Urbanization & Services - adamshumangeo.org · Central Place Theory u Predicts how and where central places in the urban hierarchy (hamlets, villages, towns, and cities) are functionally

Urbanization & Services

Servicesu Service = any activity that fulfills a human want or needu Services are located in settlements

u Location of services is important for profitability

u Affluent regions tend to offer more services

u Local diversity is evident in the provision of services

Servicesu Three types of services

u Consumer servicesu About 47% of all jobs in the United States

u Business servicesu About 24% of all jobs in the United States

u Public servicesu About 17% of all jobs in the United States

u In the United States, all employment growth has occurred in the tertiary sector

Location of Contemporary Servicesu Services in urban settlements

u Differences between urban and rural settlementsu Large sizeu High densityu Social heterogeneity (diversity)

u Urbanizationu Increasing number of people in cities

u Most huge cities = LDCs (8 out of top ten largest urban areas)

u Increasing % of people in citiesu MDCs more highly urbanized, higher % live in cities

Percentage of Population Living in Urban Settlements

Dealing with Pop. Growth

Jeddah Tower

Urbanization

Urbanization

u Urbanization – is the process by which people live and are employed in a city

Central place theoryu First proposed by Walter Christaller (1930s)u Determines the profitability for a consumer service.u Characteristics

u A central place has a market area (or hinterland)u nodal/functional regionsu Hexagons

u Size of a market areau Range

u Maximum distance consumer is willing to travel to use a service

u Often expressed in time rather than spatial terms u Threshold

u Minimum # of consumers needed to support a service

Check for understanding

10a - What creates the regular pattern of settlements found in the Central Place Theory?

Why Are Consumer Services Distributed in a Regular Pattern?

u Market-area analysisu Profitability of a location #12

u Compute the rangeu Compute the thresholdu Draw the market area

u Optimal location within a marketu Gravity model

u Optimal location directly related to # of people and inversely related to distance people must travel

u Best location in a linear settlement = median

Optimal Location for a Pizza-Delivery Service

Figure 12-20

Why Do Business Services Cluster in Large Settlements?

uHierarchy of business servicesuServices in world cities

uBusiness: clustering of services is a product of the Industrial Revolution

uConsumer: retail services with extensive market areas

u May include leisure services of national importance due to large thresholds, large ranges, and the presence of wealthy patrons.

uPublic: world cities are often the center of national or international political power

Central Place Theoryu Predicts how and where central places in the urban hierarchy

(hamlets, villages, towns, and cities) are functionally and spatially distributed

u Assumes that

– Surface is flat with no physical barriers– Soil fertility is the same everywhere– Population and purchasing power are evenly

distributed– Region has uniform transportation network – From any given place, a good or service could be

sold in all directions out to a certain distance

16a - What are the four different levels we can see here?

Market Areas, Range, and Threshold for Kroger Supermarkets

Why Are Consumer Services Distributed in a Regular Pattern?

u Hierarchy of services and settlementsu Nesting

u Hinterlands in MDCs = series of hexagons of various sizesu hamlet, village, town and city

u Rank-size distribution of settlementsu Rank-size rule

u nth city is 1/nth the size of the largest settlement

u Regular hierarchy = wealth higher and distributed

u Primate city rule u Primate cities are more than 2x size of 2nd largest city

u Contradiction: Europe but more typical of LDCs

Rank-Size Rule vs. Primate City

u Characteristic of a model urban hierarchy u The population of the city or town is roughly inversely

proportional to its rank in the hierarchy For example:largest city = 12 million2nd largest = 6 million (biggest test!!!!)3rd largest = 4 million4th largest = 3 million

u Primate city: The leading city of a country, disproportionately larger than the rest of the cities

World Cities

Figure 12-25

Other classifications of urban settlements

u Command and Control Centersu Regional or subregional

u Specialized Producer-Service Centersu Dependent Centers

u Resort, Retirement and Residentialu Manufacturingu Militaryu Mining

Business Services Clustering in LDCs

u Offshore financial servicesu Two functions:

u Taxes – Apple keeps about $181 Billion overseasu Privacy

u Cayman Islands & Switzerland

u Back officesu LDCs are attractive because of:

u Low wagesu Ability to speak English

u India, Malaysia, Philippines

Economic Base of MDC Cities

u Basic industries u Export mainly to consumers outside settlement

u Unique collection = economic baseu Brings money into community

u Stimulates growth of nonbasic but not vice versa

u Calculated by % employed in different industries

u Is higher than country average = basic

u Classify MDC settlements by basic industry

u Nonbasic industriesu Service customers within settlement

u Distribution of Talentu Richard Florida = talent follows cultural diversity

Beginning Around 3500

u6 urban hearthsuMesopotamiauNile RiveruIndus RiveruYellow RiveruMesoamericauPeru


u Had two vital components for growthu Ag. Surplus and social stratification (leadership)

u The ”Urban Elite” were those that controlled the resourcesu Usually did not engage in farming themselvesu Developed first forms of city planning, defense,

writing, collecting taxes, religion


u This allowed them to have material wealth, trade over longer distances, and diversify the economic sector

u Ultimately growing the populationu Creating the first urban revolution

uBecame the main areas for trade and education

500 – 1300 AD

u Little growth occurred in the early part of the Middle Ages especially in Europe

u The only growth was along places on the Silk Route between…

u Seoul, Korea / Kyoto, Japan / Timbuktu / The Americas àTenochtitlan (Now Mexico City)

1400s – 1700’s

u Most cities were away from major waterways prior

u Many African cities were on the interior, which effectively killed them when maritime trade became the dominant source of travel.

u The growth of cities occurred on coastal regions

u Cities connected to trade (Cape Town, New York, Copenhagen, Lisbon became the center of wealth

Structure of the City

Central Business Districts (CBD)

u Highly accessible

Central Business Districts (CBD)

u CBD Retail services u Retailers with a high threshold/range

u Department stores

u 1960s/1970s stores shift to malls

u Infrequent patrons

u also shift to malls

u Now attract tourist shoppers (Michigan Ave.)

u Retailers serving downtown workers

u small specialty shops

u business services in the CBDu Proximity to other professionals, government offices

u accessible to all types of workers (secretary and the CEO)

u expanding

Competition for land in the CBDuHigh land costs

uEx.: most expensive real estate in the world = Tokyo

u Intensive land useuUnderground areas

u Subways, loading docks, utility lines, pedways

uSkyscrapersu Chicago (Home Insurance Building) 1880s

u Iron frame and elevatorsu Give cities distinctive character

u “Vertical geography” nature of use changes as you go up

u Retailers →professionals→residential

Bid-rent Theory

Competition for land in the CBDu Activities excluded from the CBD

u Lack of industry in the CBDu Once located near water access and piers

u Waterfronts now used for recreation, tourism, retail

u Lack of residents in the CBDu 1800s = population centers (mansions, tenements)

u 20th century = Bid-rent, suburbanization, invasion/succession result in less people living in urban centers

u Now: population returning (lofts, empty-nesters, proximity to nightlife culture, don’t care about schools, etc.)

u CBDs outside North Americau Less dominated by commercial considerations.

u More public use and higher population

u restrictions to maintain character and attract tourists

u Older buildings renovated not demolished

Defining Urban Areasu “the city”

u municipality = political entityu common govt, services, lawsu annexation

u Adding areas to a political entityu “urban areas”

u Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs)

u city plus suburbsu Chicago pop. = 2.7 million

u 3.6 million (1950)u “Chicagoland” = 9.9 million

u 5.5 million (1950)u LDCs differentiation unclear

Density Gradient

Density Gradient

Culture and Urban Formu Chicago School(s) of Architecture

u 1st : walls hang on iron frame = skyscrapersu 2nd : glass and iron skyscraper, form follows function

u aka “the International School”

u City Beautiful movementu Parks, monuments, orderly street plan (Daniel

Burnham)u Nice to look but also creates civic pride and moral

virtues

Culture and Urban Formu Chicago School(s) of Architecture

u 1st : walls hang on iron frame = skyscrapersu 2nd : glass and iron skyscraper, form follows function

u aka “the International School”

u City Beautiful movementu Parks, monuments, orderly street plan (Daniel

Burnham)u Nice to look but also creates civic pride and moral

virtuesu Postmodern architecture

u Wide range of styles, challenges what’s “accepted”u Diverse aesthetics, anything goes, unique formsu More people-friendly = “cloud gate” aka “the bean”

Postmodern Architecture

Intraregional migration in the United Statesu Migration from “city” to suburban areas = “suburbanization”

uaccelerates post-WWII = spend, spend, spend = consumerism = huge economic boomuencouraged by government = mortgage deduction

u benefits mostly whites….minorities excluded (redlining)

ureturning veterans = housing shortage = govt. programs

u FHA = lower down payment, longer mortgagesu GI Bill = low interest loans, education costs covered

uAmerican falls in love with the automobileu becomes a ‘necessity’, government builds highways

uDemographic explosionu Baby Boom = space needed to raise children

Intraregional Migration in the United States

Suburbanization (continued)Push Factors

u urban decayu crowded

u poverty, crimeu “bad” schools

u 1960s urban riots

u political machines/corruption

u the “other” (racism)u new immigrants

u Mexicans, Asians, Puerto Ricans, Appalachians

u African-Americansu blockbusting

u school desegregationu busing

Push Factors

Inner City Challenges

uSocial issuesuThe underclass

uan unending cycle of social and economic issuesuhomelessnessuculture (or cycle) of poverty

u ghettoized “often isolated from positive influences”u behavior which reinforces or continues povertyu gangs, out-of-wedlock children, absentee fathers,

violence, drugs

Inner Cities Face Distinctive Challenges

u Most significant = deteriorating housingu Filtering = subdividing mansions into small apts.

u Successive waves of immigrants, absentee landlords

u Redlining = banks refuse to loan money in certain areasu now illegal but difficult to enforce

u Eroding tax baseu White flight (middle class takes their $ to the suburbs)

u Cities can either reduce services or raise taxes

u Impact of the recession

u Housing market collapse

u Foreclosure (bank seizes home for non payment of mortgage)

u ”under water” (mortgage higher than home value = walk away)

u Abandoned buildings →Eroding tax base

Facing Housing Challenges?u Urban renewal (government intervention)

u Govt. removes blight → gives to developers/public agencies


u Govt. removes blight → gives to developers/public agenciesu Public housing (1950s/1960s = Cabrini-Green, Robt. Taylor Homes)

Facing Housing Challenges?uUrban renewal (government intervention)

uGovt. removes blight → gives to developers/public agencies

u Public housing (1950s/1960s = Cabrini-Green, Robt. Taylor Homes)

u results in concentrated povertyu segregationu fall into disrepair, become crime-ridden, disrepairu Mostly demolished since 1990s


u Govt. removes blight → gives to developers/public agenciesu Public housing (1950s/1960s = Cabrini-Green, Robt. Taylor Homes)

u results in concentrated poverty

u segregation

u fall into disrepair, become crime-ridden, disrepair

u Mostly demolished since 1990s

u TODAY: 125,000 people on waiting list for CHA

u See the system in action! What will happen with Lathrop Homes?

Lathrop Homes

Lathrop Homes

Facing Housing Challenges?uGentrification (market intervention)

uMiddle-class renovate inner city housingu Vintage housing, proximity/access to CBD = work/cultural

activitiesu singles or couples w/out children = don’t care about schools

u Crime ↘,property values ↗,what could possibly be the problem?

uPoor are displaced, ethnic patterns altered

Suburbanization (continued)Push Factors

u urban decayu crowded

u poverty, crimeu “bad” schools

u 1960s urban riots

u political machines/corruption

u the “other” (racism)u new immigrants

u Mexicans, Asians, Puerto Ricans, Appalachians

u African-Americansu blockbusting

u school desegregationu busing

Pull factors

u see previous slide

u suburban lifestyleu space (yards, parks, green)

u good schools

u low taxes

u low crime

u “American dream”

u or is it “homogeneity”?

Pull Factors

Pull Factors

Suburbs Face Distinctive Challenges?• Dependence on the automobile

– Lack of public transit• Advantages of public transit (makes city living attractive)

– Cheaper, less polluting, and more energy efficient than an automobile– Reduces congestion

» Suited to rapidly transport large number of people to small area

• Urban Sprawl– Development competes for prime agricultural land– Enormous carbon footprint

Urban Sprawl

Urban Sprawl

Urban Sprawl






• Placelessness (uniform landscape)

Urban Sprawl(Greenbelts designed to limit in the UK)

Suburban “placelessness”






• Placelessness (uniform landscape)• Growing poverty

– Industry brings industrial problems to suburbs– Great inversion???

• Read this: ttp://www.forbes.com/sites/petesaunders1/2016/04/04/15/#407c2eb351b5

• Outskirts/Suburbs = industrial poor, Central city = wealthy

A Possible Solution?“New Urbanism”

u Suburban areas that reflect urban walkabilityu Higher density housing, anti-auto, walkable

u More varied, connected and “enjoyable” communities

u Reduces urban sprawl and carbon footprint of suburbia

u Mass transit links CBD with denser suburban living

New Urbanism

New Urbanism

Urban Models

Where Are People and Activities Distributed within Urban Areas?u Models of urban structure

u Are used to explain where people/services are distributed within metropolitan areas

u In each, CBD has varying level of importance

u Three original models, all developed in one city

u Chicagou Concentric zone model

u Sector model

u Multiple nuclei model

Concentric Zone Model

Burgess’ Concentric Zone Model (1923)

u CBD (low residential density but ↗)u Zone of transition (varying density)

u Industry, poor quality housing, subdivided larger homes

u Immigrantsu Invasion/Succession migration

u Gentrification (increasing density)u Zone of working class homes

u denseu multi-dwelling (apts., two-flats, etc.)u gentrification (decreasing density)

u Zone of middle class homesu single family homes, yards, garagesu today’s bungalow belt, inner suburbsu increasing poverty

u Commuter zoneu wealthy/upper middle-classu today’s outer suburbs (low density)

Bid-rent Theory

Zone of Transition: Tenements

Zone of Transition: Filtering

Zone of Transition: Industry

Zone of Transition: Gentrification

Zone of Transition: Gentrification

Zone of Working Class Homes

Zone of Working Class Homes

Zone of Middle Class Homes (Bungalow Belt)

Zone of Middle Class Homes (Bungalow Belt)

Decreasing Density from Middle Class to Commuter Zone



Sector Model

Figure 13-5

Hoyt’s Sector Model (1939)u Sectors not rings develop

u Still focused on CBD

u Certain sectors are more or less attractive to certain groups and activities

u pattern builds on itself

u Therefore sectors radiating from center to edge of city are created

u Industry follows transportation routes

u Lower class housing gravitates towards industry

u Upper class residential gravitates towards desirable “amenities”

Industry follows transportation

Working class housing follows industry



Upper-class housing follows amenities

Upper-class housing follows amenities

Multiple Nuclei Model

Harris/Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model (1945)

u more than one center around which activities develop

u Certain land use activities are compatible or incompatible together.

u Transportation ↔ industryu Industry ↔ lower income housingu Airports ↔ warehousesu Heavy Industry ≠ high class housingu high class housing → amenities

u similar ideas w/Sector model but:

u decentralized, CBD ↓influence

O’Hare is a nuclei of economic activity separate from the CBD

Rosemont

University of Chicago – Hyde Park

Southeast Side/Lake CalumetHeavy Industry (Steel)

Peripheral/Galactic Model

u Harris adds ring highway to multiple nuclei modelu newer idea, car dependent, urban sprawl

u decentralization of the CBD

u Industrial shift out of city

u development along ring highway (the “periphery”)

u Edge cities surrounding the central city u more jobs than bedrooms, clustering of services, retail that rivals/competes with

CBD.

Edge Cities

Edge Cities

Urban Realms Modelu Growth of suburbs

u Autos and ring highways

u New transportation corridors

u Suburbs now more independent of CBD

u Suburban downtowns develop

u Edge citiesu More jobs than bedrooms

u Los Angeles, Atlanta

Urban Realms of Los Angeles



Applying the models outside North Americau European cities

u In past, social segregation was verticalu Poor in basements/attics

u Wealthy u live in inner city (different than US)

u follow sector radiating from center (like Hoyt model)

u Pooru clustered on outskirts (high-rise apts. = “projects”)

u they don’t “scare” tourists

u avoids urban sprawl

u Islamic citiesu walled, minarets, mosques, courtyards, lightly colored to reflect heat,

recapture/recycle water

Income Distribution in the Paris Region

European Cities

Griffin-Ford Latin American Cities

u wealthy push from center in an elite residential sector

u “spine” develops to service needs of wealthy

u Often along boulevardu Zone of maturity

u Middle-class, well-keptu Zone of in situ accretion

u Lower working classu Moving up or down

u Squatter settlements

u Outside highway ringu perifico

u Ciudades perdades, favelas

Other non-Western urban models u SE Asian Model

u McGee (1967)

u Port is focusu Semi-periphery serving core

u CBD split into sep. clustersu Govt. zone

u Western commercial zone

u Alien commercial zone

u dominated by Chinese

u Larger middle-class on outskirts

Other non-Western urban modelsu Africau Fastest growing cities

u Difficult to model

u 3 CBDsu Old colonial

u Vertical development

u informal/periodic

u Open air

u Transitional

u Curbside single story

u Encircled by ethnic or mixed neighborhoods

u Mining and manufacturing sector

u Squatter settlements

Borchert’s Model

u Links American urbanization to the dominant transportation mode of the era (epoch)u Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790–1830) trade dominated by ocean vessels

with sails, inland trade is slow with wagon trains. Coastal cities become important (NY, Boston, Philadelphia, Charleston, Savannah)

u Iron Horse Epoch (1830–70), characterized by impact of steam engine technology, and development of steamboats and regional railroad networks, trade and population moves inland along rivers and canals (Cincinnati, Buffalo, Detroit, Pittsburgh, New Orleans, St. Louis)

u Steel Rail Epoch (1870–1920), dominated by the development of long haul railroads and a national railroad network (Chicago)

u Auto-Air-Amenity Epoch (1920–70), with growth in the gasoline combustion engine, growth disconnected from waterways. Movement toward warmer climates. Flexibility of auto (and air) travel. (suburbs, Dallas, Denver, Los Angeles)

u Satellite-Electronic-Jet Propulsion (1970–?), also called the High-Technology Epoch. International connections dominate (Miami, San Francisco, Houston, Washington DC, NYC, LA)

u Cities that emerged in earlier stages may stay relevant or fade if they don’t adjust to new situation (NYC vs. Detroit…….Chicago????)

u Gateway cities: cities that serve as an entry point to a different civilization, new world or frontier (examples include: St. Louis, San Francisco, New York, Istanbul)

Gateway Cities

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Urbanization & Services - adamshumangeo.org · Central Place Theory u Predicts how and where central places in the urban hierarchy (hamlets, villages, towns, and cities) are functionally