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Objectives :
•Superposition
•Source transformation
•the Thevenin equivalent of any network
•the Norton equivalent of any network
•the load resistance that will result in maximum
power transfer
2
Linearity and Superposition :
Linear Elements and Linear Circuits
a linear element is a passive element that has a linear voltage-current
relationship.
a linear dependent source is a dependent current or voltage source
whose output current or voltage is proportional only to the first power of a
specified current or voltage variable in the circuit (or to the sum of such
quantities).
a linear circuit is a circuit composed entirely of independent sources,
linear dependent sources, and linear elements.
3
The principle of superposition :
The response in a linear circuit having more than one independent source can be obtained by adding the responses caused by the separate independent sources acting alone.
(a) A voltage source set to zero acts like a short circuit.
(b) A current source set to zero acts like an open circuit.
4
Source Transformation:
(a) A general practical voltage source connected to a load resistor RL. (b) The terminal characteristics compared to an ideal source.
(a) A general practical current source connected to a load resistor RL. (b) The terminal characteristics compared to an ideal source.
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Example 5.4: Compute the current through the 4.7 k resistor after transforming the 9 mA
source into an equivalent voltage source.
13
Practice: 5.3
compute the current ix after performing a source transformation on the voltage source
14
Thevenin and Norton Equivalent:
a. A complex network including a load resistor RL.
b. A Thévenin equivalent network connected to RL.
c. A Norton equivalent network connected to RL.
17
Thevenin’s theorem:
Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks A and B connected by two wires.
Define a voltage voc as the open-circuit voltage
which appears across the terminals of A when B is disconnected. Then all currents and voltages
in B will remain unchanged if all independent voltage and current sources in A are “killed” or
“zeroed out,” and an independent voltage source voc is connected, with proper polarity, in series with the dead (inactive) A network.
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Practice: 5.5
Using repeated source transformations, determine the Thevenin equivalent of the highlighted network
21
Norton’s theorem:
Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks A and B connected by two wires. If
either network contains a dependent source, its
control variable must be in that same network.
Define a current isc as the short circuit current that appears when B is disconnected and the terminals
of A are short-circuited. Then all currents and
voltages in B will remain unchanged if all
independent voltage and current sources in A are “killed” or “zeroed out,” and an independent current
source isc is connected, with proper polarity, in parallel with the dead (inactive) A network
24
Example:
Select R1 so that maximum power is transferred from stage 1 to stage 2
and find the maximum power
36
Example 5.11: The circuit shown is a model for a common-emitter bipolar junction transistor amplifier. Choose a load resistance so that maximum power is transferred to it from the amplifier, and calculate the actual power absorbed.
37