediaagain show rod-like crystals penetrating the pores Crystalsfilling the pores differ in shape and size their amount and

6 Advances in Civil Engineering

size are substantially smaller and their clusters are of asmaller and finer structure than the samples stored in theliquid environment e humidity inside the pores probablywas not sufficient enough for crystal growth to a largerextent It can be concluded that most of the pores filled had adiameter of less than 20 μm

34Changes in the pHofConcrete Figure 14 shows pH valuesbefore storage and after 18months in aggressive environ-mentse graph is sorted downwards according to the changeof pH during the exposure to the aggressive environment

e most obvious decrease in pH can be clearly seen inthe untreated concrete (REF) Mostly in NaCl and real

014 016

075

022 026

088

034

033

099

022

021

0190

39 049

142

057 059

189

056

052

136

028 041 049

019

02

155

051 0

66

30

05

032

18

036 049 055

005

115

225

335

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 6 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to liquid aggressive media and the real environment e error bars representthe range of measurements for 3 samples

017

015 021

071 075 081

032 041

04

022

021

019

017 021 025

079

079

08

038 042 052

028 0

41 049

019 022 03

083 092 107

048 057 0

73

036 0

49 055

00

05

10

15

20

25

30

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

CTSCREF

Figure 7 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to gaseous aggressive environments and the real environment e error barsrepresent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Figure 5 Salt spray chamber for the gaseous environment

Advances in Civil Engineering 7

14 13 15 18

12

18 17 15

19

15 15 1618 16 18

24

19 21 19 17 20 23 22 23

27 27

31

35 37 39

28 25

30 31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 8 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a liquid aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

14

11

15

19 19 21 22 21

24

15 15 1617

13

16

24

22 23

28 28

29

23 22 23

26 24

28 30 28

32

42

36

42

31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

CTSCREF

Figure 9 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a gaseous aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

(a) (b)

Figure 10 (a) e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid NaCl environment (b) a detail of the formedFriedelrsquos salt crystals (3CaOmiddotAl2O3middotCaCl2middot10H2O)

8 Advances in Civil Engineering

(a) (b)

Figure 11 (a)e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid Na2SO4 (b) a detail of the formed ettringite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 12 (a) e SEM shot of concrete treated with screed after 18months in gaseous CO2 environment (b) a detail of createdpseudomorphoses of aragonite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 13 (a) A shot of concrete treated with coat after 18months in gaseous SO2 environment (b) a detail of created pseudomorphosis ofgypsum crystals

Advances in Civil Engineering 9

environments the pH values of concrete with coatingshowed a significant decrease is may be due to coatbreakage during application manipulation and exposureand also due to the formation of Friedelrsquos salt within thepores In general it can be observed that the tested coatingsand screeds successfully helped to slow down the rate of pHreduction during the exposure of concrete to an aggressiveenvironment

It turned out that at a depth of 15mm from the surface ofconcrete even after 18months there was no significant pHdecrease (below 96) in concrete and as such it would notcease to perform the steel reinforcement protection function

4 Conclusions

(i) It has been demonstrated that the polymer cementwaterproofing materials with crystallization ad-mixture can be successfully modified with fly ashadditive in order to reduce the content of cementin the formulations by 10

(ii) e functionality of the crystallization admixturein polymer cement systems has been proved

(iii) e modification of the waterproofing materialsand therefore the reduction of Ca(OH)2 contentnecessary for crystallization and crystal formationin the proposed formulations did not cause a dropin the pH value to the critical limit of the moni-tored concrete samples where the reinforcementwould no longer be protected

(iv) It was confirmed that the type of environment hada significant influence on the properties of thetested concrete sample treated with the proposedwaterproofing materials

(v) roughout the whole 18-month exposure thecoating and screed modified by fly ash and crys-tallization admixture Xypex Admix have shown

increased resistance to aggressive environmentswith a much higher concentration than is common

(vi) e functionality of sealing technology of concretepores with crystalline neoplasm after 18months inan aggressive environment was verified at a depthof 15mm below the interface of sound concreteespecially if liquid water was available In concretewhere no liquid water was present in aggressiveenvironment the formation of crystals occurred toa much lesser extent

(vii) e needle-shaped crystals with the maximumlength of 15 μm of single crystals mostly filled outpores with sizes of about 20 μm

(viii) Designed formulations of crystallization coatingsand screeds with the admixture of fly ash haveshown very good complex properties in increasingthe protection of concrete even with long-termexposure to aggressive agents (CO2 SO2 SO4

2minusClminus and real outdoor conditions)

Data Availability

e data used to support the findings of this study are in-cluded within the article

Conflicts of Interest

e authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

is paper was created with the financial support of theGrant Agency of the Czech Republic (No 16-25472S)ldquoDynamics of degradation of cement composites modifiedby secondary crystallizationrdquo and the project (No LO1408)

1216 1211 12081199

1219

1181

12091224

1206 12061221

1154

118512

1117

1205 1212

11871173

1211

1192

1111 11131126 1132

1153

1118

11511166

115 1151

1176

1113

11461162

1081

1173118

1156

1142

11841168

106

108

11

112

114

116

118

12

122

124

REF REF REF CT REF REF REF CT REF SC SC CT CT CT SC SC CT SC CT SC SCReal NaCl

100 glCO2high

NaCl100 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2low

Real Sulph10 gl

NaCl100 gl

Real SO2high

Sulph346gl

Sulph10 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2high

Sulph10 gl

CO2low

CO2high

CO2low

pH (ndash

)

Recipes exposed to the given environment

Changes in pH values

28 days18 months

Figure 14 Changes in pH values in leachate for concrete samples before storage in aggressive environment and after 18months inaggressive environment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

10 Advances in Civil Engineering

ldquoAdMaS UP-Advanced Materials Structures and Technol-ogiesrdquo supported by the Ministry for Education Youth andSports of the Czech Republic under ldquoNational SustainabilityProgramme Irdquo

References

[1] B Addis Fundamentals of Concrete Cement and ConcreteInstitute Midrand South Africa 1st edition 2008

[2] J Basson and Y Ballim ldquoDurability of concreterdquo in FultonrsquosConcrete Technology p 153 7th edition Cement and Con-crete Institute Midrand South Africa 1994

[3] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoSelf-healing of surface cracks in mortars with expansive additiveand crystalline additiverdquo Cement and Concrete Compositesvol 34 no 4 pp 566ndash574 2012

[4] P K Mehta and P J M Monteiro Concrete MicrostructureProperties McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing New YorkUSA 2005

[5] R Kumar and B Bhattacharjee ldquoPorosity pore size distri-bution and in situ strength of concreterdquo Cement and ConcreteResearch vol 33 no 1 pp 155ndash164 2003

[6] ASM Handbook Materials Selection and DesignmdashDesign forOxidation Resistance Vol 20 ASM International GeaugaCounty OH USA 1997

[7] M Eglington Resistance of Concrete to Destructive AgenciesLearsquos Chemistry of Cement and Concrete Butterworth-Hei-nemann Oxford UK Fourth edition 1998

[8] S Xu N Xie X Cheng et al ldquoEnvironmental resistance ofcement concrete modified with low dosage nano particlesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 164 pp 535ndash5532018

[9] P H Emmons and B W Emmons Concrete Repair andMaintenance Illustrated Problem Analysis Repair StrategyTechniques (RSMeans) Rockland MA USA 1992

[10] J P Broomfield Corrosion of Steel in Concrete UnderstandingInvestigation and Repair Taylor amp Francis London UK 2003

[11] M Angel and H J DenuWaterproof Membranes for ConcreteSurface Protection Farbe amp Lack Hanover Germany 1997

[12] E G Moffatt M D A omas and A Fahim ldquoPerformanceof high-volume fly ash concrete in marine environmentrdquoCement and Concrete Research vol 102 pp 127ndash135 2017

[13] J Feng J Sun and P Yan ldquoe influence of ground fly ash oncement hydration and mechanical property of mortarrdquo Ad-vances in Civil Engineering vol 2018 Article ID 40231787 pages 2018

[14] M J Al-Kheetan M M Rahman and D A ChamberlainldquoInfluence of early water exposure on modified cementitiouscoatingrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 141pp 64ndash71 2017

[15] X Pan Z Shi C Shi T-C Ling and L Ning ldquoA review onconcrete surface treatment part I types and mechanismsrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 132 pp 578ndash5902017

[16] S Bohus and R Drochytka ldquoCement based material withcrystal-growth ability under long term aggressive mediumimpactrdquo Applied Mechanics and Materials vol 166ndash169pp 1773ndash1778 2012

[17] S Bohus R Drochytka and L Taranza ldquoFly-ash usage in newcement-basedmaterial for concrete waterproofingrdquoAdvancedMaterials Research vol 535ndash537 pp 1902ndash1906 2012

[18] R Drochytka and S Bohus ldquoMicrostructural analysis ofcrystalline technology by NANOSEMmdashFEI NOVA 200rdquo in

Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on CompositeMaterials pp 92ndash96 Jeju Island Korea August 2011

[19] T-L Weng and A Cheng ldquoInfluence of curing environmenton concrete with crystalline admixturerdquo Monatshefte furChemiemdashChemical Monthly vol 145 no 1 pp 195ndash2002014

[20] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoEffectof exposure conditions on self healing behavior of strainhardening cementitious composites incorporating variouscementitious materialsrdquo Construction and Building Materialsvol 42 pp 217ndash224 2013

[21] V Rahhal V Bonavetti A Delgado C Pedrajas andR Talero ldquoScheme of the Portland cement hydration withcrystalline mineral admixtures and other aspectsrdquo SilicatesIndustriels vol 74 no 11-12 pp 347ndash352 2009

[22] W Guiming Y Jianying and Y J Wuhan ldquoSelf-healingaction of permeable crystalline coating on pores and cracksin cement-based materialsrdquo Journal of Wuhan University ofTechnology-Mater Sci Edvol 20 no 1 pp 88ndash92 2005

[23] C Edvardsen ldquoWater penetrability and autogenous healing ofseparation cracks in concreterdquo Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik vol 62 no 11 pp 77ndash85 1996

[24] N Zizkova L Nevrivova and M Ledl ldquoDurability of cementbased mortars containing crystalline additivesrdquo Defect andDiffusion Forum vol 382 pp 246ndash253 2018

[25] M Roig-Flores F Pirritano P Serna and L Ferrara ldquoEffectof crystalline admixtures on the self-healing capability ofearly-age concrete studied bymeans of permeability and crackclosing testsrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 114pp 447ndash457 2016

[26] V G Cappellesso N D S Petry D C C D Molin andA B Masuero ldquoUse of crystalline waterproofing to reducecapillary porosity in concreterdquo Journal of Building Pathologyand Rehabilitation vol 1 no 1 p 9 2016

[27] K L Wang T Z Hu and S J Xu ldquoInfluence of permeatedcrystalline waterproof materials on impermeability of con-creterdquo Advanced Materials Research vol 446ndash449 pp 954ndash960 2012

[28] L Ferrara V Krelani and M Carsana ldquoA ldquofracture testingrdquobased approach to assess crack healing of concrete with andwithout crystalline admixturesrdquo Construction and BuildingMaterials vol 68 pp 535ndash551 2014

[29] R P Borg E Cuenca E M Gastaldo Brac and L FerraraldquoCrack sealing capacity in chloride-rich environments ofmortars containing different cement substitutes and crystal-line admixturesrdquo Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Ma-terials vol 7 no 3 pp 141ndash159 2018

[30] L Ferrara T Van Mullem M C Alonso et al ldquoExperimentalcharacterization of the self-healing capacity of cement basedmaterials and its effects on the material performance a state ofthe art report by COST Action SARCOS WG2rdquo Constructionand Building Materials vol 167 pp 115ndash142 2018

[31] N Z Muhammad A Keyvanfar M Z A MajidA Shafaghat and J Mirza ldquoWaterproof performance ofconcrete a critical review on implemented approachesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 101 pp 80ndash90 2015

[32] EN 1542 Products and Systems for the Protection and Repair ofConcrete Structures Test MethodsmdashMeasurement of BondStrength by Pull-off European Committee for Standardiza-tion Europe 1999

[33] EN 12390-3 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 3mdashCompressiveStrength of Test Specimens European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2002

Advances in Civil Engineering 11

[34] EN 14617-1 Agglomerated Stone Test Methods Part1mdashDetermination of Apparent Density and Water AbsorptionEuropean Committee for Standardization Europe 2005

[35] EN 12390-8 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 8mdashDepth ofPenetration of Water Under Pressure European Committeefor Standardization Europe 2017

[36] EN 206+A1 ConcretemdashSpecification Performance Pro-duction and Conformity European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2013

12 Advances in Civil Engineering

International Journal of

AerospaceEngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

RoboticsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Active and Passive Electronic Components

VLSI Design

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Shock and Vibration

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Civil EngineeringAdvances in

Acoustics and VibrationAdvances in

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Electrical and Computer Engineering

Journal of

Advances inOptoElectronics

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Volume 2018

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawiwwwhindawicom

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2018

Control Scienceand Engineering

Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Journal ofEngineeringVolume 2018

SensorsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

International Journal of

RotatingMachinery

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Modelling ampSimulationin EngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Chemical EngineeringInternational Journal of Antennas and

Propagation

International Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Navigation and Observation

International Journal of

Hindawi

wwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Advances in

Multimedia

Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom

Table 4 Physical and chemical characteristics of materials

ComponentContent ()

CEM Fly ash Silica filler Silica sand Silica fume Crystalline admixtureSiO2 1828 5682 991 99 9197 115Al2O3 496 2893 027 03 01 234Fe2O3 367 618 0098 003 067 174TiO2 mdash 202 038 005 002 0129CaO 649 179 mdash mdash 019 457MgO 200 131 mdash mdash 124 0734MnO mdash 003 mdash mdash mdash 0102K2O 102 179 mdash mdash 332 0387Na2O 020 032 mdash mdash 05 661SO3 371 036 mdash mdash 067 205S mdash 02 mdash mdash mdash mdashSpecific surface (m2kg) 378 250 175 mdash 150 000 386

020406080

100

0031 0063 0125 0250 0500 1000

Cum

mul

ativ

epa

ssin

g (

)

Sieve size (mm)

Ground limestoneSilica sand

Silica fillerFly ash

Figure 3 Particle size distribution of raw materials

8000

6000

4000

Inte

nsity

(cou

nts)

2000

010

1 alite (C3S)2 belite (C2S)3 tricalcium aluminate (C3A)4 brownmillerite (C4AF)5 portlandite (C4AF)6 calcite7 gypsum

7

411

7

5

164

2

2257

16

12

2

25

5

1

1 2 2 33

15

6 6

12

15 20 25 302θ (deg)

35 40 45 50 55

Figure 4 X-ray diffraction analysis of crystalline admixture

Table 5 Description of aggressive environments

Environment Concentration Relative humidity Temperature

GaseousCO2 Low 1-2

60plusmn 10 21plusmn 2degCCO2 High 5ndash10SO2 High 5ndash10

LiquidSO4

2minus Na2SO4middot10 gl21plusmn 2degCSO4

2minus Na2SO4middot346 glClminus NaClmiddot100 gl

Real outdoor environmentlowastlowaste real environment shows the effects of climatic influence on samples stored outdoors where during the exposure the temperatures alternate ranging fromminus159degC to + 348degC Samples were also exposed to irregular precipitation direct sunlight air pollution and biological agents

Advances in Civil Engineering 5

10mm thick section of the core sample was cut out ata distance of 10mm from the interface of treatmentand sound concrete or from the untreated surface ofREF concrete respectively Oven-dried (60degC for24 h) sections were then milled and sieved throughthe mesh (0063mm) After that 10 g of material wasseparated and dispersed in 100 g of distilled waterAfter mixing in electromagnetic mixer for30minutes the solution was filtered and the pHvalue determined in solution using pH meter

23 Exposure Environment e resistance of the proposedwaterproofing materials was verified by placing the speci-mens in the aggressive media defined in Table 5 for6ndash18months

e gaseous environments were created in the KohlerAutomobiltechnik GmbH salt spray chambers HK 400-800MWTG (Figure 5) which can accommodate 32 specimensin 4 layers separated vertically with polymer grids Speci-mens were placed in chamber with the treated side againstthe door in order to prevent the aggressive condensates fromremaining on the treated side of the specimen

3 Results and Discussion

31 Water Absorption Based on the evaluation of the re-sults of the water absorption test of concrete samplestreated with the coating and the screed it is suggested thatthese materials significantly reduce the water absorptionChanges in the water absorption after the exposures inliquid aggressive environments can be clearly seen inFigures 6 and 7 in the case of exposure to gaseous media Inall environments untreated concrete (REF) showed ahigher total water absorption than concrete with a wa-terproofing coating or screed Especially after 18months inthe liquid environment the greatest differences in absor-bency between the treated concrete and the referenceconcrete are observed is indicated the effectiveness ofthe use of the screed and especially the coating which hasin all cases the lowest absorption even after exposure in ahighly concentrated sulphate environment In an envi-ronment with NaCl however the coating appears to be lessresistant than in the environment with a high concentra-tion of sulphates

Gaseous environments with a high SO2 concentrationand in particular CO2 have significantly influenced thewater absorption of the samples is suggests that a coatingmay be a more effective protective material against gaseousaggressive environments than a screed

e real environment compared to a highly concen-trated long-term liquid and gas environment (18months)shows much less aggressiveness and less damage to treatedand untreated concrete

Absorbance values generally fluctuated at low values dueto the possibility of penetration of the liquid through onlyone nonepoxy surface therefore it was also necessary toverify this test with the depth of penetration of water underpressure

32 Depth of Penetration of Water under Pressure e testfor the determination of penetration of water under pressureaccording to EN 12390-8 due to the effect of increased waterpressure on the tested sample provides a sharper and moreconclusive possibility of comparing the ability of treatedconcrete to resist water and aggressive substances as op-posed to untreated concrete e screed and coating in-creased the resistance of concrete structures againstpenetration of water under pressure as opposed to untreatedconcrete (REF)

Figures 8 and 9 compare the absorption values of bothtreated and untreated concrete samples in the corrosiveenvironment after six twelve and eighteen months in theaggressive environment

Untreated concrete always exhibited a higher depth ofpenetration of water under pressure than concrete treatedwith a coating and with the screed which was also con-firmed by the water absorption tests e samples were alsoassessed according to the design limit values for thecomposition and properties of the concrete according toEN 206 +A1 All concrete samples with an applied treat-ment after 18months of storage had a depth of pene-tration of water under pressure lower than 50mm a valuecorresponding to the resistance to XA1 XS4 XF1 XF2 andXD2 environments Samples treated with a coating spe-cifically for XD3 environment corrosion caused by chlo-rides other than the sea and chemically aggressive XA3environments had withstood the test with the exception ofenvironments with high concentrations of CO2 and SO2ions because the limit values of the depth of penetration are20mm [36] Based on these results it can be stated that interms of water permeability the tested crystallizationmaterials are suitable for structures exposed to water underpressure Regarding the resistance of the tested materialsagainst the penetration of aggressive gases leakage resultsindicate that the resistance is comparable to the influence ofthe liquid medium

33 SEMAnalysis of Crystal Growth SEM was performed inorder to detect secondary crystallization products and tomonitor the impact of aggressive media on the concretemicrostructure Images for the two most aggressive liquidand two gaseous environments were selected

In the liquid NaCl and Na2SO4 medium shown inFigures 10 and 11 a more pronounced developed elongatedflattened crystals of about 20 μm can be observed filling thepores ese crystals are incompletely shaped but theiramount and size indicate that the initial absorption and theliquid environment have provided sufficient moisture to fillthe pores with secondary crystallization ere are no clearlyidentifiable crystals in the images that would indicate sig-nificant signs of carbonation sulphation or degradation dueto aggressive environments On the contrary a sufficientlydense cement matrix is evident Larger pores can also beexpected to be filled

Figures 12 and 13 from the CO2 and SO2 gaseous mediaagain show rod-like crystals penetrating the pores Crystalsfilling the pores differ in shape and size their amount and

6 Advances in Civil Engineering

size are substantially smaller and their clusters are of asmaller and finer structure than the samples stored in theliquid environment e humidity inside the pores probablywas not sufficient enough for crystal growth to a largerextent It can be concluded that most of the pores filled had adiameter of less than 20 μm

34Changes in the pHofConcrete Figure 14 shows pH valuesbefore storage and after 18months in aggressive environ-mentse graph is sorted downwards according to the changeof pH during the exposure to the aggressive environment

e most obvious decrease in pH can be clearly seen inthe untreated concrete (REF) Mostly in NaCl and real

014 016

075

022 026

088

034

033

099

022

021

0190

39 049

142

057 059

189

056

052

136

028 041 049

019

02

155

051 0

66

30

05

032

18

036 049 055

005

115

225

335

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 6 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to liquid aggressive media and the real environment e error bars representthe range of measurements for 3 samples

017

015 021

071 075 081

032 041

04

022

021

019

017 021 025

079

079

08

038 042 052

028 0

41 049

019 022 03

083 092 107

048 057 0

73

036 0

49 055

00

05

10

15

20

25

30

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

CTSCREF

Figure 7 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to gaseous aggressive environments and the real environment e error barsrepresent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Figure 5 Salt spray chamber for the gaseous environment

Advances in Civil Engineering 7

14 13 15 18

12

18 17 15

19

15 15 1618 16 18

24

19 21 19 17 20 23 22 23

27 27

31

35 37 39

28 25

30 31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 8 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a liquid aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

14

11

15

19 19 21 22 21

24

15 15 1617

13

16

24

22 23

28 28

29

23 22 23

26 24

28 30 28

32

42

36

42

31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

CTSCREF

Figure 9 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a gaseous aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

(a) (b)

Figure 10 (a) e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid NaCl environment (b) a detail of the formedFriedelrsquos salt crystals (3CaOmiddotAl2O3middotCaCl2middot10H2O)

8 Advances in Civil Engineering

(a) (b)

Figure 11 (a)e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid Na2SO4 (b) a detail of the formed ettringite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 12 (a) e SEM shot of concrete treated with screed after 18months in gaseous CO2 environment (b) a detail of createdpseudomorphoses of aragonite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 13 (a) A shot of concrete treated with coat after 18months in gaseous SO2 environment (b) a detail of created pseudomorphosis ofgypsum crystals

Advances in Civil Engineering 9

environments the pH values of concrete with coatingshowed a significant decrease is may be due to coatbreakage during application manipulation and exposureand also due to the formation of Friedelrsquos salt within thepores In general it can be observed that the tested coatingsand screeds successfully helped to slow down the rate of pHreduction during the exposure of concrete to an aggressiveenvironment

It turned out that at a depth of 15mm from the surface ofconcrete even after 18months there was no significant pHdecrease (below 96) in concrete and as such it would notcease to perform the steel reinforcement protection function

4 Conclusions

(i) It has been demonstrated that the polymer cementwaterproofing materials with crystallization ad-mixture can be successfully modified with fly ashadditive in order to reduce the content of cementin the formulations by 10

(ii) e functionality of the crystallization admixturein polymer cement systems has been proved

(iii) e modification of the waterproofing materialsand therefore the reduction of Ca(OH)2 contentnecessary for crystallization and crystal formationin the proposed formulations did not cause a dropin the pH value to the critical limit of the moni-tored concrete samples where the reinforcementwould no longer be protected

(iv) It was confirmed that the type of environment hada significant influence on the properties of thetested concrete sample treated with the proposedwaterproofing materials

(v) roughout the whole 18-month exposure thecoating and screed modified by fly ash and crys-tallization admixture Xypex Admix have shown

increased resistance to aggressive environmentswith a much higher concentration than is common

(vi) e functionality of sealing technology of concretepores with crystalline neoplasm after 18months inan aggressive environment was verified at a depthof 15mm below the interface of sound concreteespecially if liquid water was available In concretewhere no liquid water was present in aggressiveenvironment the formation of crystals occurred toa much lesser extent

(vii) e needle-shaped crystals with the maximumlength of 15 μm of single crystals mostly filled outpores with sizes of about 20 μm

(viii) Designed formulations of crystallization coatingsand screeds with the admixture of fly ash haveshown very good complex properties in increasingthe protection of concrete even with long-termexposure to aggressive agents (CO2 SO2 SO4

2minusClminus and real outdoor conditions)

Data Availability

e data used to support the findings of this study are in-cluded within the article

Conflicts of Interest

e authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

is paper was created with the financial support of theGrant Agency of the Czech Republic (No 16-25472S)ldquoDynamics of degradation of cement composites modifiedby secondary crystallizationrdquo and the project (No LO1408)

1216 1211 12081199

1219

1181

12091224

1206 12061221

1154

118512

1117

1205 1212

11871173

1211

1192

1111 11131126 1132

1153

1118

11511166

115 1151

1176

1113

11461162

1081

1173118

1156

1142

11841168

106

108

11

112

114

116

118

12

122

124

REF REF REF CT REF REF REF CT REF SC SC CT CT CT SC SC CT SC CT SC SCReal NaCl

100 glCO2high

NaCl100 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2low

Real Sulph10 gl

NaCl100 gl

Real SO2high

Sulph346gl

Sulph10 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2high

Sulph10 gl

CO2low

CO2high

CO2low

pH (ndash

)

Recipes exposed to the given environment

Changes in pH values

28 days18 months

Figure 14 Changes in pH values in leachate for concrete samples before storage in aggressive environment and after 18months inaggressive environment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

10 Advances in Civil Engineering

ldquoAdMaS UP-Advanced Materials Structures and Technol-ogiesrdquo supported by the Ministry for Education Youth andSports of the Czech Republic under ldquoNational SustainabilityProgramme Irdquo

References

[1] B Addis Fundamentals of Concrete Cement and ConcreteInstitute Midrand South Africa 1st edition 2008

[2] J Basson and Y Ballim ldquoDurability of concreterdquo in FultonrsquosConcrete Technology p 153 7th edition Cement and Con-crete Institute Midrand South Africa 1994

[3] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoSelf-healing of surface cracks in mortars with expansive additiveand crystalline additiverdquo Cement and Concrete Compositesvol 34 no 4 pp 566ndash574 2012

[4] P K Mehta and P J M Monteiro Concrete MicrostructureProperties McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing New YorkUSA 2005

[5] R Kumar and B Bhattacharjee ldquoPorosity pore size distri-bution and in situ strength of concreterdquo Cement and ConcreteResearch vol 33 no 1 pp 155ndash164 2003

[6] ASM Handbook Materials Selection and DesignmdashDesign forOxidation Resistance Vol 20 ASM International GeaugaCounty OH USA 1997

[7] M Eglington Resistance of Concrete to Destructive AgenciesLearsquos Chemistry of Cement and Concrete Butterworth-Hei-nemann Oxford UK Fourth edition 1998

[8] S Xu N Xie X Cheng et al ldquoEnvironmental resistance ofcement concrete modified with low dosage nano particlesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 164 pp 535ndash5532018

[9] P H Emmons and B W Emmons Concrete Repair andMaintenance Illustrated Problem Analysis Repair StrategyTechniques (RSMeans) Rockland MA USA 1992

[10] J P Broomfield Corrosion of Steel in Concrete UnderstandingInvestigation and Repair Taylor amp Francis London UK 2003

[11] M Angel and H J DenuWaterproof Membranes for ConcreteSurface Protection Farbe amp Lack Hanover Germany 1997

[12] E G Moffatt M D A omas and A Fahim ldquoPerformanceof high-volume fly ash concrete in marine environmentrdquoCement and Concrete Research vol 102 pp 127ndash135 2017

[13] J Feng J Sun and P Yan ldquoe influence of ground fly ash oncement hydration and mechanical property of mortarrdquo Ad-vances in Civil Engineering vol 2018 Article ID 40231787 pages 2018

[14] M J Al-Kheetan M M Rahman and D A ChamberlainldquoInfluence of early water exposure on modified cementitiouscoatingrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 141pp 64ndash71 2017

[15] X Pan Z Shi C Shi T-C Ling and L Ning ldquoA review onconcrete surface treatment part I types and mechanismsrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 132 pp 578ndash5902017

[16] S Bohus and R Drochytka ldquoCement based material withcrystal-growth ability under long term aggressive mediumimpactrdquo Applied Mechanics and Materials vol 166ndash169pp 1773ndash1778 2012

[17] S Bohus R Drochytka and L Taranza ldquoFly-ash usage in newcement-basedmaterial for concrete waterproofingrdquoAdvancedMaterials Research vol 535ndash537 pp 1902ndash1906 2012

[18] R Drochytka and S Bohus ldquoMicrostructural analysis ofcrystalline technology by NANOSEMmdashFEI NOVA 200rdquo in

Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on CompositeMaterials pp 92ndash96 Jeju Island Korea August 2011

[19] T-L Weng and A Cheng ldquoInfluence of curing environmenton concrete with crystalline admixturerdquo Monatshefte furChemiemdashChemical Monthly vol 145 no 1 pp 195ndash2002014

[20] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoEffectof exposure conditions on self healing behavior of strainhardening cementitious composites incorporating variouscementitious materialsrdquo Construction and Building Materialsvol 42 pp 217ndash224 2013

[21] V Rahhal V Bonavetti A Delgado C Pedrajas andR Talero ldquoScheme of the Portland cement hydration withcrystalline mineral admixtures and other aspectsrdquo SilicatesIndustriels vol 74 no 11-12 pp 347ndash352 2009

[22] W Guiming Y Jianying and Y J Wuhan ldquoSelf-healingaction of permeable crystalline coating on pores and cracksin cement-based materialsrdquo Journal of Wuhan University ofTechnology-Mater Sci Edvol 20 no 1 pp 88ndash92 2005

[23] C Edvardsen ldquoWater penetrability and autogenous healing ofseparation cracks in concreterdquo Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik vol 62 no 11 pp 77ndash85 1996

[24] N Zizkova L Nevrivova and M Ledl ldquoDurability of cementbased mortars containing crystalline additivesrdquo Defect andDiffusion Forum vol 382 pp 246ndash253 2018

[25] M Roig-Flores F Pirritano P Serna and L Ferrara ldquoEffectof crystalline admixtures on the self-healing capability ofearly-age concrete studied bymeans of permeability and crackclosing testsrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 114pp 447ndash457 2016

[26] V G Cappellesso N D S Petry D C C D Molin andA B Masuero ldquoUse of crystalline waterproofing to reducecapillary porosity in concreterdquo Journal of Building Pathologyand Rehabilitation vol 1 no 1 p 9 2016

[27] K L Wang T Z Hu and S J Xu ldquoInfluence of permeatedcrystalline waterproof materials on impermeability of con-creterdquo Advanced Materials Research vol 446ndash449 pp 954ndash960 2012

[28] L Ferrara V Krelani and M Carsana ldquoA ldquofracture testingrdquobased approach to assess crack healing of concrete with andwithout crystalline admixturesrdquo Construction and BuildingMaterials vol 68 pp 535ndash551 2014

[29] R P Borg E Cuenca E M Gastaldo Brac and L FerraraldquoCrack sealing capacity in chloride-rich environments ofmortars containing different cement substitutes and crystal-line admixturesrdquo Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Ma-terials vol 7 no 3 pp 141ndash159 2018

[30] L Ferrara T Van Mullem M C Alonso et al ldquoExperimentalcharacterization of the self-healing capacity of cement basedmaterials and its effects on the material performance a state ofthe art report by COST Action SARCOS WG2rdquo Constructionand Building Materials vol 167 pp 115ndash142 2018

[31] N Z Muhammad A Keyvanfar M Z A MajidA Shafaghat and J Mirza ldquoWaterproof performance ofconcrete a critical review on implemented approachesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 101 pp 80ndash90 2015

[32] EN 1542 Products and Systems for the Protection and Repair ofConcrete Structures Test MethodsmdashMeasurement of BondStrength by Pull-off European Committee for Standardiza-tion Europe 1999

[33] EN 12390-3 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 3mdashCompressiveStrength of Test Specimens European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2002

Advances in Civil Engineering 11

[34] EN 14617-1 Agglomerated Stone Test Methods Part1mdashDetermination of Apparent Density and Water AbsorptionEuropean Committee for Standardization Europe 2005

[35] EN 12390-8 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 8mdashDepth ofPenetration of Water Under Pressure European Committeefor Standardization Europe 2017

[36] EN 206+A1 ConcretemdashSpecification Performance Pro-duction and Conformity European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2013

12 Advances in Civil Engineering

International Journal of

AerospaceEngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

RoboticsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Active and Passive Electronic Components

VLSI Design

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Shock and Vibration

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Civil EngineeringAdvances in

Acoustics and VibrationAdvances in

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Electrical and Computer Engineering

Journal of

Advances inOptoElectronics

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Volume 2018

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawiwwwhindawicom

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2018

Control Scienceand Engineering

Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Journal ofEngineeringVolume 2018

SensorsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

International Journal of

RotatingMachinery

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Modelling ampSimulationin EngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Chemical EngineeringInternational Journal of Antennas and

Propagation

International Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Navigation and Observation

International Journal of

Hindawi

wwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Advances in

Multimedia

Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom

10mm thick section of the core sample was cut out ata distance of 10mm from the interface of treatmentand sound concrete or from the untreated surface ofREF concrete respectively Oven-dried (60degC for24 h) sections were then milled and sieved throughthe mesh (0063mm) After that 10 g of material wasseparated and dispersed in 100 g of distilled waterAfter mixing in electromagnetic mixer for30minutes the solution was filtered and the pHvalue determined in solution using pH meter

23 Exposure Environment e resistance of the proposedwaterproofing materials was verified by placing the speci-mens in the aggressive media defined in Table 5 for6ndash18months

e gaseous environments were created in the KohlerAutomobiltechnik GmbH salt spray chambers HK 400-800MWTG (Figure 5) which can accommodate 32 specimensin 4 layers separated vertically with polymer grids Speci-mens were placed in chamber with the treated side againstthe door in order to prevent the aggressive condensates fromremaining on the treated side of the specimen

3 Results and Discussion

31 Water Absorption Based on the evaluation of the re-sults of the water absorption test of concrete samplestreated with the coating and the screed it is suggested thatthese materials significantly reduce the water absorptionChanges in the water absorption after the exposures inliquid aggressive environments can be clearly seen inFigures 6 and 7 in the case of exposure to gaseous media Inall environments untreated concrete (REF) showed ahigher total water absorption than concrete with a wa-terproofing coating or screed Especially after 18months inthe liquid environment the greatest differences in absor-bency between the treated concrete and the referenceconcrete are observed is indicated the effectiveness ofthe use of the screed and especially the coating which hasin all cases the lowest absorption even after exposure in ahighly concentrated sulphate environment In an envi-ronment with NaCl however the coating appears to be lessresistant than in the environment with a high concentra-tion of sulphates

Gaseous environments with a high SO2 concentrationand in particular CO2 have significantly influenced thewater absorption of the samples is suggests that a coatingmay be a more effective protective material against gaseousaggressive environments than a screed

e real environment compared to a highly concen-trated long-term liquid and gas environment (18months)shows much less aggressiveness and less damage to treatedand untreated concrete

Absorbance values generally fluctuated at low values dueto the possibility of penetration of the liquid through onlyone nonepoxy surface therefore it was also necessary toverify this test with the depth of penetration of water underpressure

32 Depth of Penetration of Water under Pressure e testfor the determination of penetration of water under pressureaccording to EN 12390-8 due to the effect of increased waterpressure on the tested sample provides a sharper and moreconclusive possibility of comparing the ability of treatedconcrete to resist water and aggressive substances as op-posed to untreated concrete e screed and coating in-creased the resistance of concrete structures againstpenetration of water under pressure as opposed to untreatedconcrete (REF)

Figures 8 and 9 compare the absorption values of bothtreated and untreated concrete samples in the corrosiveenvironment after six twelve and eighteen months in theaggressive environment

Untreated concrete always exhibited a higher depth ofpenetration of water under pressure than concrete treatedwith a coating and with the screed which was also con-firmed by the water absorption tests e samples were alsoassessed according to the design limit values for thecomposition and properties of the concrete according toEN 206 +A1 All concrete samples with an applied treat-ment after 18months of storage had a depth of pene-tration of water under pressure lower than 50mm a valuecorresponding to the resistance to XA1 XS4 XF1 XF2 andXD2 environments Samples treated with a coating spe-cifically for XD3 environment corrosion caused by chlo-rides other than the sea and chemically aggressive XA3environments had withstood the test with the exception ofenvironments with high concentrations of CO2 and SO2ions because the limit values of the depth of penetration are20mm [36] Based on these results it can be stated that interms of water permeability the tested crystallizationmaterials are suitable for structures exposed to water underpressure Regarding the resistance of the tested materialsagainst the penetration of aggressive gases leakage resultsindicate that the resistance is comparable to the influence ofthe liquid medium

33 SEMAnalysis of Crystal Growth SEM was performed inorder to detect secondary crystallization products and tomonitor the impact of aggressive media on the concretemicrostructure Images for the two most aggressive liquidand two gaseous environments were selected

In the liquid NaCl and Na2SO4 medium shown inFigures 10 and 11 a more pronounced developed elongatedflattened crystals of about 20 μm can be observed filling thepores ese crystals are incompletely shaped but theiramount and size indicate that the initial absorption and theliquid environment have provided sufficient moisture to fillthe pores with secondary crystallization ere are no clearlyidentifiable crystals in the images that would indicate sig-nificant signs of carbonation sulphation or degradation dueto aggressive environments On the contrary a sufficientlydense cement matrix is evident Larger pores can also beexpected to be filled

Figures 12 and 13 from the CO2 and SO2 gaseous mediaagain show rod-like crystals penetrating the pores Crystalsfilling the pores differ in shape and size their amount and

6 Advances in Civil Engineering

size are substantially smaller and their clusters are of asmaller and finer structure than the samples stored in theliquid environment e humidity inside the pores probablywas not sufficient enough for crystal growth to a largerextent It can be concluded that most of the pores filled had adiameter of less than 20 μm

34Changes in the pHofConcrete Figure 14 shows pH valuesbefore storage and after 18months in aggressive environ-mentse graph is sorted downwards according to the changeof pH during the exposure to the aggressive environment

e most obvious decrease in pH can be clearly seen inthe untreated concrete (REF) Mostly in NaCl and real

014 016

075

022 026

088

034

033

099

022

021

0190

39 049

142

057 059

189

056

052

136

028 041 049

019

02

155

051 0

66

30

05

032

18

036 049 055

005

115

225

335

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 6 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to liquid aggressive media and the real environment e error bars representthe range of measurements for 3 samples

017

015 021

071 075 081

032 041

04

022

021

019

017 021 025

079

079

08

038 042 052

028 0

41 049

019 022 03

083 092 107

048 057 0

73

036 0

49 055

00

05

10

15

20

25

30

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

CTSCREF

Figure 7 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to gaseous aggressive environments and the real environment e error barsrepresent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Figure 5 Salt spray chamber for the gaseous environment

Advances in Civil Engineering 7

14 13 15 18

12

18 17 15

19

15 15 1618 16 18

24

19 21 19 17 20 23 22 23

27 27

31

35 37 39

28 25

30 31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 8 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a liquid aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

14

11

15

19 19 21 22 21

24

15 15 1617

13

16

24

22 23

28 28

29

23 22 23

26 24

28 30 28

32

42

36

42

31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

CTSCREF

Figure 9 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a gaseous aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

(a) (b)

Figure 10 (a) e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid NaCl environment (b) a detail of the formedFriedelrsquos salt crystals (3CaOmiddotAl2O3middotCaCl2middot10H2O)

8 Advances in Civil Engineering

(a) (b)

Figure 11 (a)e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid Na2SO4 (b) a detail of the formed ettringite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 12 (a) e SEM shot of concrete treated with screed after 18months in gaseous CO2 environment (b) a detail of createdpseudomorphoses of aragonite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 13 (a) A shot of concrete treated with coat after 18months in gaseous SO2 environment (b) a detail of created pseudomorphosis ofgypsum crystals

Advances in Civil Engineering 9

environments the pH values of concrete with coatingshowed a significant decrease is may be due to coatbreakage during application manipulation and exposureand also due to the formation of Friedelrsquos salt within thepores In general it can be observed that the tested coatingsand screeds successfully helped to slow down the rate of pHreduction during the exposure of concrete to an aggressiveenvironment

It turned out that at a depth of 15mm from the surface ofconcrete even after 18months there was no significant pHdecrease (below 96) in concrete and as such it would notcease to perform the steel reinforcement protection function

4 Conclusions

(i) It has been demonstrated that the polymer cementwaterproofing materials with crystallization ad-mixture can be successfully modified with fly ashadditive in order to reduce the content of cementin the formulations by 10

(ii) e functionality of the crystallization admixturein polymer cement systems has been proved

(iii) e modification of the waterproofing materialsand therefore the reduction of Ca(OH)2 contentnecessary for crystallization and crystal formationin the proposed formulations did not cause a dropin the pH value to the critical limit of the moni-tored concrete samples where the reinforcementwould no longer be protected

(iv) It was confirmed that the type of environment hada significant influence on the properties of thetested concrete sample treated with the proposedwaterproofing materials

(v) roughout the whole 18-month exposure thecoating and screed modified by fly ash and crys-tallization admixture Xypex Admix have shown

increased resistance to aggressive environmentswith a much higher concentration than is common

(vi) e functionality of sealing technology of concretepores with crystalline neoplasm after 18months inan aggressive environment was verified at a depthof 15mm below the interface of sound concreteespecially if liquid water was available In concretewhere no liquid water was present in aggressiveenvironment the formation of crystals occurred toa much lesser extent

(vii) e needle-shaped crystals with the maximumlength of 15 μm of single crystals mostly filled outpores with sizes of about 20 μm

(viii) Designed formulations of crystallization coatingsand screeds with the admixture of fly ash haveshown very good complex properties in increasingthe protection of concrete even with long-termexposure to aggressive agents (CO2 SO2 SO4

2minusClminus and real outdoor conditions)

Data Availability

e data used to support the findings of this study are in-cluded within the article

Conflicts of Interest

e authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

is paper was created with the financial support of theGrant Agency of the Czech Republic (No 16-25472S)ldquoDynamics of degradation of cement composites modifiedby secondary crystallizationrdquo and the project (No LO1408)

1216 1211 12081199

1219

1181

12091224

1206 12061221

1154

118512

1117

1205 1212

11871173

1211

1192

1111 11131126 1132

1153

1118

11511166

115 1151

1176

1113

11461162

1081

1173118

1156

1142

11841168

106

108

11

112

114

116

118

12

122

124

REF REF REF CT REF REF REF CT REF SC SC CT CT CT SC SC CT SC CT SC SCReal NaCl

100 glCO2high

NaCl100 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2low

Real Sulph10 gl

NaCl100 gl

Real SO2high

Sulph346gl

Sulph10 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2high

Sulph10 gl

CO2low

CO2high

CO2low

pH (ndash

)

Recipes exposed to the given environment

Changes in pH values

28 days18 months

Figure 14 Changes in pH values in leachate for concrete samples before storage in aggressive environment and after 18months inaggressive environment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

10 Advances in Civil Engineering

ldquoAdMaS UP-Advanced Materials Structures and Technol-ogiesrdquo supported by the Ministry for Education Youth andSports of the Czech Republic under ldquoNational SustainabilityProgramme Irdquo

References

[1] B Addis Fundamentals of Concrete Cement and ConcreteInstitute Midrand South Africa 1st edition 2008

[2] J Basson and Y Ballim ldquoDurability of concreterdquo in FultonrsquosConcrete Technology p 153 7th edition Cement and Con-crete Institute Midrand South Africa 1994

[3] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoSelf-healing of surface cracks in mortars with expansive additiveand crystalline additiverdquo Cement and Concrete Compositesvol 34 no 4 pp 566ndash574 2012

[4] P K Mehta and P J M Monteiro Concrete MicrostructureProperties McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing New YorkUSA 2005

[5] R Kumar and B Bhattacharjee ldquoPorosity pore size distri-bution and in situ strength of concreterdquo Cement and ConcreteResearch vol 33 no 1 pp 155ndash164 2003

[6] ASM Handbook Materials Selection and DesignmdashDesign forOxidation Resistance Vol 20 ASM International GeaugaCounty OH USA 1997

[7] M Eglington Resistance of Concrete to Destructive AgenciesLearsquos Chemistry of Cement and Concrete Butterworth-Hei-nemann Oxford UK Fourth edition 1998

[8] S Xu N Xie X Cheng et al ldquoEnvironmental resistance ofcement concrete modified with low dosage nano particlesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 164 pp 535ndash5532018

[9] P H Emmons and B W Emmons Concrete Repair andMaintenance Illustrated Problem Analysis Repair StrategyTechniques (RSMeans) Rockland MA USA 1992

[10] J P Broomfield Corrosion of Steel in Concrete UnderstandingInvestigation and Repair Taylor amp Francis London UK 2003

[11] M Angel and H J DenuWaterproof Membranes for ConcreteSurface Protection Farbe amp Lack Hanover Germany 1997

[12] E G Moffatt M D A omas and A Fahim ldquoPerformanceof high-volume fly ash concrete in marine environmentrdquoCement and Concrete Research vol 102 pp 127ndash135 2017

[13] J Feng J Sun and P Yan ldquoe influence of ground fly ash oncement hydration and mechanical property of mortarrdquo Ad-vances in Civil Engineering vol 2018 Article ID 40231787 pages 2018

[14] M J Al-Kheetan M M Rahman and D A ChamberlainldquoInfluence of early water exposure on modified cementitiouscoatingrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 141pp 64ndash71 2017

[15] X Pan Z Shi C Shi T-C Ling and L Ning ldquoA review onconcrete surface treatment part I types and mechanismsrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 132 pp 578ndash5902017

[16] S Bohus and R Drochytka ldquoCement based material withcrystal-growth ability under long term aggressive mediumimpactrdquo Applied Mechanics and Materials vol 166ndash169pp 1773ndash1778 2012

[17] S Bohus R Drochytka and L Taranza ldquoFly-ash usage in newcement-basedmaterial for concrete waterproofingrdquoAdvancedMaterials Research vol 535ndash537 pp 1902ndash1906 2012

[18] R Drochytka and S Bohus ldquoMicrostructural analysis ofcrystalline technology by NANOSEMmdashFEI NOVA 200rdquo in

Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on CompositeMaterials pp 92ndash96 Jeju Island Korea August 2011

[19] T-L Weng and A Cheng ldquoInfluence of curing environmenton concrete with crystalline admixturerdquo Monatshefte furChemiemdashChemical Monthly vol 145 no 1 pp 195ndash2002014

[20] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoEffectof exposure conditions on self healing behavior of strainhardening cementitious composites incorporating variouscementitious materialsrdquo Construction and Building Materialsvol 42 pp 217ndash224 2013

[21] V Rahhal V Bonavetti A Delgado C Pedrajas andR Talero ldquoScheme of the Portland cement hydration withcrystalline mineral admixtures and other aspectsrdquo SilicatesIndustriels vol 74 no 11-12 pp 347ndash352 2009

[22] W Guiming Y Jianying and Y J Wuhan ldquoSelf-healingaction of permeable crystalline coating on pores and cracksin cement-based materialsrdquo Journal of Wuhan University ofTechnology-Mater Sci Edvol 20 no 1 pp 88ndash92 2005

[23] C Edvardsen ldquoWater penetrability and autogenous healing ofseparation cracks in concreterdquo Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik vol 62 no 11 pp 77ndash85 1996

[24] N Zizkova L Nevrivova and M Ledl ldquoDurability of cementbased mortars containing crystalline additivesrdquo Defect andDiffusion Forum vol 382 pp 246ndash253 2018

[25] M Roig-Flores F Pirritano P Serna and L Ferrara ldquoEffectof crystalline admixtures on the self-healing capability ofearly-age concrete studied bymeans of permeability and crackclosing testsrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 114pp 447ndash457 2016

[26] V G Cappellesso N D S Petry D C C D Molin andA B Masuero ldquoUse of crystalline waterproofing to reducecapillary porosity in concreterdquo Journal of Building Pathologyand Rehabilitation vol 1 no 1 p 9 2016

[27] K L Wang T Z Hu and S J Xu ldquoInfluence of permeatedcrystalline waterproof materials on impermeability of con-creterdquo Advanced Materials Research vol 446ndash449 pp 954ndash960 2012

[28] L Ferrara V Krelani and M Carsana ldquoA ldquofracture testingrdquobased approach to assess crack healing of concrete with andwithout crystalline admixturesrdquo Construction and BuildingMaterials vol 68 pp 535ndash551 2014

[29] R P Borg E Cuenca E M Gastaldo Brac and L FerraraldquoCrack sealing capacity in chloride-rich environments ofmortars containing different cement substitutes and crystal-line admixturesrdquo Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Ma-terials vol 7 no 3 pp 141ndash159 2018

[30] L Ferrara T Van Mullem M C Alonso et al ldquoExperimentalcharacterization of the self-healing capacity of cement basedmaterials and its effects on the material performance a state ofthe art report by COST Action SARCOS WG2rdquo Constructionand Building Materials vol 167 pp 115ndash142 2018

[31] N Z Muhammad A Keyvanfar M Z A MajidA Shafaghat and J Mirza ldquoWaterproof performance ofconcrete a critical review on implemented approachesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 101 pp 80ndash90 2015

[32] EN 1542 Products and Systems for the Protection and Repair ofConcrete Structures Test MethodsmdashMeasurement of BondStrength by Pull-off European Committee for Standardiza-tion Europe 1999

[33] EN 12390-3 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 3mdashCompressiveStrength of Test Specimens European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2002

Advances in Civil Engineering 11

[34] EN 14617-1 Agglomerated Stone Test Methods Part1mdashDetermination of Apparent Density and Water AbsorptionEuropean Committee for Standardization Europe 2005

[35] EN 12390-8 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 8mdashDepth ofPenetration of Water Under Pressure European Committeefor Standardization Europe 2017

[36] EN 206+A1 ConcretemdashSpecification Performance Pro-duction and Conformity European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2013

12 Advances in Civil Engineering

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Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom

size are substantially smaller and their clusters are of asmaller and finer structure than the samples stored in theliquid environment e humidity inside the pores probablywas not sufficient enough for crystal growth to a largerextent It can be concluded that most of the pores filled had adiameter of less than 20 μm

34Changes in the pHofConcrete Figure 14 shows pH valuesbefore storage and after 18months in aggressive environ-mentse graph is sorted downwards according to the changeof pH during the exposure to the aggressive environment

e most obvious decrease in pH can be clearly seen inthe untreated concrete (REF) Mostly in NaCl and real

014 016

075

022 026

088

034

033

099

022

021

0190

39 049

142

057 059

189

056

052

136

028 041 049

019

02

155

051 0

66

30

05

032

18

036 049 055

005

115

225

335

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 6 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to liquid aggressive media and the real environment e error bars representthe range of measurements for 3 samples

017

015 021

071 075 081

032 041

04

022

021

019

017 021 025

079

079

08

038 042 052

028 0

41 049

019 022 03

083 092 107

048 057 0

73

036 0

49 055

00

05

10

15

20

25

30

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

Wei

ght a

bsor

ptio

n (

)

Weight absorption-EN 14617-1

CTSCREF

Figure 7 Comparison of the absorption of concrete exposed to gaseous aggressive environments and the real environment e error barsrepresent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Figure 5 Salt spray chamber for the gaseous environment

Advances in Civil Engineering 7

14 13 15 18

12

18 17 15

19

15 15 1618 16 18

24

19 21 19 17 20 23 22 23

27 27

31

35 37 39

28 25

30 31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 8 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a liquid aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

14

11

15

19 19 21 22 21

24

15 15 1617

13

16

24

22 23

28 28

29

23 22 23

26 24

28 30 28

32

42

36

42

31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

CTSCREF

Figure 9 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a gaseous aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

(a) (b)

Figure 10 (a) e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid NaCl environment (b) a detail of the formedFriedelrsquos salt crystals (3CaOmiddotAl2O3middotCaCl2middot10H2O)

8 Advances in Civil Engineering

(a) (b)

Figure 11 (a)e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid Na2SO4 (b) a detail of the formed ettringite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 12 (a) e SEM shot of concrete treated with screed after 18months in gaseous CO2 environment (b) a detail of createdpseudomorphoses of aragonite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 13 (a) A shot of concrete treated with coat after 18months in gaseous SO2 environment (b) a detail of created pseudomorphosis ofgypsum crystals

Advances in Civil Engineering 9

environments the pH values of concrete with coatingshowed a significant decrease is may be due to coatbreakage during application manipulation and exposureand also due to the formation of Friedelrsquos salt within thepores In general it can be observed that the tested coatingsand screeds successfully helped to slow down the rate of pHreduction during the exposure of concrete to an aggressiveenvironment

It turned out that at a depth of 15mm from the surface ofconcrete even after 18months there was no significant pHdecrease (below 96) in concrete and as such it would notcease to perform the steel reinforcement protection function

4 Conclusions

(i) It has been demonstrated that the polymer cementwaterproofing materials with crystallization ad-mixture can be successfully modified with fly ashadditive in order to reduce the content of cementin the formulations by 10

(ii) e functionality of the crystallization admixturein polymer cement systems has been proved

(iii) e modification of the waterproofing materialsand therefore the reduction of Ca(OH)2 contentnecessary for crystallization and crystal formationin the proposed formulations did not cause a dropin the pH value to the critical limit of the moni-tored concrete samples where the reinforcementwould no longer be protected

(iv) It was confirmed that the type of environment hada significant influence on the properties of thetested concrete sample treated with the proposedwaterproofing materials

(v) roughout the whole 18-month exposure thecoating and screed modified by fly ash and crys-tallization admixture Xypex Admix have shown

increased resistance to aggressive environmentswith a much higher concentration than is common

(vi) e functionality of sealing technology of concretepores with crystalline neoplasm after 18months inan aggressive environment was verified at a depthof 15mm below the interface of sound concreteespecially if liquid water was available In concretewhere no liquid water was present in aggressiveenvironment the formation of crystals occurred toa much lesser extent

(vii) e needle-shaped crystals with the maximumlength of 15 μm of single crystals mostly filled outpores with sizes of about 20 μm

(viii) Designed formulations of crystallization coatingsand screeds with the admixture of fly ash haveshown very good complex properties in increasingthe protection of concrete even with long-termexposure to aggressive agents (CO2 SO2 SO4

2minusClminus and real outdoor conditions)

Data Availability

e data used to support the findings of this study are in-cluded within the article

Conflicts of Interest

e authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

is paper was created with the financial support of theGrant Agency of the Czech Republic (No 16-25472S)ldquoDynamics of degradation of cement composites modifiedby secondary crystallizationrdquo and the project (No LO1408)

1216 1211 12081199

1219

1181

12091224

1206 12061221

1154

118512

1117

1205 1212

11871173

1211

1192

1111 11131126 1132

1153

1118

11511166

115 1151

1176

1113

11461162

1081

1173118

1156

1142

11841168

106

108

11

112

114

116

118

12

122

124

REF REF REF CT REF REF REF CT REF SC SC CT CT CT SC SC CT SC CT SC SCReal NaCl

100 glCO2high

NaCl100 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2low

Real Sulph10 gl

NaCl100 gl

Real SO2high

Sulph346gl

Sulph10 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2high

Sulph10 gl

CO2low

CO2high

CO2low

pH (ndash

)

Recipes exposed to the given environment

Changes in pH values

28 days18 months

Figure 14 Changes in pH values in leachate for concrete samples before storage in aggressive environment and after 18months inaggressive environment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

10 Advances in Civil Engineering

ldquoAdMaS UP-Advanced Materials Structures and Technol-ogiesrdquo supported by the Ministry for Education Youth andSports of the Czech Republic under ldquoNational SustainabilityProgramme Irdquo

References

[1] B Addis Fundamentals of Concrete Cement and ConcreteInstitute Midrand South Africa 1st edition 2008

[2] J Basson and Y Ballim ldquoDurability of concreterdquo in FultonrsquosConcrete Technology p 153 7th edition Cement and Con-crete Institute Midrand South Africa 1994

[3] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoSelf-healing of surface cracks in mortars with expansive additiveand crystalline additiverdquo Cement and Concrete Compositesvol 34 no 4 pp 566ndash574 2012

[4] P K Mehta and P J M Monteiro Concrete MicrostructureProperties McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing New YorkUSA 2005

[5] R Kumar and B Bhattacharjee ldquoPorosity pore size distri-bution and in situ strength of concreterdquo Cement and ConcreteResearch vol 33 no 1 pp 155ndash164 2003

[6] ASM Handbook Materials Selection and DesignmdashDesign forOxidation Resistance Vol 20 ASM International GeaugaCounty OH USA 1997

[7] M Eglington Resistance of Concrete to Destructive AgenciesLearsquos Chemistry of Cement and Concrete Butterworth-Hei-nemann Oxford UK Fourth edition 1998

[8] S Xu N Xie X Cheng et al ldquoEnvironmental resistance ofcement concrete modified with low dosage nano particlesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 164 pp 535ndash5532018

[9] P H Emmons and B W Emmons Concrete Repair andMaintenance Illustrated Problem Analysis Repair StrategyTechniques (RSMeans) Rockland MA USA 1992

[10] J P Broomfield Corrosion of Steel in Concrete UnderstandingInvestigation and Repair Taylor amp Francis London UK 2003

[11] M Angel and H J DenuWaterproof Membranes for ConcreteSurface Protection Farbe amp Lack Hanover Germany 1997

[12] E G Moffatt M D A omas and A Fahim ldquoPerformanceof high-volume fly ash concrete in marine environmentrdquoCement and Concrete Research vol 102 pp 127ndash135 2017

[13] J Feng J Sun and P Yan ldquoe influence of ground fly ash oncement hydration and mechanical property of mortarrdquo Ad-vances in Civil Engineering vol 2018 Article ID 40231787 pages 2018

[14] M J Al-Kheetan M M Rahman and D A ChamberlainldquoInfluence of early water exposure on modified cementitiouscoatingrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 141pp 64ndash71 2017

[15] X Pan Z Shi C Shi T-C Ling and L Ning ldquoA review onconcrete surface treatment part I types and mechanismsrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 132 pp 578ndash5902017

[16] S Bohus and R Drochytka ldquoCement based material withcrystal-growth ability under long term aggressive mediumimpactrdquo Applied Mechanics and Materials vol 166ndash169pp 1773ndash1778 2012

[17] S Bohus R Drochytka and L Taranza ldquoFly-ash usage in newcement-basedmaterial for concrete waterproofingrdquoAdvancedMaterials Research vol 535ndash537 pp 1902ndash1906 2012

[18] R Drochytka and S Bohus ldquoMicrostructural analysis ofcrystalline technology by NANOSEMmdashFEI NOVA 200rdquo in

Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on CompositeMaterials pp 92ndash96 Jeju Island Korea August 2011

[19] T-L Weng and A Cheng ldquoInfluence of curing environmenton concrete with crystalline admixturerdquo Monatshefte furChemiemdashChemical Monthly vol 145 no 1 pp 195ndash2002014

[20] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoEffectof exposure conditions on self healing behavior of strainhardening cementitious composites incorporating variouscementitious materialsrdquo Construction and Building Materialsvol 42 pp 217ndash224 2013

[21] V Rahhal V Bonavetti A Delgado C Pedrajas andR Talero ldquoScheme of the Portland cement hydration withcrystalline mineral admixtures and other aspectsrdquo SilicatesIndustriels vol 74 no 11-12 pp 347ndash352 2009

[22] W Guiming Y Jianying and Y J Wuhan ldquoSelf-healingaction of permeable crystalline coating on pores and cracksin cement-based materialsrdquo Journal of Wuhan University ofTechnology-Mater Sci Edvol 20 no 1 pp 88ndash92 2005

[23] C Edvardsen ldquoWater penetrability and autogenous healing ofseparation cracks in concreterdquo Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik vol 62 no 11 pp 77ndash85 1996

[24] N Zizkova L Nevrivova and M Ledl ldquoDurability of cementbased mortars containing crystalline additivesrdquo Defect andDiffusion Forum vol 382 pp 246ndash253 2018

[25] M Roig-Flores F Pirritano P Serna and L Ferrara ldquoEffectof crystalline admixtures on the self-healing capability ofearly-age concrete studied bymeans of permeability and crackclosing testsrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 114pp 447ndash457 2016

[26] V G Cappellesso N D S Petry D C C D Molin andA B Masuero ldquoUse of crystalline waterproofing to reducecapillary porosity in concreterdquo Journal of Building Pathologyand Rehabilitation vol 1 no 1 p 9 2016

[27] K L Wang T Z Hu and S J Xu ldquoInfluence of permeatedcrystalline waterproof materials on impermeability of con-creterdquo Advanced Materials Research vol 446ndash449 pp 954ndash960 2012

[28] L Ferrara V Krelani and M Carsana ldquoA ldquofracture testingrdquobased approach to assess crack healing of concrete with andwithout crystalline admixturesrdquo Construction and BuildingMaterials vol 68 pp 535ndash551 2014

[29] R P Borg E Cuenca E M Gastaldo Brac and L FerraraldquoCrack sealing capacity in chloride-rich environments ofmortars containing different cement substitutes and crystal-line admixturesrdquo Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Ma-terials vol 7 no 3 pp 141ndash159 2018

[30] L Ferrara T Van Mullem M C Alonso et al ldquoExperimentalcharacterization of the self-healing capacity of cement basedmaterials and its effects on the material performance a state ofthe art report by COST Action SARCOS WG2rdquo Constructionand Building Materials vol 167 pp 115ndash142 2018

[31] N Z Muhammad A Keyvanfar M Z A MajidA Shafaghat and J Mirza ldquoWaterproof performance ofconcrete a critical review on implemented approachesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 101 pp 80ndash90 2015

[32] EN 1542 Products and Systems for the Protection and Repair ofConcrete Structures Test MethodsmdashMeasurement of BondStrength by Pull-off European Committee for Standardiza-tion Europe 1999

[33] EN 12390-3 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 3mdashCompressiveStrength of Test Specimens European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2002

Advances in Civil Engineering 11

[34] EN 14617-1 Agglomerated Stone Test Methods Part1mdashDetermination of Apparent Density and Water AbsorptionEuropean Committee for Standardization Europe 2005

[35] EN 12390-8 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 8mdashDepth ofPenetration of Water Under Pressure European Committeefor Standardization Europe 2017

[36] EN 206+A1 ConcretemdashSpecification Performance Pro-duction and Conformity European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2013

12 Advances in Civil Engineering

International Journal of

AerospaceEngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

RoboticsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Active and Passive Electronic Components

VLSI Design

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Shock and Vibration

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Civil EngineeringAdvances in

Acoustics and VibrationAdvances in

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Electrical and Computer Engineering

Journal of

Advances inOptoElectronics

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Volume 2018

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawiwwwhindawicom

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2018

Control Scienceand Engineering

Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Journal ofEngineeringVolume 2018

SensorsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

International Journal of

RotatingMachinery

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Modelling ampSimulationin EngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Chemical EngineeringInternational Journal of Antennas and

Propagation

International Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Navigation and Observation

International Journal of

Hindawi

wwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Advances in

Multimedia

Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom

14 13 15 18

12

18 17 15

19

15 15 1618 16 18

24

19 21 19 17 20 23 22 23

27 27

31

35 37 39

28 25

30 31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50

Na2SO4 10 gl Na2SO4 346 gl NaCl 100 gl Real

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CTSCREF

Figure 8 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a liquid aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

Dep

th o

f pen

etra

tion

of

wat

er (m

m)

14

11

15

19 19 21 22 21

24

15 15 1617

13

16

24

22 23

28 28

29

23 22 23

26 24

28 30 28

32

42

36

42

31 28 28

0

10

20

30

40

50Depth of penetration of water under pressure-EN 12390-8

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

6months

12months

18months

CO2-low CO2-high SO2-high Real

CTSCREF

Figure 9 Comparison of depth of penetration of water under pressure in concrete exposed to a gaseous aggressive environment and a realenvironment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

(a) (b)

Figure 10 (a) e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid NaCl environment (b) a detail of the formedFriedelrsquos salt crystals (3CaOmiddotAl2O3middotCaCl2middot10H2O)

8 Advances in Civil Engineering

(a) (b)

Figure 11 (a)e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid Na2SO4 (b) a detail of the formed ettringite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 12 (a) e SEM shot of concrete treated with screed after 18months in gaseous CO2 environment (b) a detail of createdpseudomorphoses of aragonite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 13 (a) A shot of concrete treated with coat after 18months in gaseous SO2 environment (b) a detail of created pseudomorphosis ofgypsum crystals

Advances in Civil Engineering 9

environments the pH values of concrete with coatingshowed a significant decrease is may be due to coatbreakage during application manipulation and exposureand also due to the formation of Friedelrsquos salt within thepores In general it can be observed that the tested coatingsand screeds successfully helped to slow down the rate of pHreduction during the exposure of concrete to an aggressiveenvironment

It turned out that at a depth of 15mm from the surface ofconcrete even after 18months there was no significant pHdecrease (below 96) in concrete and as such it would notcease to perform the steel reinforcement protection function

4 Conclusions

(i) It has been demonstrated that the polymer cementwaterproofing materials with crystallization ad-mixture can be successfully modified with fly ashadditive in order to reduce the content of cementin the formulations by 10

(ii) e functionality of the crystallization admixturein polymer cement systems has been proved

(iii) e modification of the waterproofing materialsand therefore the reduction of Ca(OH)2 contentnecessary for crystallization and crystal formationin the proposed formulations did not cause a dropin the pH value to the critical limit of the moni-tored concrete samples where the reinforcementwould no longer be protected

(iv) It was confirmed that the type of environment hada significant influence on the properties of thetested concrete sample treated with the proposedwaterproofing materials

(v) roughout the whole 18-month exposure thecoating and screed modified by fly ash and crys-tallization admixture Xypex Admix have shown

increased resistance to aggressive environmentswith a much higher concentration than is common

(vi) e functionality of sealing technology of concretepores with crystalline neoplasm after 18months inan aggressive environment was verified at a depthof 15mm below the interface of sound concreteespecially if liquid water was available In concretewhere no liquid water was present in aggressiveenvironment the formation of crystals occurred toa much lesser extent

(vii) e needle-shaped crystals with the maximumlength of 15 μm of single crystals mostly filled outpores with sizes of about 20 μm

(viii) Designed formulations of crystallization coatingsand screeds with the admixture of fly ash haveshown very good complex properties in increasingthe protection of concrete even with long-termexposure to aggressive agents (CO2 SO2 SO4

2minusClminus and real outdoor conditions)

Data Availability

e data used to support the findings of this study are in-cluded within the article

Conflicts of Interest

e authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

is paper was created with the financial support of theGrant Agency of the Czech Republic (No 16-25472S)ldquoDynamics of degradation of cement composites modifiedby secondary crystallizationrdquo and the project (No LO1408)

1216 1211 12081199

1219

1181

12091224

1206 12061221

1154

118512

1117

1205 1212

11871173

1211

1192

1111 11131126 1132

1153

1118

11511166

115 1151

1176

1113

11461162

1081

1173118

1156

1142

11841168

106

108

11

112

114

116

118

12

122

124

REF REF REF CT REF REF REF CT REF SC SC CT CT CT SC SC CT SC CT SC SCReal NaCl

100 glCO2high

NaCl100 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2low

Real Sulph10 gl

NaCl100 gl

Real SO2high

Sulph346gl

Sulph10 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2high

Sulph10 gl

CO2low

CO2high

CO2low

pH (ndash

)

Recipes exposed to the given environment

Changes in pH values

28 days18 months

Figure 14 Changes in pH values in leachate for concrete samples before storage in aggressive environment and after 18months inaggressive environment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

10 Advances in Civil Engineering

ldquoAdMaS UP-Advanced Materials Structures and Technol-ogiesrdquo supported by the Ministry for Education Youth andSports of the Czech Republic under ldquoNational SustainabilityProgramme Irdquo

References

[1] B Addis Fundamentals of Concrete Cement and ConcreteInstitute Midrand South Africa 1st edition 2008

[2] J Basson and Y Ballim ldquoDurability of concreterdquo in FultonrsquosConcrete Technology p 153 7th edition Cement and Con-crete Institute Midrand South Africa 1994

[3] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoSelf-healing of surface cracks in mortars with expansive additiveand crystalline additiverdquo Cement and Concrete Compositesvol 34 no 4 pp 566ndash574 2012

[4] P K Mehta and P J M Monteiro Concrete MicrostructureProperties McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing New YorkUSA 2005

[5] R Kumar and B Bhattacharjee ldquoPorosity pore size distri-bution and in situ strength of concreterdquo Cement and ConcreteResearch vol 33 no 1 pp 155ndash164 2003

[6] ASM Handbook Materials Selection and DesignmdashDesign forOxidation Resistance Vol 20 ASM International GeaugaCounty OH USA 1997

[7] M Eglington Resistance of Concrete to Destructive AgenciesLearsquos Chemistry of Cement and Concrete Butterworth-Hei-nemann Oxford UK Fourth edition 1998

[8] S Xu N Xie X Cheng et al ldquoEnvironmental resistance ofcement concrete modified with low dosage nano particlesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 164 pp 535ndash5532018

[9] P H Emmons and B W Emmons Concrete Repair andMaintenance Illustrated Problem Analysis Repair StrategyTechniques (RSMeans) Rockland MA USA 1992

[10] J P Broomfield Corrosion of Steel in Concrete UnderstandingInvestigation and Repair Taylor amp Francis London UK 2003

[11] M Angel and H J DenuWaterproof Membranes for ConcreteSurface Protection Farbe amp Lack Hanover Germany 1997

[12] E G Moffatt M D A omas and A Fahim ldquoPerformanceof high-volume fly ash concrete in marine environmentrdquoCement and Concrete Research vol 102 pp 127ndash135 2017

[13] J Feng J Sun and P Yan ldquoe influence of ground fly ash oncement hydration and mechanical property of mortarrdquo Ad-vances in Civil Engineering vol 2018 Article ID 40231787 pages 2018

[14] M J Al-Kheetan M M Rahman and D A ChamberlainldquoInfluence of early water exposure on modified cementitiouscoatingrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 141pp 64ndash71 2017

[15] X Pan Z Shi C Shi T-C Ling and L Ning ldquoA review onconcrete surface treatment part I types and mechanismsrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 132 pp 578ndash5902017

[16] S Bohus and R Drochytka ldquoCement based material withcrystal-growth ability under long term aggressive mediumimpactrdquo Applied Mechanics and Materials vol 166ndash169pp 1773ndash1778 2012

[17] S Bohus R Drochytka and L Taranza ldquoFly-ash usage in newcement-basedmaterial for concrete waterproofingrdquoAdvancedMaterials Research vol 535ndash537 pp 1902ndash1906 2012

[18] R Drochytka and S Bohus ldquoMicrostructural analysis ofcrystalline technology by NANOSEMmdashFEI NOVA 200rdquo in

Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on CompositeMaterials pp 92ndash96 Jeju Island Korea August 2011

[19] T-L Weng and A Cheng ldquoInfluence of curing environmenton concrete with crystalline admixturerdquo Monatshefte furChemiemdashChemical Monthly vol 145 no 1 pp 195ndash2002014

[20] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoEffectof exposure conditions on self healing behavior of strainhardening cementitious composites incorporating variouscementitious materialsrdquo Construction and Building Materialsvol 42 pp 217ndash224 2013

[21] V Rahhal V Bonavetti A Delgado C Pedrajas andR Talero ldquoScheme of the Portland cement hydration withcrystalline mineral admixtures and other aspectsrdquo SilicatesIndustriels vol 74 no 11-12 pp 347ndash352 2009

[22] W Guiming Y Jianying and Y J Wuhan ldquoSelf-healingaction of permeable crystalline coating on pores and cracksin cement-based materialsrdquo Journal of Wuhan University ofTechnology-Mater Sci Edvol 20 no 1 pp 88ndash92 2005

[23] C Edvardsen ldquoWater penetrability and autogenous healing ofseparation cracks in concreterdquo Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik vol 62 no 11 pp 77ndash85 1996

[24] N Zizkova L Nevrivova and M Ledl ldquoDurability of cementbased mortars containing crystalline additivesrdquo Defect andDiffusion Forum vol 382 pp 246ndash253 2018

[25] M Roig-Flores F Pirritano P Serna and L Ferrara ldquoEffectof crystalline admixtures on the self-healing capability ofearly-age concrete studied bymeans of permeability and crackclosing testsrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 114pp 447ndash457 2016

[26] V G Cappellesso N D S Petry D C C D Molin andA B Masuero ldquoUse of crystalline waterproofing to reducecapillary porosity in concreterdquo Journal of Building Pathologyand Rehabilitation vol 1 no 1 p 9 2016

[27] K L Wang T Z Hu and S J Xu ldquoInfluence of permeatedcrystalline waterproof materials on impermeability of con-creterdquo Advanced Materials Research vol 446ndash449 pp 954ndash960 2012

[28] L Ferrara V Krelani and M Carsana ldquoA ldquofracture testingrdquobased approach to assess crack healing of concrete with andwithout crystalline admixturesrdquo Construction and BuildingMaterials vol 68 pp 535ndash551 2014

[29] R P Borg E Cuenca E M Gastaldo Brac and L FerraraldquoCrack sealing capacity in chloride-rich environments ofmortars containing different cement substitutes and crystal-line admixturesrdquo Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Ma-terials vol 7 no 3 pp 141ndash159 2018

[30] L Ferrara T Van Mullem M C Alonso et al ldquoExperimentalcharacterization of the self-healing capacity of cement basedmaterials and its effects on the material performance a state ofthe art report by COST Action SARCOS WG2rdquo Constructionand Building Materials vol 167 pp 115ndash142 2018

[31] N Z Muhammad A Keyvanfar M Z A MajidA Shafaghat and J Mirza ldquoWaterproof performance ofconcrete a critical review on implemented approachesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 101 pp 80ndash90 2015

[32] EN 1542 Products and Systems for the Protection and Repair ofConcrete Structures Test MethodsmdashMeasurement of BondStrength by Pull-off European Committee for Standardiza-tion Europe 1999

[33] EN 12390-3 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 3mdashCompressiveStrength of Test Specimens European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2002

Advances in Civil Engineering 11

[34] EN 14617-1 Agglomerated Stone Test Methods Part1mdashDetermination of Apparent Density and Water AbsorptionEuropean Committee for Standardization Europe 2005

[35] EN 12390-8 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 8mdashDepth ofPenetration of Water Under Pressure European Committeefor Standardization Europe 2017

[36] EN 206+A1 ConcretemdashSpecification Performance Pro-duction and Conformity European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2013

12 Advances in Civil Engineering

International Journal of

AerospaceEngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

RoboticsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Active and Passive Electronic Components

VLSI Design

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Shock and Vibration

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Civil EngineeringAdvances in

Acoustics and VibrationAdvances in

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Electrical and Computer Engineering

Journal of

Advances inOptoElectronics

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Volume 2018

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawiwwwhindawicom

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2018

Control Scienceand Engineering

Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Journal ofEngineeringVolume 2018

SensorsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

International Journal of

RotatingMachinery

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Modelling ampSimulationin EngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Chemical EngineeringInternational Journal of Antennas and

Propagation

International Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Navigation and Observation

International Journal of

Hindawi

wwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Advances in

Multimedia

Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom

(a) (b)

Figure 11 (a)e SEM shot of the concrete treated with coat after 18months in liquid Na2SO4 (b) a detail of the formed ettringite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 12 (a) e SEM shot of concrete treated with screed after 18months in gaseous CO2 environment (b) a detail of createdpseudomorphoses of aragonite crystals

(a) (b)

Figure 13 (a) A shot of concrete treated with coat after 18months in gaseous SO2 environment (b) a detail of created pseudomorphosis ofgypsum crystals

Advances in Civil Engineering 9

environments the pH values of concrete with coatingshowed a significant decrease is may be due to coatbreakage during application manipulation and exposureand also due to the formation of Friedelrsquos salt within thepores In general it can be observed that the tested coatingsand screeds successfully helped to slow down the rate of pHreduction during the exposure of concrete to an aggressiveenvironment

It turned out that at a depth of 15mm from the surface ofconcrete even after 18months there was no significant pHdecrease (below 96) in concrete and as such it would notcease to perform the steel reinforcement protection function

4 Conclusions

(i) It has been demonstrated that the polymer cementwaterproofing materials with crystallization ad-mixture can be successfully modified with fly ashadditive in order to reduce the content of cementin the formulations by 10

(ii) e functionality of the crystallization admixturein polymer cement systems has been proved

(iii) e modification of the waterproofing materialsand therefore the reduction of Ca(OH)2 contentnecessary for crystallization and crystal formationin the proposed formulations did not cause a dropin the pH value to the critical limit of the moni-tored concrete samples where the reinforcementwould no longer be protected

(iv) It was confirmed that the type of environment hada significant influence on the properties of thetested concrete sample treated with the proposedwaterproofing materials

(v) roughout the whole 18-month exposure thecoating and screed modified by fly ash and crys-tallization admixture Xypex Admix have shown

increased resistance to aggressive environmentswith a much higher concentration than is common

(vi) e functionality of sealing technology of concretepores with crystalline neoplasm after 18months inan aggressive environment was verified at a depthof 15mm below the interface of sound concreteespecially if liquid water was available In concretewhere no liquid water was present in aggressiveenvironment the formation of crystals occurred toa much lesser extent

(vii) e needle-shaped crystals with the maximumlength of 15 μm of single crystals mostly filled outpores with sizes of about 20 μm

(viii) Designed formulations of crystallization coatingsand screeds with the admixture of fly ash haveshown very good complex properties in increasingthe protection of concrete even with long-termexposure to aggressive agents (CO2 SO2 SO4

2minusClminus and real outdoor conditions)

Data Availability

e data used to support the findings of this study are in-cluded within the article

Conflicts of Interest

e authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

is paper was created with the financial support of theGrant Agency of the Czech Republic (No 16-25472S)ldquoDynamics of degradation of cement composites modifiedby secondary crystallizationrdquo and the project (No LO1408)

1216 1211 12081199

1219

1181

12091224

1206 12061221

1154

118512

1117

1205 1212

11871173

1211

1192

1111 11131126 1132

1153

1118

11511166

115 1151

1176

1113

11461162

1081

1173118

1156

1142

11841168

106

108

11

112

114

116

118

12

122

124

REF REF REF CT REF REF REF CT REF SC SC CT CT CT SC SC CT SC CT SC SCReal NaCl

100 glCO2high

NaCl100 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2low

Real Sulph10 gl

NaCl100 gl

Real SO2high

Sulph346gl

Sulph10 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2high

Sulph10 gl

CO2low

CO2high

CO2low

pH (ndash

)

Recipes exposed to the given environment

Changes in pH values

28 days18 months

Figure 14 Changes in pH values in leachate for concrete samples before storage in aggressive environment and after 18months inaggressive environment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

10 Advances in Civil Engineering

ldquoAdMaS UP-Advanced Materials Structures and Technol-ogiesrdquo supported by the Ministry for Education Youth andSports of the Czech Republic under ldquoNational SustainabilityProgramme Irdquo

References

[1] B Addis Fundamentals of Concrete Cement and ConcreteInstitute Midrand South Africa 1st edition 2008

[2] J Basson and Y Ballim ldquoDurability of concreterdquo in FultonrsquosConcrete Technology p 153 7th edition Cement and Con-crete Institute Midrand South Africa 1994

[3] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoSelf-healing of surface cracks in mortars with expansive additiveand crystalline additiverdquo Cement and Concrete Compositesvol 34 no 4 pp 566ndash574 2012

[4] P K Mehta and P J M Monteiro Concrete MicrostructureProperties McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing New YorkUSA 2005

[5] R Kumar and B Bhattacharjee ldquoPorosity pore size distri-bution and in situ strength of concreterdquo Cement and ConcreteResearch vol 33 no 1 pp 155ndash164 2003

[6] ASM Handbook Materials Selection and DesignmdashDesign forOxidation Resistance Vol 20 ASM International GeaugaCounty OH USA 1997

[7] M Eglington Resistance of Concrete to Destructive AgenciesLearsquos Chemistry of Cement and Concrete Butterworth-Hei-nemann Oxford UK Fourth edition 1998

[8] S Xu N Xie X Cheng et al ldquoEnvironmental resistance ofcement concrete modified with low dosage nano particlesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 164 pp 535ndash5532018

[9] P H Emmons and B W Emmons Concrete Repair andMaintenance Illustrated Problem Analysis Repair StrategyTechniques (RSMeans) Rockland MA USA 1992

[10] J P Broomfield Corrosion of Steel in Concrete UnderstandingInvestigation and Repair Taylor amp Francis London UK 2003

[11] M Angel and H J DenuWaterproof Membranes for ConcreteSurface Protection Farbe amp Lack Hanover Germany 1997

[12] E G Moffatt M D A omas and A Fahim ldquoPerformanceof high-volume fly ash concrete in marine environmentrdquoCement and Concrete Research vol 102 pp 127ndash135 2017

[13] J Feng J Sun and P Yan ldquoe influence of ground fly ash oncement hydration and mechanical property of mortarrdquo Ad-vances in Civil Engineering vol 2018 Article ID 40231787 pages 2018

[14] M J Al-Kheetan M M Rahman and D A ChamberlainldquoInfluence of early water exposure on modified cementitiouscoatingrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 141pp 64ndash71 2017

[15] X Pan Z Shi C Shi T-C Ling and L Ning ldquoA review onconcrete surface treatment part I types and mechanismsrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 132 pp 578ndash5902017

[16] S Bohus and R Drochytka ldquoCement based material withcrystal-growth ability under long term aggressive mediumimpactrdquo Applied Mechanics and Materials vol 166ndash169pp 1773ndash1778 2012

[17] S Bohus R Drochytka and L Taranza ldquoFly-ash usage in newcement-basedmaterial for concrete waterproofingrdquoAdvancedMaterials Research vol 535ndash537 pp 1902ndash1906 2012

[18] R Drochytka and S Bohus ldquoMicrostructural analysis ofcrystalline technology by NANOSEMmdashFEI NOVA 200rdquo in

Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on CompositeMaterials pp 92ndash96 Jeju Island Korea August 2011

[19] T-L Weng and A Cheng ldquoInfluence of curing environmenton concrete with crystalline admixturerdquo Monatshefte furChemiemdashChemical Monthly vol 145 no 1 pp 195ndash2002014

[20] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoEffectof exposure conditions on self healing behavior of strainhardening cementitious composites incorporating variouscementitious materialsrdquo Construction and Building Materialsvol 42 pp 217ndash224 2013

[21] V Rahhal V Bonavetti A Delgado C Pedrajas andR Talero ldquoScheme of the Portland cement hydration withcrystalline mineral admixtures and other aspectsrdquo SilicatesIndustriels vol 74 no 11-12 pp 347ndash352 2009

[22] W Guiming Y Jianying and Y J Wuhan ldquoSelf-healingaction of permeable crystalline coating on pores and cracksin cement-based materialsrdquo Journal of Wuhan University ofTechnology-Mater Sci Edvol 20 no 1 pp 88ndash92 2005

[23] C Edvardsen ldquoWater penetrability and autogenous healing ofseparation cracks in concreterdquo Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik vol 62 no 11 pp 77ndash85 1996

[24] N Zizkova L Nevrivova and M Ledl ldquoDurability of cementbased mortars containing crystalline additivesrdquo Defect andDiffusion Forum vol 382 pp 246ndash253 2018

[25] M Roig-Flores F Pirritano P Serna and L Ferrara ldquoEffectof crystalline admixtures on the self-healing capability ofearly-age concrete studied bymeans of permeability and crackclosing testsrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 114pp 447ndash457 2016

[26] V G Cappellesso N D S Petry D C C D Molin andA B Masuero ldquoUse of crystalline waterproofing to reducecapillary porosity in concreterdquo Journal of Building Pathologyand Rehabilitation vol 1 no 1 p 9 2016

[27] K L Wang T Z Hu and S J Xu ldquoInfluence of permeatedcrystalline waterproof materials on impermeability of con-creterdquo Advanced Materials Research vol 446ndash449 pp 954ndash960 2012

[28] L Ferrara V Krelani and M Carsana ldquoA ldquofracture testingrdquobased approach to assess crack healing of concrete with andwithout crystalline admixturesrdquo Construction and BuildingMaterials vol 68 pp 535ndash551 2014

[29] R P Borg E Cuenca E M Gastaldo Brac and L FerraraldquoCrack sealing capacity in chloride-rich environments ofmortars containing different cement substitutes and crystal-line admixturesrdquo Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Ma-terials vol 7 no 3 pp 141ndash159 2018

[30] L Ferrara T Van Mullem M C Alonso et al ldquoExperimentalcharacterization of the self-healing capacity of cement basedmaterials and its effects on the material performance a state ofthe art report by COST Action SARCOS WG2rdquo Constructionand Building Materials vol 167 pp 115ndash142 2018

[31] N Z Muhammad A Keyvanfar M Z A MajidA Shafaghat and J Mirza ldquoWaterproof performance ofconcrete a critical review on implemented approachesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 101 pp 80ndash90 2015

[32] EN 1542 Products and Systems for the Protection and Repair ofConcrete Structures Test MethodsmdashMeasurement of BondStrength by Pull-off European Committee for Standardiza-tion Europe 1999

[33] EN 12390-3 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 3mdashCompressiveStrength of Test Specimens European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2002

Advances in Civil Engineering 11

[34] EN 14617-1 Agglomerated Stone Test Methods Part1mdashDetermination of Apparent Density and Water AbsorptionEuropean Committee for Standardization Europe 2005

[35] EN 12390-8 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 8mdashDepth ofPenetration of Water Under Pressure European Committeefor Standardization Europe 2017

[36] EN 206+A1 ConcretemdashSpecification Performance Pro-duction and Conformity European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2013

12 Advances in Civil Engineering

International Journal of

AerospaceEngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

RoboticsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Active and Passive Electronic Components

VLSI Design

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Shock and Vibration

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Civil EngineeringAdvances in

Acoustics and VibrationAdvances in

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Electrical and Computer Engineering

Journal of

Advances inOptoElectronics

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Volume 2018

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawiwwwhindawicom

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2018

Control Scienceand Engineering

Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Journal ofEngineeringVolume 2018

SensorsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

International Journal of

RotatingMachinery

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Modelling ampSimulationin EngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Chemical EngineeringInternational Journal of Antennas and

Propagation

International Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Navigation and Observation

International Journal of

Hindawi

wwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Advances in

Multimedia

Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom

environments the pH values of concrete with coatingshowed a significant decrease is may be due to coatbreakage during application manipulation and exposureand also due to the formation of Friedelrsquos salt within thepores In general it can be observed that the tested coatingsand screeds successfully helped to slow down the rate of pHreduction during the exposure of concrete to an aggressiveenvironment

It turned out that at a depth of 15mm from the surface ofconcrete even after 18months there was no significant pHdecrease (below 96) in concrete and as such it would notcease to perform the steel reinforcement protection function

4 Conclusions

(i) It has been demonstrated that the polymer cementwaterproofing materials with crystallization ad-mixture can be successfully modified with fly ashadditive in order to reduce the content of cementin the formulations by 10

(ii) e functionality of the crystallization admixturein polymer cement systems has been proved

(iii) e modification of the waterproofing materialsand therefore the reduction of Ca(OH)2 contentnecessary for crystallization and crystal formationin the proposed formulations did not cause a dropin the pH value to the critical limit of the moni-tored concrete samples where the reinforcementwould no longer be protected

(iv) It was confirmed that the type of environment hada significant influence on the properties of thetested concrete sample treated with the proposedwaterproofing materials

(v) roughout the whole 18-month exposure thecoating and screed modified by fly ash and crys-tallization admixture Xypex Admix have shown

increased resistance to aggressive environmentswith a much higher concentration than is common

(vi) e functionality of sealing technology of concretepores with crystalline neoplasm after 18months inan aggressive environment was verified at a depthof 15mm below the interface of sound concreteespecially if liquid water was available In concretewhere no liquid water was present in aggressiveenvironment the formation of crystals occurred toa much lesser extent

(vii) e needle-shaped crystals with the maximumlength of 15 μm of single crystals mostly filled outpores with sizes of about 20 μm

(viii) Designed formulations of crystallization coatingsand screeds with the admixture of fly ash haveshown very good complex properties in increasingthe protection of concrete even with long-termexposure to aggressive agents (CO2 SO2 SO4

2minusClminus and real outdoor conditions)

Data Availability

e data used to support the findings of this study are in-cluded within the article

Conflicts of Interest

e authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

is paper was created with the financial support of theGrant Agency of the Czech Republic (No 16-25472S)ldquoDynamics of degradation of cement composites modifiedby secondary crystallizationrdquo and the project (No LO1408)

1216 1211 12081199

1219

1181

12091224

1206 12061221

1154

118512

1117

1205 1212

11871173

1211

1192

1111 11131126 1132

1153

1118

11511166

115 1151

1176

1113

11461162

1081

1173118

1156

1142

11841168

106

108

11

112

114

116

118

12

122

124

REF REF REF CT REF REF REF CT REF SC SC CT CT CT SC SC CT SC CT SC SCReal NaCl

100 glCO2high

NaCl100 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2low

Real Sulph10 gl

NaCl100 gl

Real SO2high

Sulph346gl

Sulph10 gl

SO2high

Sulph346gl

CO2high

Sulph10 gl

CO2low

CO2high

CO2low

pH (ndash

)

Recipes exposed to the given environment

Changes in pH values

28 days18 months

Figure 14 Changes in pH values in leachate for concrete samples before storage in aggressive environment and after 18months inaggressive environment e error bars represent the range of measurements for 3 samples

10 Advances in Civil Engineering

ldquoAdMaS UP-Advanced Materials Structures and Technol-ogiesrdquo supported by the Ministry for Education Youth andSports of the Czech Republic under ldquoNational SustainabilityProgramme Irdquo

References

[1] B Addis Fundamentals of Concrete Cement and ConcreteInstitute Midrand South Africa 1st edition 2008

[2] J Basson and Y Ballim ldquoDurability of concreterdquo in FultonrsquosConcrete Technology p 153 7th edition Cement and Con-crete Institute Midrand South Africa 1994

[3] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoSelf-healing of surface cracks in mortars with expansive additiveand crystalline additiverdquo Cement and Concrete Compositesvol 34 no 4 pp 566ndash574 2012

[4] P K Mehta and P J M Monteiro Concrete MicrostructureProperties McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing New YorkUSA 2005

[5] R Kumar and B Bhattacharjee ldquoPorosity pore size distri-bution and in situ strength of concreterdquo Cement and ConcreteResearch vol 33 no 1 pp 155ndash164 2003

[6] ASM Handbook Materials Selection and DesignmdashDesign forOxidation Resistance Vol 20 ASM International GeaugaCounty OH USA 1997

[7] M Eglington Resistance of Concrete to Destructive AgenciesLearsquos Chemistry of Cement and Concrete Butterworth-Hei-nemann Oxford UK Fourth edition 1998

[8] S Xu N Xie X Cheng et al ldquoEnvironmental resistance ofcement concrete modified with low dosage nano particlesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 164 pp 535ndash5532018

[9] P H Emmons and B W Emmons Concrete Repair andMaintenance Illustrated Problem Analysis Repair StrategyTechniques (RSMeans) Rockland MA USA 1992

[10] J P Broomfield Corrosion of Steel in Concrete UnderstandingInvestigation and Repair Taylor amp Francis London UK 2003

[11] M Angel and H J DenuWaterproof Membranes for ConcreteSurface Protection Farbe amp Lack Hanover Germany 1997

[12] E G Moffatt M D A omas and A Fahim ldquoPerformanceof high-volume fly ash concrete in marine environmentrdquoCement and Concrete Research vol 102 pp 127ndash135 2017

[13] J Feng J Sun and P Yan ldquoe influence of ground fly ash oncement hydration and mechanical property of mortarrdquo Ad-vances in Civil Engineering vol 2018 Article ID 40231787 pages 2018

[14] M J Al-Kheetan M M Rahman and D A ChamberlainldquoInfluence of early water exposure on modified cementitiouscoatingrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 141pp 64ndash71 2017

[15] X Pan Z Shi C Shi T-C Ling and L Ning ldquoA review onconcrete surface treatment part I types and mechanismsrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 132 pp 578ndash5902017

[16] S Bohus and R Drochytka ldquoCement based material withcrystal-growth ability under long term aggressive mediumimpactrdquo Applied Mechanics and Materials vol 166ndash169pp 1773ndash1778 2012

[17] S Bohus R Drochytka and L Taranza ldquoFly-ash usage in newcement-basedmaterial for concrete waterproofingrdquoAdvancedMaterials Research vol 535ndash537 pp 1902ndash1906 2012

[18] R Drochytka and S Bohus ldquoMicrostructural analysis ofcrystalline technology by NANOSEMmdashFEI NOVA 200rdquo in

Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on CompositeMaterials pp 92ndash96 Jeju Island Korea August 2011

[19] T-L Weng and A Cheng ldquoInfluence of curing environmenton concrete with crystalline admixturerdquo Monatshefte furChemiemdashChemical Monthly vol 145 no 1 pp 195ndash2002014

[20] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoEffectof exposure conditions on self healing behavior of strainhardening cementitious composites incorporating variouscementitious materialsrdquo Construction and Building Materialsvol 42 pp 217ndash224 2013

[21] V Rahhal V Bonavetti A Delgado C Pedrajas andR Talero ldquoScheme of the Portland cement hydration withcrystalline mineral admixtures and other aspectsrdquo SilicatesIndustriels vol 74 no 11-12 pp 347ndash352 2009

[22] W Guiming Y Jianying and Y J Wuhan ldquoSelf-healingaction of permeable crystalline coating on pores and cracksin cement-based materialsrdquo Journal of Wuhan University ofTechnology-Mater Sci Edvol 20 no 1 pp 88ndash92 2005

[23] C Edvardsen ldquoWater penetrability and autogenous healing ofseparation cracks in concreterdquo Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik vol 62 no 11 pp 77ndash85 1996

[24] N Zizkova L Nevrivova and M Ledl ldquoDurability of cementbased mortars containing crystalline additivesrdquo Defect andDiffusion Forum vol 382 pp 246ndash253 2018

[25] M Roig-Flores F Pirritano P Serna and L Ferrara ldquoEffectof crystalline admixtures on the self-healing capability ofearly-age concrete studied bymeans of permeability and crackclosing testsrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 114pp 447ndash457 2016

[26] V G Cappellesso N D S Petry D C C D Molin andA B Masuero ldquoUse of crystalline waterproofing to reducecapillary porosity in concreterdquo Journal of Building Pathologyand Rehabilitation vol 1 no 1 p 9 2016

[27] K L Wang T Z Hu and S J Xu ldquoInfluence of permeatedcrystalline waterproof materials on impermeability of con-creterdquo Advanced Materials Research vol 446ndash449 pp 954ndash960 2012

[28] L Ferrara V Krelani and M Carsana ldquoA ldquofracture testingrdquobased approach to assess crack healing of concrete with andwithout crystalline admixturesrdquo Construction and BuildingMaterials vol 68 pp 535ndash551 2014

[29] R P Borg E Cuenca E M Gastaldo Brac and L FerraraldquoCrack sealing capacity in chloride-rich environments ofmortars containing different cement substitutes and crystal-line admixturesrdquo Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Ma-terials vol 7 no 3 pp 141ndash159 2018

[30] L Ferrara T Van Mullem M C Alonso et al ldquoExperimentalcharacterization of the self-healing capacity of cement basedmaterials and its effects on the material performance a state ofthe art report by COST Action SARCOS WG2rdquo Constructionand Building Materials vol 167 pp 115ndash142 2018

[31] N Z Muhammad A Keyvanfar M Z A MajidA Shafaghat and J Mirza ldquoWaterproof performance ofconcrete a critical review on implemented approachesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 101 pp 80ndash90 2015

[32] EN 1542 Products and Systems for the Protection and Repair ofConcrete Structures Test MethodsmdashMeasurement of BondStrength by Pull-off European Committee for Standardiza-tion Europe 1999

[33] EN 12390-3 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 3mdashCompressiveStrength of Test Specimens European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2002

Advances in Civil Engineering 11

[34] EN 14617-1 Agglomerated Stone Test Methods Part1mdashDetermination of Apparent Density and Water AbsorptionEuropean Committee for Standardization Europe 2005

[35] EN 12390-8 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 8mdashDepth ofPenetration of Water Under Pressure European Committeefor Standardization Europe 2017

[36] EN 206+A1 ConcretemdashSpecification Performance Pro-duction and Conformity European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2013

12 Advances in Civil Engineering

International Journal of

AerospaceEngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

RoboticsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Active and Passive Electronic Components

VLSI Design

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Shock and Vibration

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Civil EngineeringAdvances in

Acoustics and VibrationAdvances in

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Electrical and Computer Engineering

Journal of

Advances inOptoElectronics

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Volume 2018

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawiwwwhindawicom

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2018

Control Scienceand Engineering

Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Journal ofEngineeringVolume 2018

SensorsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

International Journal of

RotatingMachinery

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Modelling ampSimulationin EngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Chemical EngineeringInternational Journal of Antennas and

Propagation

International Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Navigation and Observation

International Journal of

Hindawi

wwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Advances in

Multimedia

Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom

ldquoAdMaS UP-Advanced Materials Structures and Technol-ogiesrdquo supported by the Ministry for Education Youth andSports of the Czech Republic under ldquoNational SustainabilityProgramme Irdquo

References

[1] B Addis Fundamentals of Concrete Cement and ConcreteInstitute Midrand South Africa 1st edition 2008

[2] J Basson and Y Ballim ldquoDurability of concreterdquo in FultonrsquosConcrete Technology p 153 7th edition Cement and Con-crete Institute Midrand South Africa 1994

[3] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoSelf-healing of surface cracks in mortars with expansive additiveand crystalline additiverdquo Cement and Concrete Compositesvol 34 no 4 pp 566ndash574 2012

[4] P K Mehta and P J M Monteiro Concrete MicrostructureProperties McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing New YorkUSA 2005

[5] R Kumar and B Bhattacharjee ldquoPorosity pore size distri-bution and in situ strength of concreterdquo Cement and ConcreteResearch vol 33 no 1 pp 155ndash164 2003

[6] ASM Handbook Materials Selection and DesignmdashDesign forOxidation Resistance Vol 20 ASM International GeaugaCounty OH USA 1997

[7] M Eglington Resistance of Concrete to Destructive AgenciesLearsquos Chemistry of Cement and Concrete Butterworth-Hei-nemann Oxford UK Fourth edition 1998

[8] S Xu N Xie X Cheng et al ldquoEnvironmental resistance ofcement concrete modified with low dosage nano particlesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 164 pp 535ndash5532018

[9] P H Emmons and B W Emmons Concrete Repair andMaintenance Illustrated Problem Analysis Repair StrategyTechniques (RSMeans) Rockland MA USA 1992

[10] J P Broomfield Corrosion of Steel in Concrete UnderstandingInvestigation and Repair Taylor amp Francis London UK 2003

[11] M Angel and H J DenuWaterproof Membranes for ConcreteSurface Protection Farbe amp Lack Hanover Germany 1997

[12] E G Moffatt M D A omas and A Fahim ldquoPerformanceof high-volume fly ash concrete in marine environmentrdquoCement and Concrete Research vol 102 pp 127ndash135 2017

[13] J Feng J Sun and P Yan ldquoe influence of ground fly ash oncement hydration and mechanical property of mortarrdquo Ad-vances in Civil Engineering vol 2018 Article ID 40231787 pages 2018

[14] M J Al-Kheetan M M Rahman and D A ChamberlainldquoInfluence of early water exposure on modified cementitiouscoatingrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 141pp 64ndash71 2017

[15] X Pan Z Shi C Shi T-C Ling and L Ning ldquoA review onconcrete surface treatment part I types and mechanismsrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 132 pp 578ndash5902017

[16] S Bohus and R Drochytka ldquoCement based material withcrystal-growth ability under long term aggressive mediumimpactrdquo Applied Mechanics and Materials vol 166ndash169pp 1773ndash1778 2012

[17] S Bohus R Drochytka and L Taranza ldquoFly-ash usage in newcement-basedmaterial for concrete waterproofingrdquoAdvancedMaterials Research vol 535ndash537 pp 1902ndash1906 2012

[18] R Drochytka and S Bohus ldquoMicrostructural analysis ofcrystalline technology by NANOSEMmdashFEI NOVA 200rdquo in

Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on CompositeMaterials pp 92ndash96 Jeju Island Korea August 2011

[19] T-L Weng and A Cheng ldquoInfluence of curing environmenton concrete with crystalline admixturerdquo Monatshefte furChemiemdashChemical Monthly vol 145 no 1 pp 195ndash2002014

[20] K Sisomphon O Copuroglu and E A B Koenders ldquoEffectof exposure conditions on self healing behavior of strainhardening cementitious composites incorporating variouscementitious materialsrdquo Construction and Building Materialsvol 42 pp 217ndash224 2013

[21] V Rahhal V Bonavetti A Delgado C Pedrajas andR Talero ldquoScheme of the Portland cement hydration withcrystalline mineral admixtures and other aspectsrdquo SilicatesIndustriels vol 74 no 11-12 pp 347ndash352 2009

[22] W Guiming Y Jianying and Y J Wuhan ldquoSelf-healingaction of permeable crystalline coating on pores and cracksin cement-based materialsrdquo Journal of Wuhan University ofTechnology-Mater Sci Edvol 20 no 1 pp 88ndash92 2005

[23] C Edvardsen ldquoWater penetrability and autogenous healing ofseparation cracks in concreterdquo Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik vol 62 no 11 pp 77ndash85 1996

[24] N Zizkova L Nevrivova and M Ledl ldquoDurability of cementbased mortars containing crystalline additivesrdquo Defect andDiffusion Forum vol 382 pp 246ndash253 2018

[25] M Roig-Flores F Pirritano P Serna and L Ferrara ldquoEffectof crystalline admixtures on the self-healing capability ofearly-age concrete studied bymeans of permeability and crackclosing testsrdquo Construction and Building Materials vol 114pp 447ndash457 2016

[26] V G Cappellesso N D S Petry D C C D Molin andA B Masuero ldquoUse of crystalline waterproofing to reducecapillary porosity in concreterdquo Journal of Building Pathologyand Rehabilitation vol 1 no 1 p 9 2016

[27] K L Wang T Z Hu and S J Xu ldquoInfluence of permeatedcrystalline waterproof materials on impermeability of con-creterdquo Advanced Materials Research vol 446ndash449 pp 954ndash960 2012

[28] L Ferrara V Krelani and M Carsana ldquoA ldquofracture testingrdquobased approach to assess crack healing of concrete with andwithout crystalline admixturesrdquo Construction and BuildingMaterials vol 68 pp 535ndash551 2014

[29] R P Borg E Cuenca E M Gastaldo Brac and L FerraraldquoCrack sealing capacity in chloride-rich environments ofmortars containing different cement substitutes and crystal-line admixturesrdquo Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Ma-terials vol 7 no 3 pp 141ndash159 2018

[30] L Ferrara T Van Mullem M C Alonso et al ldquoExperimentalcharacterization of the self-healing capacity of cement basedmaterials and its effects on the material performance a state ofthe art report by COST Action SARCOS WG2rdquo Constructionand Building Materials vol 167 pp 115ndash142 2018

[31] N Z Muhammad A Keyvanfar M Z A MajidA Shafaghat and J Mirza ldquoWaterproof performance ofconcrete a critical review on implemented approachesrdquoConstruction and Building Materials vol 101 pp 80ndash90 2015

[32] EN 1542 Products and Systems for the Protection and Repair ofConcrete Structures Test MethodsmdashMeasurement of BondStrength by Pull-off European Committee for Standardiza-tion Europe 1999

[33] EN 12390-3 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 3mdashCompressiveStrength of Test Specimens European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2002

Advances in Civil Engineering 11

[34] EN 14617-1 Agglomerated Stone Test Methods Part1mdashDetermination of Apparent Density and Water AbsorptionEuropean Committee for Standardization Europe 2005

[35] EN 12390-8 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 8mdashDepth ofPenetration of Water Under Pressure European Committeefor Standardization Europe 2017

[36] EN 206+A1 ConcretemdashSpecification Performance Pro-duction and Conformity European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2013

12 Advances in Civil Engineering

International Journal of

AerospaceEngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

RoboticsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Active and Passive Electronic Components

VLSI Design

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Shock and Vibration

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Civil EngineeringAdvances in

Acoustics and VibrationAdvances in

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Electrical and Computer Engineering

Journal of

Advances inOptoElectronics

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Volume 2018

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawiwwwhindawicom

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2018

Control Scienceand Engineering

Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Journal ofEngineeringVolume 2018

SensorsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

International Journal of

RotatingMachinery

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Modelling ampSimulationin EngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Chemical EngineeringInternational Journal of Antennas and

Propagation

International Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Navigation and Observation

International Journal of

Hindawi

wwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Advances in

Multimedia

Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom

[34] EN 14617-1 Agglomerated Stone Test Methods Part1mdashDetermination of Apparent Density and Water AbsorptionEuropean Committee for Standardization Europe 2005

[35] EN 12390-8 Testing Hardened Concrete Part 8mdashDepth ofPenetration of Water Under Pressure European Committeefor Standardization Europe 2017

[36] EN 206+A1 ConcretemdashSpecification Performance Pro-duction and Conformity European Committee for Stan-dardization Europe 2013

12 Advances in Civil Engineering

International Journal of

AerospaceEngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

RoboticsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Active and Passive Electronic Components

VLSI Design

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Shock and Vibration

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Civil EngineeringAdvances in

Acoustics and VibrationAdvances in

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Electrical and Computer Engineering

Journal of

Advances inOptoElectronics

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Volume 2018

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawiwwwhindawicom

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2018

Control Scienceand Engineering

Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Journal ofEngineeringVolume 2018

SensorsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

International Journal of

RotatingMachinery

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Modelling ampSimulationin EngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Chemical EngineeringInternational Journal of Antennas and

Propagation

International Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Navigation and Observation

International Journal of

Hindawi

wwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Advances in

Multimedia

Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

AerospaceEngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

RoboticsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Active and Passive Electronic Components

VLSI Design

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Shock and Vibration

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Civil EngineeringAdvances in

Acoustics and VibrationAdvances in

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Electrical and Computer Engineering

Journal of

Advances inOptoElectronics

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Volume 2018

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawiwwwhindawicom

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2018

Control Scienceand Engineering

Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Journal ofEngineeringVolume 2018

SensorsJournal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

International Journal of

RotatingMachinery

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Modelling ampSimulationin EngineeringHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Chemical EngineeringInternational Journal of Antennas and

Propagation

International Journal of

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Navigation and Observation

International Journal of

Hindawi

wwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Advances in

Multimedia

Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom