URBANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN

3.1 Introduction:

Today, half of the world’s population lives in urban areas. By 2050, 70 percent

of the population will be urban. India has been witnessing massive urbanization. Over

the six decades since independence, India’s population grew three-fold from 350

million in 1947 to 1027 million in the year in 2001. During the same period, the urban

population grew almost 4.6 fold as fast – from 62.4 million to 286 million (Census

2001). Thus, the Independent India has been urbanising very fast. The process of

urbanization has been closely linked with pattern of economic development in the

country. Although the process of urbanization in India could not be explained fully by

the process of economic development, it is positively linked with the latter.1

Thus, the rapid increase in urbanization and economic development has led to

severe environmental degradation that undermines the environmental resource base

upon which sustainable development depends. The economics of environmental

pollution, depletion and degradation of resources has in fact been neglected as

compared to the issues of growth and expansion. India has been no exception to this

worldwide phenomenon; rather, the trends in environmental deterioration in India,

because of the substantial increase in its population, have been far more prominent as

compared to other developing economies.

Urban development in India is presently going through a very dynamic stage,

the percentage of population in urban centres itself having increased from 14 per cent

in the 1940s to about 33 per cent in 20002. The unprecedented challenge of such an

urban shift has resulted in Indian cities degenerating into slums and squatters camps.

The rapid expansion of cities has brought with it acute problems of environment

resulting in the degradation of quality of life. In order to comprehend the above

issues and problems of urbanization and environment, the National Development

Plans have, from time to time, developed certain techniques and solutions in the

process of urban and environmental planning policy. The key factor is that,

urbanization will continue in India in the foreseeable future and going to place heavier

demand on the environment. It is, therefore, important to understand the process of

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urbanization in different regions and design appropriate policies of urban

development. Thus, the five year plans prepared by the Planning Commission of India

reflect the aspirations and long-term plans of the central government on all aspects of

economy, environment and development. These plans can be helpful in analysing the

policy regarding various sectors.

It is in this milieu of the association between urbanization and environmental

degradation, the present chapter is devoted to the same issue. The entire chapter is

divided into four segments. Second part discusses India’s Five Year Plans at a Glance

and urban planning and policies in India under different Five Year plans at length.

The third part is entirely devoted to environmental awareness programmes, policies

and people’s participation. In this segment further the environmental policies and

environmental concerns in India’s planning under different Five Year Plans are being

discussed. The fourth and the last portion draw attention to the lack of integration

between environmental policies and economic planning.

3.2 Urban Planning and Policies in India, Five Year Plans and

Programmes for the Urban Poor

India began the process of planned economic development with the start of the

First Five Year Plan on April 1, 1951. In a broad sense, the basic objectives of

planning in India can be grouped under four heads: (a) growth, (b) modernisation, (c)

self-reliance and (d) social justice. In one form or another, these objectives, although

with varying emphasis, reflect the views of all sections of the population and

represent a national consensus on the aims of planning.

A. India’s Five Year Plans at a Glance:

First Five Year Plan (1951-52 to 1955-56), India faced three formidable

problems, viz. severe food shortage, mounting inflation and the influx of refugees in

the wake of partition of the country in 1947. The First Five Year Plan had to address

these problems on an urgent basis.

The Second Five Year Plan (1956-57 to 1960-61), was formulated and

implemented in an atmosphere of economic stability. Agricultural targets fixed in the

First Plan had been achieved and inflation had registered a fall. The plan followed the

Mahalanobis model, an economic development model developed by the Indian

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statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in 1953. The time was ripe to shift focus

from agriculture to industry to give a big boost to the economy on modern lines.

Hence, the Second Plan concentrated on the development of heavy and basic

industries to lay the foundation for future industrialization of the Indian economy. It is

also noteworthy that in 1956, Government announced its Industrial Policy (called by

some as the economic constitution of India) which accepted the establishment of a

socialistic pattern of society as the goal of economic policy. The industrial

development programme adopted was given by P.C. Mahalanobis. The model was

created as an analytical framework for India’s Second Five Year Plan in 1955 under

the instructions of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, as India felt there was a need to

introduce a formal plan model after the successful completion of First Five Year Plan

(1951-1956). The First Five Year Plan stressed investment for capital accumulation in

the spirit of the one-sector Harrod–Domar model. It argued that production required

capital and that capital can be accumulated through investment; the faster one

accumulates, the higher the growth rate will be. The most fundamental criticisms

came from Mahalanobis, who himself was working with a variant of it in 1951 and

1952. The criticisms were mostly around the model’s inability to cope with the real

constraints of the economy; it’s ignoring of the fundamental problems of planning

over time; and the lack of connection between the model and the actual selection of

projects for governmental expenditure. Subsequently; Mahalanobis introduced his

celebrated two-sector model, which he later expanded into a four-sector version.

Third Five year Plan (1961-62 to 1965-66), accordingly, gave top priority to

agriculture but it also laid adequate emphasis on the development of basic industries

which were vital for rapid development of the economy. In fact, the Third Plan set as

its goal in the establishment of self-reliant and self-generating economy.

Planned development efforts were disrupted when the country came under

severe shocks such as hostilities with Pakistan (1965), droughts for two successive

years (1965-66 and 1966-67), devaluation of the rupee (1966) and inflationary

pressure. On account of these adverse circumstances, the draft outline of the Fourth

Plan prepared had to be abandoned. Instead, three Annual Plans (1966-67, 1967-68

and 1968-69) were prepared and implemented.

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The planning process was resumed when the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-

70 to 1973-74) became operational on April 1, 1969. It set before itself two main

objectives: (a) growth with stability and (b) progressive achievement of self-reliance.

The Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-75 to 1978-79) was executed when the

country was undergoing severe economic strains such as run-away inflation caused by

unprecedented increase in international oil prices in the wake of 1973 Gulf Crisis and

the failure of the Government to take over the wholesale trade in wheat. The Plan

could not complete its five years because it was terminated at the end of the fourth

year (i.e. March 31, 1978) by the new Janata Party Government at the Centre.

The political turmoil of the late 1970s witnessed two Sixth Plans. The Sixth

Plan (1978-79 to 1982-83), of the Janata Party Government which was abandoned

with the change of Government at the Centre in 1980. The new Government led by

Mrs. Indira Gandhi introduced its own Sixth five year Plan (1980-81 to 1984-85)

which successfully ran its full course. It focused on direct attack on poverty.3

The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-86 to 1989-90) sought to emphasise

policies and programmes to increase food grains production, employment

opportunities and productivity.

Eighth Five Year Plan which was to begin on April 1, 1990 covering the

period 1990-91 to 1994-95 could not be finalised on time and hence there was a plan

gap of two years. It took off on April 1, 1992 covering the period 1992-93 to 1996-97.

This was followed by the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-98 to 2001-2002) with the

main aim of attaining objectives like speedy industrialization, human development,

full-scale employment, poverty reduction, and self-reliance on domestic resources.4

The Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-03 to 2006-07) envisaged redefining the

role of Government in the context of the emergence of a strong and vibrant private

sector, need for provision of infrastructure and the need for imparting greater

flexibility in fiscal and monetary policies. In November 2006, the Government

released the Approach paper to the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-08 to 2011-

12). The Plan became operative from April 1, 2007. “The broad vision of this Plan

includes several inter-related components: rapid growth that reduces poverty and

creates employment opportunities, access to essential services in health and education

52

especially for the poor, equality of opportunity, environmental sustainability,

recognition of women’s agency and good governance”.5

Table 3.1: Growth Rate Performance in the Various Plans

(In % per annum)

Plan period Target Realisation

First Plan (1951-1956) 2.1 3.5

Second Plan (1956-1961) 4.5 4.2

Third Plan (1961-66) 5.6 2.8

Fourth Plan (1969-74) 5.7 3.2

Fifth Plan (1974-79) 4.4 4.7

Sixth Plan (1980-85) 5.2 5.5

Seventh Plan (1985-90) 5.0 5.6

Eighth Plan (1992-97) 5.6 6.5

Ninth Plan (1997-2002) 6.5 5.5

Tenth Plan (2002-07) 8.0 7.8

Source: Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007-2012, Planning Commission, GOI, (Volume –I).

Table 3.2: Population of India by Residence (1951-2001)

Sources: Various census Report

Table 3.1 shows the growth performance during various five year plans and

Table 3.2 reveals that the number of total population has increased from 361 million

Census Year

Total Population

Average Annual

Compound Growth

Rate

Urban Population

Average Annual

compound Growth

Rate

Rural Population

Average Annual

Compound Growth

Rate

1951 361088090 - 62443709 - 298644381 -

1961 439234771 1.97 78936603 2.4 360298168 1.9

1971 598159652 3.1 109113977 3.1 489045675 3.1

1981 683329097 1.3 159462547 3.9 523866550 0.69

1991 844324222 2.1 217177625 3.1 627146597 1.8

2001 1027015247 1.97 285354954 2.8 741660293 1.7

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in 1951 to 1027 million in 2001. During the same period, the number of population

residing in urban and rural areas has increased from 62.4 million to 285 million in

urban areas and from 298.6 million to 742 million in rural areas. This shows that

urban population has increased 4.6 times whereas rural population has increased 2.5

times during the period 1951 to 2001. The table clearly shows that the average annual

compound growth rate of urban population was always higher in all the census years.

It was 5.65 times during the period 1971-1981. This is clearly a reflection of the pace

at which urbanization is taking place in India. The average annual compound growth

rate of urban population was 2.4 in 1961.The decades 1971, 1981 and 1991 showed a

significant improvement in the growth which has thereafter steadily dropped to 2.8 in

2001. The rural growth has been fluctuating since 1961. The decline in rural

population growth was marginal during 1991 and 2001.

B. Urban Policy during the Five Year Plan Periods for the Urban Poor:

The urban planning techniques and solutions that developed during the course

of Plans suggested quite a few measures to tackle the problems of urbanization and

urban growth. In the First Five Year Plan (1951-56), the government concentrated

on institution-building, on construction of homes for government employees and for

weaker sections of society. Interestingly, a good part of the Plan outlay was spent on

rehabilitation of the refugees from Pakistan and on building the new city of

Chandigarh. An Industrial Housing Scheme was also initiated. Chandigarh, with its

obvious modernist edge, in some perverted way became the model for the low-cost

yellow buildings that were so ubiquitous during the two decades after Indian

independence and continue to remain so today. In the same plan period the National

Buildings Organisation and the School of Planning and Architecture were set up in

order to improve the quality and efficiency of built environment building, research

and develop housing technologies and create a cadre of trained town planners.

Furthermore, the central government also set up the Town and Country Planning

Organisation to provide guidance and assistance to central and state governments on

urban problems and also to prepare the Delhi Master Plan which was conceived as the

model plan which was subsequently to provide a framework for master plans to be

prepared for other cities.

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The other two issues in the 1st Plan were industrial and employer housing and

slums. The Plan noted that “construction of houses by employers in post-war years

has fallen short of expectations” (Dwivedi 2007). More importantly, it notes that “the

employers have generally taken the stand that not they but the state has the

responsibility for providing houses for the working class”. This is in stark contrast to

experiments like TISCO in Jamshedpur where the company took upon itself the

responsibility of providing housing and other amenities to its workforce and their

families. Thus we see that after Independence the private capital increasingly started

washing its hands off the issues of reproduction of its workforce.6

The Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961), gave priority to set up the

industrial towns as the potential centers of urbanization. The preparation of Master

Plans of 21 cities was taken up for co-ordinated urban development. The Town and

Country Planning Act were formulated to revamp the civic administration. The

concept of slum clearance has been revised to achieve slum improvement as slum

clearance is not enough unless the slums are re-built and resettle the affected people. 7

The Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966) laid emphasis on town planning for

which the responsibility was shifted from Centre to the States. A Model Town

Planning Act was prepared in 1957 by the Town and Country Planning Organisation,

Delhi and this led to the enactment of laws in other states. The Third Five Year Plan

extends financial support for the preparation of master plans for the development of

cities and towns in the states. As a result of such efforts, nearly 400 master plans were

prepared. Moreover, the Third Plan also initiated Urban-Community Development

Scheme in selected cities as an experimental scheme to solve social and human

problems associated with urban slums.8

It was only in the Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969-74) that the policies started

reflecting growth and concentration of population in cities and the need for a balanced

development. Another important aspect was the vision to develop smaller towns with

spatial economic activities. These economic activities were aimed at generation of

income for the residents of the small towns. Coupled with this, the plan also brought

out a Scheme for Environmental improvement of Urban slums , to provide minimum

services like water supply , sanitation and street pavements in 11 cities, which were

later extended to nine additional locations. The Housing and Urban Development

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Corporation was established to fund the remunerative housing and urban

developmental programmes, aimed at turnovers.9

The Fifth five Year Plan (1974-79) was mainly concerned with introducing

measures to control land prices in cities; providing a framework for the development

of small and medium towns; augmenting basic services in cities and towns;

addressing the problems of metropolitan cities with a regional perspective and assist

development projects having national significance in metropolitan cities. The

priorities expressed in the Plan were based partly on the National Urbanization Policy

Resolution of the Town and Country Planning Organisation. In order to evolve a

framework for the development of small and medium towns the central government

constituted a Task Force on Planning and Development of Small and Medium Towns

in 1975. The main objectives of the Task Force, headed by Prof. Bijit Ghose, were to

“examine laws relating to local administration and urban development, and to suggest

suitable modifications of these laws, keeping in view the need to assist in the planned

growth of small and medium towns, and to formulate guidelines and regulations in the

matters such as zoning, setbacks, building control and such other relevant matters”10.

The report of the Task Force was published in 1977 and recommendations included

giving priority to the development of existing towns and cities within a population

range of 50,000-3,00,000. The framework for the selection and consequent

development of small and medium towns consisted of the following

recommendations:11

(a) formulation of a national urban policy; (b) urban land policy to ensure

proper use of land (c) development of small and medium towns, cities and

metropolises with organic linkages to their immediate areas; (d) identification of

growth points in the region that may be delineated; (e) evolution of location policies

in the context of regional development; (f) provision of inviolable greenbelts around

settlements of certain sizes; (g) working out of rational and feasible norms and

standards of urban development; and (h) creation of appropriate statutory local

government agencies at various levels.

The Plan also emphasised the need for infrastructural development of cities

with population over 300,000. To achieve this goal a scheme called Integrated Urban

Development Programme (IUDP) was launched. Also, the Sites and Services Scheme

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for making serviced land available to the poor was launched in this Plan period. In

order to control increase land prices in cities, the Plan suggested several measures,

including, “differential taxes on land based on its use, higher taxes on vacant lands to

discourage speculation, conversion tax on change of land use and enhanced stamp

duty on transfer of lands” 12. One of the most important steps that were taken to check

land prices and speculation in land during the fifth plan period was the promulgation

of the Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act (ULCRA), 1976. The ULCRA aimed

at preventing concentration of urban land in the hands of a few thereby checking

speculation in and profiteering from land. It enabled the socialisation of urban land to

ensure equitable distribution amongst various social classes and orderly development

of urban built environment.

The focus of the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) was largely on the

development of small and medium towns and provision of basic services in urban

slums. Though the Plan underlined the need to improve environmental conditions in

slums through improvement in drainage, sewerage and sanitation the urban

component of the 6th Plan is remembered primarily for the introduction of a centrally

sponsored scheme called the Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns

(IDSMT) with the objective of promoting growth in towns with less than 100,000

population through provision of infrastructure and basic services. The components

eligible for central assistance under the IDSMT included land acquisition and

services, construction of new markets, provision of industrial estates, provision of

other services and processing facilities for the benefit of agricultural and rural

development in the hinterland and low cost sanitation (which was added to this list

later). The state components included slum improvement, small scale employment

generation, low-cost water supply schemes, drainage and sanitation, sewerage,

preventive medical facilities, parks and playgrounds. To begin with the scheme

included 231 towns in various states and union territories, selected on the basis of the

ratio of urban population in the state to the total urban population in the country Later

on a few additional towns were added to this list.13

The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990) stressed the need to entrust the

major responsibility of housing construction to the private sector. The National

Housing Bank was set up to expand the base of housing finance. The NBO was

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reconstituted and a new organisation called Building Material Technology Promotion

Council (BMTPC) was set up to promote the commercial production of innovative

building materials. A network of Building Centres was also set up during this Plan

period. The Seventh Plan explicitly recognised the problems of the urban poor and for

the first time an Urban Poverty Alleviation Scheme known as Urban Basic Services

for the Poor (UBSP) was launched. Since then, much of the tendency has been to

allow for the industries around building materials, mainly cement and steel, to

determine the allocation of resources for building environments. This was also the

period when private builders got an enormous boost to enter the mass housing market

and make materials even more expensive for the poor. The National Housing Policy

was announced in 1988. In this, the role of the government was reflected as ‘a

provider for the poorest and vulnerable sections and as a facilitator for other income

groups and private sector by the removal of constraints and the increased supply of

land and services’.14

In the Seventh Plan, emphasis is placed on the major programmes:

1. The Environmental Improvement of Slums (EIS) programme has to be continued

with greater vigour and steps should be taken to provide security of tenure to the

slum dwellers so that they may develop a stake in maintaining and improving their

habitat. Of the total urban population, nearly a fifth is estimated to constitute the

slum population. The Sixth Plan had estimated that in 1985 the magnitude of such

population needing attention would be about 33.1 million. Of this, up to March

1985, about 15.6 million slum dwellers would have been benefited, leaving a

balance of 17.5 million people yet to be provided relief.

2. In order to ensure a balanced distribution of urban population and to slow down

the growth of metropolises, a centrally sponsored scheme of Integrated

Development of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT) was introduced during the

Sixth Plan to provide infrastructure and other facilities in these towns. The Sixth

Plan made a provision of Rs. 96 crore in the Central sector with a matching

provision in the States sector for the development of about 200 towns. During the

plan period, Central release amounted to about Rs. 61 crore in respect of 235

towns.

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3. The Plan include a provision of Rs. 930 crore in States sector for provision of

infrastructure facilities like roads, pavements, minor civic works. This provision

also includes the States’ contribution against the centrally sponsored scheme of

IDSMT. A provision of Rs. 317.58 crore is included for the development projects

being undertaken in the Calcutta Metropolitan Development Area (CMDA) as a

part of the externally aided programmes.

4. An outlay of Rs. 35 crore has been included in the Plan of the Ministry of Works

and Housing for the development of the National Capital Region (NCR) around

Delhi. This will be in addition to the provision included in the plans of other

Central Ministries like Railways, Shipping and Transport, etc.

5. In India, the use of development banks to finance development oriented sectors in

the national economy has proved to be quite successful. It is proposed to set up an

Urban Infrastructure Development Finance Corporation to deal with the emerging

urban problem that the country is and will be facing. The Plan provide Rs. 35

crore in the Urban Development Sector and Rs. 20 crore in the Water supply and

sanitation sector, as initial capital for the Corporation which would augment its

resources by raising funds from institutional sources.15

Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997) for the first time explicitly recognised

the role and importance of the urban sector for the national economy. While the

growth rate of employment in the urban areas averaged around 3.8 percent per annum,

it dropped to about 1.6 percent in the rural areas. Therefore, the urban areas have to be

enabled to absorb larger increments to the labour force. The Plan identified the key

issues in the emerging urban scenario, via: the widening gap between demand and

supply of infrastructural services, which hits the poor, whose access to the basic

services like drinking water, sanitation, education and basic healthcare is shrinking;

the unabated growth of the urban population, aggravating the accumulated backlog of

housing shortages and resulting in the proliferation of slums and squatter settlements

and decay of city environments. Once again, we are back to square one: the need to

attack poverty in urban areas with the same urgency that motivated anti-poverty

rhetoric in the early years of India's modern growth, the need to provide spaces for the

poor to enter into economic transactions without fear of harassment from organised

markets and local state machinery, the need to make building materials cheap and

subsidise land for the poor, create inexpensive medical and health facilities and give

59

priority to primary health. All familiar inputs, which would have qualitatively

changed the way the economy would have been had similar investments been made in

the rural sector itself, decades ago.16

At the beginning of the 8th Plan period, in 1992, the 74th Constitutional

Amendment Act was promulgated. It was a landmark Act which sought to

decentralize decision making in cities and towns through creation of elected urban

local bodies (ULBs). The functions and responsibilities to the local bodies have been

laid down in the Twelfth Schedule of the Amendment Act. The Legislature has to

provide legal provisions authorizing the ULBs to levy collect and appropriate taxes

and duties to augment revenue / resources so that the ULBs need not depend solely on

the government grants. The State Finance Commissions shall review the principles of

determining taxes, duties and grant-in-aid to the Municipalities but even after a

decade there has hardly been any improvement of the ULB’s financial capacity.

The Mega City Scheme a centrally sponsored scheme launched in five cities,

namely, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad and Bangalore during the 8th Plan

had the express purpose of preparing municipalities to use institutional finance and

eventually market instruments like municipal bonds for capital investment

requirements. One of the highlights of the 8th Plan period was the publication of the

India infrastructure report, In October 1994, the Ministry of Finance, GOI, set up an

Expert Group on Commercialization of Infrastructure Projects under the leadership of

Rakesh Mohan. The Group submitted its report titled The India Infrastructure Report:

Policy Imperatives for Growth and Welfare (IIR) in June 1996 which is widely

considered a landmark document in the push towards privatization and/or

commercialization of infrastructure creation and management, service provision and

regulatory and governance systems. A clear imprint of the IIR can be seen in various

policy and legislative measures that central and state governments have adopted in

infrastructure and urban sectors.

The Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002), received the New Economic

Environment of liberation and structural reforms in the urban sector. To tackle the

problem of housing, which was felt much more acutely, public and private

participation was encouraged also allowing Multi National Companies (MNCs) in this

plan period. The planning commission expected 50,000 crore for the facilities of

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drinking water supply and sanitation in urban areas. Union Government design and

took important steps for the development of the urban sector. Urban Development

Planning again came in to limelight due to the era of economic liberalisation. Private

sector is also playing a key role in developing infrastructure in the urban areas. The

Union Government also lift the ban on foreign investment in the urban sector

especially in the creation of infrastructure. 17

In this perspective, the major objectives of the Ninth Plan are the following:

1. Development of urban areas as economically efficient, socially equitable and

environmentally sustainable entities.

2. Accelerated development of housing, particularly for the low income groups

and other disadvantaged groups.

3. Development and upgradation of urban infrastructure services to meet the

needs of growing population.

4. Alleviation of urban poverty and unemployment.

5. Promoting accessibility and affordability of the poor to housing and basic

services.

6. Promoting efficient and affordable mass urban transportation systems in

metropolitan cities.

7. Improvement of urban environment.

8. Promoting private sector participation in the provision of public infrastructure

and of the community and NGOs in the urban planning and management of

specific component of urban services.

9. Democratic decentralisation and strengthening of municipal governance.

Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007): The Plan identifies urbanization as “a key

determinant of the economic growth in the 1980s and 1990s, boosted by economic

liberalisation”. The 10th Plan (2002-07) was prepared in the backdrop of the Union

Budget of 2002-03 which had announced radical measures to push cities into carrying

out comprehensive urban reforms. The overriding thrust of the 10th Plan was to

promote overhauling of the legislative, governance and administrative structure of

cities through a set of market-friendly urban reforms and promotion of Public Private

Participations in urban infrastructure and services. The 10th Plan said it in no

uncertain terms that urban infrastructure could not be funded by budgetary support

alone. A lot of emphasis was thus placed on making urban local bodies financially

61

strong so that they have to rely less and less on state transfers. To enable ULBs to

raise their own resources the Plan advocated reform in property tax, levying of user

charges, increasing non-tax revenues, controlling establishment costs, better

utilisation of municipal assets and overhauling municipal accounting systems. These

reforms, it was suggested, would enhance the credit-worthiness of ULBs and make

them capable to mobilising funds from capital market and investors. The Plan also

spoke about substantially increasing investment in up gradation of urban

infrastructure and services but made it clear that central assistance in this regard

would be made conditional upon states and ULBs carrying out sector reforms, in

particular better standard of services and levying of user charges.18

The Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012): The 11th Plan, for instance, is

categorical about “increasing the efficiency and productivity of cities by deregulation

and development of land” and “dismantling public sector monopoly over urban

infrastructure and creating conducive atmosphere for the private sector to invest”

(GOI, 11th FYP). The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy recognizes that

there is a need for the government to retain its role in social housing “so that

affordable housing is made available to EWS and LIG of the population as they lack

affordability and are hopelessly out priced in urban land markets” (NUHHP, 2007). It

also recognizes that 99 percent of the housing shortage in the country currently is for

poor and low income groups. However instead of suggesting a time-bound action plan

for direct central and state level governmental action to build housing/ supply serviced

land for the poor, the policy recommends adopting a “demand driven approach” and

moving away from “subsidy based housing schemes to cost-recovery-cum-subsidy

schemes for housing through a proactive financial policy” (NUHHP, 2007).

Not only is Indian less urbanised, the state of urban infrastructure, especially

the availability of water and sewage treatment facilities, is much lower than what it

should be. Urban transport infrastructure also leaves much to be desired. The

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), which commenced

in the Tenth Plan, will continue to be the main vehicle for raising the level of

infrastructure and utilities in the existing cities. The aim of the Mission is to create

economically productive, efficient, equitable and responsive cities and the focus is on

the following:

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1. Improving and augmenting the economic and social infrastructure of cities.

2. Ensuring basic services to the urban poor including security of tenure at

affordable prices.

3. Initiating wide ranging urban sector reforms whose primary aim is to eliminate

legal, institutional and financial constraints that have impeded investment in

urban infrastructure and services.

4. Strengthening municipal governments and their functioning in accordance with

the provisions of the Constitutional (74th) Amendment Act, 1992.

The development of satellite townships can be left largely to the private sector.

However, in order to facilitate and induce such development the State Governments

will need to undertake provision of trunk level infrastructure. The National Capital

Region Planning Board is tasked with planning the process of infrastructure

development for the areas around Delhi. Urban poverty alleviation and slum

development will continue to be an important component of the Eleventh Plan. Tenth

Plan schemes under the JNNURM for providing affordable shelter and decent living

and working conditions to the poor and for helping them to develop self-employment

enterprises will be continued. The Swaran Jayanti Shahri Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY), a

Centrally Sponsored Scheme to provide gainful employment to the urban employed

(below the poverty line) will be implemented in the Eleventh Plan Period.19

Table 3.3: Plan outlay in Housing and Urban Development Sector

(Rs in Millions)

Plan Total outlay Housing & Urban

Development % share in the

total First Plan 20688 488 2.1

Second Plan 48000 1200 2.5 Third Plan 85765 1276 1.5 Fourth Plan 157788 2702 1.7 Fifth Plan 394262 11500 2.9 Sixth Plan 975000 24884 2.6

Seventh Plan 1800000 42295 2.3 Eighth Plan 4341000 105000 2.4 Ninth Plan N.A. 158800 N.A. Tenth Plan N.A. 405000 N.A.

Eleventh Plan N.A. 368700 N.A. Source: Planning Commission & Ministry of Urban Development, GOI

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Table 3.3 shows that the percentage share of housing and urban development

sector as part of the total plan outlay has been consistently hovering at about 2-2.4

percent. Now the question arises here is, how did the government address the

overlapping issues of urbanization, poverty and environment? Therefore, in 2000-01,

the erstwhile Ministry of Urban Development and the Ministry of Employment and

Poverty were combined into one and known as the ‘Ministry of Urban Development

and Poverty Alleviation’, and it was further divided into two specific departments: (a)

Department of Urban Development; and (b) Department of Urban Employment and

Poverty. Here, the government makes a marked distinction between urban and rural

poverty.

3.3 Environmental Awareness Programmes, Policies and People’s

Participation:

The concern for environment though a recent phenomenon but has grown in

rapid pace in India. The protection and preservation of environment is a pressing

issue. Every person, organisation and institution has an obligation and duty to protect

it. Environmental consciousness deserves to be propagated at all levels. However, the

spurt in the environmental awareness in these countries is partly induced by donor

agencies from developed countries, but mainly through local non-governmental

organisations (NGOs). In India, for instance, the active groups of environmentalists

and NGOs are trying to bring in environmental awareness among common people and

raise these issues at the policy making fora. Simultaneously, the governments, both at

the national and state level, are under regular pressure to work for alleviation of

poverty and to regulate the environmental impacts of the major development projects.

India faces environmental problems at two levels:

1. Those arising as negative effects of the very process of development; and

2. Those arising from conditions of poverty and under-development.

The first category has to do with the impact of efforts to achieve rapid

economic growth and development and continuing pressures of demand generated by

those sections of society who are economically more advanced and impose great

strains on the supply of natural resources. Poorly planned developmental projects are

also often environmentally destructive. The second category has to do with the impact

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on the health and integrity of our natural resources (land, soil, water, forests, wildlife,

etc.) as a result of poverty and the inadequate availability, for a large section of our

population, of the means to fulfil basic human needs (food, fuel, shelter, employment,

etc.). Needless to say, the two problems are interrelated.20

A. State of Environment

Environmental quality in India has deteriorated significantly in the last two

decades inspite of extensive changes in environmental policy. This is because of the

wide gap between the intent of the policy and the actual achievement. Beside this,

major problems have not received serious attention. India’s environmental problems

are mainly due to its high population pressure and limited natural resources. India

accounts for 15 per cent of the world’s population but has only 2.4 per cent of the

world’s land area. Our development process has not only ignored environmental

considerations but has been an unjust and imbalanced development. The following

facts reveal the grim scenario our economy:

• More than 200 million people in the country live below the poverty line.

• More than 200 million people have no access to safe drinking water.

• More than 500 million people have no access to proper sanitation.

• More than 150 million people are without proper shelter.

• More than 500 million people are illiterate.

• More than a million children die each year before they see their first

birthday.21

Besides these, our natural resources are getting depleted at alarming rates. Out

of the total 329 million hectares area of the country, 175 million hectares or nearly 55

per cent is estimated to suffer from various types of degradation. Out of the 175

million hectares degraded land area, 141.3 million hectares land suffers from water

and soil erosion. Another 8.5 million hectares is waterlogged; and the remaining 25.2

million hectares is degraded due to alkanity, acidity, salinity, shifting cultivation, etc.

Our forest wealth is dwindling due to over-grazing, over-exploitation both for

commercial and house-hold needs, encroachments, unsustainable practices including

certain practices of shifting cultivation and developmental activities such as roads,

buildings, irrigation and power projects. The recorded forest cover in the country is

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75.01 million hectare which works out to 19.5 per cent of the total geographical area

against the broad national goal of 33 per cent for the plain areas and 66 per cent for

hilly regions. Even within this area, only 11 per cent constitute forests with 40 per

cent or more of crown cover. Our unique wetlands, rich in aquatic and bird life,

providing food and shelter as also the breeding and spawning ground for the marine

and fresh water fishes, are facing problems of pollution and over-exploitation. The

major rivers of the country are also facing problems of pollution and siltation. Our

long coastline is under similar stress. Our coastal areas have been severely damaged

due to unsystematic construction near the water-line.

This apart, India faces major environmental problems related to

industrialization and urbanization also. In pursuit of faster industrialization, the

environmental factors have not been given the desired consideration in the

formulation of industrial policies. The cavalier attitude towards environmental

degradation and adoption of less environmental friendly technologies has resulted in

air and water pollution and made most of our rivers impure and filthy. While the

major industries are responsible for macro-environmental problems, the unchecked

growth of informal manufacturing sector in most of the urban centres has spoiled the

micro-environment. Most of these problems are mainly due to the short-sighted

policies pursued by the government rather than due to the development paradigm

itself. Unfortunately, these policies still continue despite the increased environmental

concerns. Such policies include(i) bias in agricultural policies towards well endowed

regions to the neglect of environmentally fragile regions;( ii) inefficiency in water use

due to lopsided irrigation policies which have enhanced the environmental

degradation; (iii) lack of proper land use policy; (iv) absence of environmental

concerns in the industrial policies; (v) lack of integrated policies on natural resource

management, e.g., groundwater regulation, open field mining, etc, and (vi) more

importantly, lack of coordination between macro-policies and grass roots level

realities, resulting in the neglect of age old institutional structures which encouraged

people's participation 22. This is only a glimpse of the environmental problem existing

in India, and to achieve sustainable development, what is needed most is commitment

and dedication to the cause of protection, preservation and conservation of

environment, which is very necessary for those who are present and those who are yet

to be born.

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B. Concern of Environment in India’s planning

More than two decades ago the United Nations’ conference on the “Human

Environment” in Stockholm (1972) drew attention to the government and people of

world to the increasing evidence that our activities were producing deleterious effects

on the natural and man-made environment, and creating serious risks for the survival

and well-being of people themselves and also to provide the basis for international

cooperation, to meet this new challenge of the 20th century.

India is the first country, which has provided for the protection and

improvement for the environment in its constitution and has taken several steps in

planning and policies to overcome the environmental problems. If we go to back we

can have the idea that there is an evolutionary process in India’s planning from the

beginning.

The First & Second Five-Year Plans:

After the formal independence the Planning Commission of India prepared the

first documented plan in 1952 under the chairmanship of the then Prime Minister of

India. The main objective of this plan was to raise the living standard of people and to

increase the National Income and Per capita Income by 20 per cent and 17 per cent

respectively and open revenues for all people. But in the first and second plan there

were no concrete steps for environmental degradation. Only few scattered forest and

soil conservation policies were undertaken. The Forest Policy Revolution act of May

12, 1952, suggested maintaining one thirds of its total land area under forests.

The Third Five-Year Plan:

In the third Five-year planning it was proposed not only to intensify some of

the programs initiated under the first and second plans, but also to put special

emphasize on measures which will help meet the long term requirements of the

country and ensure more economic and efficient utilisation of the available forest

products, including inferior timber and wood residues. The immediate objective is to

increase the output through better techniques of timber extraction, to develop forest

communications and to bring about better utilisation through the increased use of

preservation and seasoning processes.

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Fourth and Fifth Five-Year Plans:

The fourth 5-year plan showed no new dimension in environmental concern.

Only some few forests policies and programs were merged with Animal Husbandry

and Fisheries section. Fifth plan also goes to same direction. There were no such new

areas. Only some few forestry programs had taken place. But in this plan emphasize

was given to improve urban environmental condition basically in the slum areas.

The Sixth Five-Year Plan:

Concern of environmental problem made its first footsteps in the 6th five-year

planning. For the first time, in India’s planning there was separate provision for

environmental degradation. Steps were taken for water pollution, air, noise and land

pollution separately. Though plans and programs in the field of soil conservation and

public health forests and wild life protection, industrial hygiene etc. had been in

existence in India for many decades, but the first formal recognition of the need for

integrated environmental planning was made when the Govt. of India constituted the

National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) in 1972.

The Seventh Five-Year Plan:

The 7th plan was the continuation of previous plan with some new

improvements. The basic approach to the 7th plan was sustainable development in

harmony with environment. With the realization that poverty and the state of under

development led to many of the environment problems that confronted with nature

hence the understanding that development is the way of environmental management.

However, another way of environmental problems has arisen as unintended side

effects of the very attempts of development. The plan was made in the following

framework:

i. Pollution monitoring and control:

Environmental pollution is serious and growing hazard in India. Its impact on

human health and well being is both direct (inhalation of polluted air or intake of

contaminated water) and indirect (loss of soil fertility, death of aquatic life). The

Central Board for the prevention and control of water pollution spearheads the effort

such as assessment and control of coastal pollution and strengthening the National

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River Water Quality Monitoring. A major program on prevention of pollution of

Ganga was planned.

ii. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):

It was proposed to induce socio-economic industries and department as well as

different agencies whose projects impinge on environmental quality, to establish

technical cells for Environmental Assessment.

iii. Eco-development:

Most of the programs for environmental management deal with pre-planning

for eliminating or at least minimizing environmental degradation. One of the major

objectives of Eco-development was restoration of already degraded ecosystem

through practical field scheme such as land reclamation, afforestation and cleaning of

water bodies etc.

The Eighth Five-Year Plan:

The scenario of environment and forests continues to cause concern and the

destruction and degradation of forests are taking a heavy toll of our soil and water

resources. In the 8th plan, in addition to a number of national level bodies which have

been constituted by the Ministry on Environment and Forests, the Planning

Commission had set up several expert group/committees to formulate long term

sectoral policies and to reconcile the conceptual confrontation between environment

and development. Submission of an environmental statement by the polluting units to

the concerned State Pollution Control Board was made mandatory through

notification under Environmental Pollution Act (1986).

I. Adoption of Clean Technologies In Small Scale Industries:

This scheme seeks to promote the development and adoption of clean

technologies, including waste re-use and recycling and to link research and

development to prevent pollution.

II. Environmental Statistics and Mapping:

Under the scheme, activities relating to collection and analysis of

environmental data and its direction on an atlas were thought to carry out. Some other

important programs were;

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• World Bank Assisted Industrial Pollution Control Project (Phase I and II)

• Strengthening EIA

• National River Conservation Program

• Integrated Afforestation and Eco-Development Project.

The Ninth Five-Year Plan:

One of the objectives of 9th five-year planning was to ensure environmental

sustainability of the developmental process through social mobilization and

participation of people at all levels. Forests: For ecological sustainability, different

afforestation programs and all round development of the villages for the well being of

forests were planned to initiate. Involvement of NGOs in areas of awareness building

and community education was planned to encourage.

1) Issue Specific Programs:

•••• People’s involvement and role of information

•••• Citizen’s Monitoring Committees were established under the National River

Conservation Programs

•••• People at large and the university systems, particularly science, engineering and

medical facilities were planned to involve in monitoring and enforcement work.

2) Area Specific Programs:

•••• National River Conservation Program (launched in 1995 to clean stretches of

major rivers in the country.

•••• National Lake Conservation Program (the plan was taken up since 1997 to clean

and restore major lakes of the country)

•••• Integrated Development Programs for Himalayan Regions

•••• Islands Conservation Programs.

3) Sector Specific Programs:

•••• Strengthening Central Pollution Control Board

•••• Industrial Pollution Control & Prevention Project.

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The Tenth Five-Year Plan:

The tenth plan is mainly a coordination of some previous projects with some new

initiatives. The plan emphasized on different pollution problems continuing from the

ninth plan which are as follows:

1. Air Pollution:

• The CPCB has established a national air-monitoring network covering 290

stations spread over 90 cities and towns. To reduce vehicular pollution, emission

standards and restrictions were imposed for petrol and diesel driven vehicles.

• Guidelines have been made for setting up of industries.

• Twenty-four critically polluted areas have been identified across the country and

an action plan has been devised for the control of pollution in these areas.

2. Water pollution

• Emphasise was given on mainly ongoing projects viz. National River

Conservation Plan and National Lake Conservation Plan. No other new initiatives

were made in this plan.

3. Solid waste:

• Master plan for municipal solid waste

• The Bio-medical Waste Management and Handling Rules have been emphasized

in new form.

While the emphasis in the 10th plan was on completing the ongoing process,

there are some new initiatives in the plan such as:

• The scope of Common Effluent Treatment Plants scheme was enhanced to cover

assistance for modernisation and capacity expansion of existing plants.

• Scheme with international cooperation (for watershed management, water and

energy sectors, and bio-diversity) with the financial and technical help from India

Canada Environmental Facility, Global Environment Facility etc.

• Schemes under the Clean Development Mechanism: Direct measurement of

temperature as well as visible effects like rise in sea levels

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• Six projects mainly of non-conventional energy sources were selected for funding

from Netherlands

• The State of Environmental Scheme: The central aim of the scheme was

assessment of physical parameters, sensitization of developmental planners and

introduction of corrective measures in mainstreaming environmental concerns.

The Eleventh Five-Year Plan:

Protection of environment has to be a central part of any sustainable inclusive

growth strategy. This aspect of development is especially important in the Eleventh

Plan when consciousness of the dangers of environmental degradation has increased

greatly. Population growth, urbanization, and anthropogenic development employing

energy-intensive technologies have resulted in injecting a heavy load of pollutants in

to the environment. More recently, the issue assumed special importance because of

the accumulation of evidence of global warming and the associated climate change

that it is likely to bring.

Therefore, the strategy for Eleventh Plan will, therefore, be to create an

environment for achieving sustainable forestry and wildlife management with specific

focus on the socio-economic targets. Accordingly, the following objectives will be the

core of the forestry sector development strategy:

a) The objective of enhancing the green cover will be integrated with livelihood

opportunities. Suitable policy and legal measures for this purpose will back-up

the programmatic interventions. The Tenth plan strived to universalize Joint

Forest Management (JFM). The resolve of the Eleventh Plan is to strengthen the

regime by incorporating the concepts of harvesting, value addition, and

facilitated marketing of forest produce.

b) The ultimate aim of the State forest management will be to achieve optimally

productive forests capable of providing timber and non-timber products, apart

from the ecological services without unnatural change in the composition of the

forests.

c) The forests in the vicinity of habitations will be managed for livelihood needs of

the neighbouring populations. For this, adequate support and empowerment will

be ensured.

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d) The harvest of forest products will be governed by the availability. However,

strategy for widening the production base beyond forests will be pursued to

ensure sustainable use of the land resources of the country.

e) Protected areas will be integrated with the sensitivities of local populations and

protected area management planning will be based on the optimization of local

community resources and the use of non-invasive benefits from the Pas directed

towards the neighbouring population, on village eco-development principles.

f) Support systems for attaining these results will be envied in terms of R&D,

capacity building, and strong information system for long as well as short term

objective monitoring.23

C. Environmental Policies

India’s development objectives as reflected in the planning process have

consistently emphasized the promotion of policies and programmes for economic

growth and social welfare. Environmental issues that have been an integral part of

Indian thought and social processes are reflected in the Constitution of the Republic

of India adopted in 1950. The Eighth Five Year Plan had identified people’s initiative

and participation as a key element in the process of development. It had also

recognized that the role of the Government should be to facilitate and strengthen the

process of involvement of major groups by creating the right types of institutional

infrastructure. The Directive Principles of State Policy enunciate principles, which,

though not enforceable by any Court, are nevertheless fundamental in the governance

of the country. It is the duty of the State to apply these principles in legislation. The

commitment of the State to protect environment and safeguard forests and wildlife is

reflected by specific provisions in the Directive Principles of State Policy. Further, the

Constitution states that it shall be the fundamental duty of every citizen to protect and

improve the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife, and to

have compassion for living creatures. By a 1976 Constitutional amendment, the

subject of forests and wildlife was brought under the Concurrent List in the Seventh

Schedule, thereby enabling Parliament and the Central Government to legislate on

these subjects. The growing trend towards popular participation in the conservation

and natural resource development programmes has resulted from these Constitutional

provisions.

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The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and

Development, adopted in June, 1992, provide the basis for integrating and

internalizing environmental considerations in policies and programmes of different

sectors. It emphasizes sustainable lifestyles, and the proper management and

conservation of resources. The Government’s policy statement of 1992 on Abatement

of Pollution reiterates India’s commitment to arresting deterioration of the

environment, which reflects a shift in focus from problems to implementation of

measures incorporating both short-term and long-term considerations. The statement

recognizes that pollution particularly affects the poor. The complexities are

considerable given the number of industries, organizations, and government bodies

involved. To achieve the objectives, maximum use is made of a mix of instruments

including legislation and regulation, fiscal incentives, voluntary agreements,

educational programmes, and information campaigns. The draft National Strategies

for Sustainable Development (NSSD) are under finalization. A National

Environmental Appellate Authority has been constituted to hear appeals with respect

to rejection of proposals from the environmental angle. The objective is to bring in

transparency in the process and accountability, and to ensure the smooth and

expeditious implementation of developmental schemes and projects.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has been made statutory for various

developmental activities and the Coastal Resource Zones notification (1991) provides

guidelines for protection and management of coastal zones. An EIA Authority for the

National Capital Region has been constituted to deal with environmental protection

problems arising out of projects planned in the National Capital Region (NCR). An

Aquaculture Authority has been constituted to deal with the situation created by the

Shrimp Culture industry in the coastal States and Union Territories. The Central

Ground Water Authority for regulation and control of ground water management has

initiated action regarding registrations for ground water pollution/depletion. It has

also initiated a mass awareness programme. Besides this, different authorities have

been created for dealing with specific problems in the States of Tamil Nadu and

Maharashtra. The need to integrate the environment and development decision

making process has been recognized as contributing to economically efficient,

socially equitable, and responsible environmental management. More extensive use of

analytical tools, such as EIA and Environmental Health Impact Assessment (EHIA)

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on strategic policies and development programmes which have an adverse effect on

environment or on human health, Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) of industrial

units, and Environmental Audit (EA) to increase efficiency in the use of energy and

resources and reduce wastes can contribute to policy integration by making decision

makers aware of the environmental consequences of their actions. A very far-reaching

notification by the Ministry of Environment and Forests gazetted in 1994 makes it

obligatory for almost all development activities, small and large, to conduct an

environmental impact assessment study which has to be evaluated and assessed by an

impact assessment agency (Ministry of Environment and Forests) who may consult a

Committee of Experts, if deemed necessary. The assessment shall be completed

within a period of 90 days and the decision on the approval conveyed within 30 days

after completion of public hearings when required.

In addition, Ministry of Environment and Forests has launched a new scheme to

develop State of Environment Reporting mechanism for all the States/Union

Territories in a systematic manner during the Tenth Five-Year Plan. Indian

Environmental legislations include: Environment (Protection) Act, 1986; Water

(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, as amended up to 1988; Water

(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act 1977, as amended by Amendment

Act, 1991; Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, as amended by

Amendment Act, 1987; National Forest Policy, 1988; Forest (Conservation) Act,

1980; National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995; Public Liability Insurance Act,

1991; Re-cycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999; Manufacture, Use,

Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro-Organisms; Genetically Engineered

Organisms or Cells rules, 1989; Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling)

Rules, 1989; Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998; Municipal

Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000; Noise Pollution (Regulation

and Control) Rules, 2000; Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation) Rules, 2000;

and, New Biodiversity Bill – 2000; Prevention and Control of Pollution (Informed

Consent Procedure) Rules, (1999)24 and a National Environment Policy, 2006 have

also been evolved. The key Principles of National Environmental Policy, 2006 (NEP)

are:

I. Human beings are at the Centre of Sustainable Development Concerns.

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II. The Right to Development.

III. Environmental Protection is an integral part of the Development Process.

IV. The Precautionary Approach.

V. Economic Efficiency.

During the 11th Five-Year Plan, the National Environment Policies stated the

objectives and principles which are to be realised through concrete actions in different

areas relating to the key environmental challenges. These challenges are intrinsically

connected with the state of environmental resources, such as, land, water, air and the

flora & fauna. The drivers of environmental degradation are population growth,

inappropriate technology and consumption choices, intensive agriculture, accelerated

industrial and urbanization. A large number of actions/schemes are currently

underway and in place during the 9th and 10th Five-year plans. Some new schemes

would need to be prepared and implemented during the 11th plan. 25

D. Development Policies from Environmental Perspectives

Implementation of the aims and objectives of conservation and sustainable

development will require integration and internalisation of environmental

considerations in the policies and programmes of development in various sectors.

Curtailment of consumerism and shift towards use of environment friendly products

and processes, and low waste generating technologies through conscious efforts and

appropriate economic policies including pricing of natural resources as well as fiscal

incentives and disincentives will be the guiding factors for ensuring conservation and

sustainable development. For environmental conservation and sustainable

development, the steps which need to be taken in some of the key sectors of

development activities are as follows;

i. Agriculture and Irrigation

For sustainable management of agriculture and irrigation, the action points should

include the following:

• Development of pesticides and insecticides policy for the country;

• Development and promotion of methods of sustainable farming, especially

organic and natural farming;

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• Efficient use of inputs including agro-chemicals with minimal degradation of

environment;

• Priority to small projects to meet the requirements of irrigation without causing

significant alteration in the environmental conditions;

• Revival of traditional water management systems and development of alternate

irrigation systems such as harvesting and conservation of run-off rain water;

• Measures for increasing the efficiency of water-use, water conservation and

recycling;

• Measures for provision of drainage as an integral component of irrigation projects

and to prevent water logging and leaching;

• Adoption of command area development approach for all irrigation projects to

ensure optimal utilization.

ii. Animal Husbandry

The activities relating to animal husbandry should concentrate on the following:

• Development of an animal husbandry policy for the country;

• Intensification of sterilization programme for containing unsustainable growth in

livestock population;

• Distribution of animals like goats under the Integrated Rural Development

Programme strictly consistent with the availability of pasture lands to reduce

pressure on the lands;

• Propagation of wildlife and wildlife resources management on sustainable basis.

iii. Forestry

For attaining the goal of having at least one third of our land area under forest

cover, intensified measures on a mission mode are required to be taken along with

commensurate mobilisation of resources for this purpose. As outlined in the National

Forest Policy (1988), the action points should include the following:

• Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and, where

necessary, restoration of the ecological balance that has been adversely disturbed

by serious depletion of the forests of the country;

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• Conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the remaining natural

forests with the vast majority of flora and fauna, which represent the biological

diversity and genetic resources of the country;

• Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through massive

afforestation and social forestry programmes, especially on all denuded, degraded

and unproductive lands involving the local people in this endeavour by giving

them tangible economic motives and employment opportunities;

• Meeting the rights and concessions for requirements of fuel wood, fodder, minor

forest produce and small timber of the rural and tribal population with due

cognizance of the carrying capacity of forests;

• Increasing the productivity of forests to meet the essential national needs;

• Involvement of local people and dedicated grass roots nongovernmental

organizations, in the afforestation programme and for protection of existing

forests.

iv. Energy Generation and Use

For prevention and control of pollution and environmental hazards in energy

generation and use as also for encouraging popularization of environmentally benign

energy systems, the following measures should be taken:

• Environmental impact assessment prior to investment decisions and site selection;

choice of practicable clean technologies for energy production and processes

including waste utilization, treatment and disposal of solid wastes, effluents and

emissions;

• Location of energy generation projects based on environmental considerations

including pollution, displacement of people and loss of biodiversity;

• Incentives and punitive measures (including proper pricing) to prevent abuse and

to promote the use of energy efficient devices in the production and distribution

systems and for energy conservation in all sectors including households,

agriculture, industry, power and transportation;

v. Industrial Development

• Incentives for environmentally clean technologies, recycling and reuse of wastes

and conservation of natural resources;

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• Operationalisation of 'polluter pays principle' by introducing effluent tax, resource

cess for industry and implementation of standards based on resource consumption

and production capacity;

• Fiscal incentives to small-scale industries for pollution control and for reduction

of wastes;

• Location of industries as per environmental guidelines for sitting of industry;

vi. Mining and Quarrying

• Mined area rehabilitation and implementation of the environmental management

plans concurrently with the on-going mining operations to ensure adequate

ecological restoration of the affected areas;

• Rehabilitation of the abandoned mined areas in a phased manner so that scarce

land resources can be brought back under productive use;

• Environmentally safe disposal of the by-products of mining.

vii. Tourism

• Promotion of tourism based on careful assessment of the carrying capacity and

support facilities such as transport, fuel, water and sanitation;

• Development of tourism in harmony with the environmental conditions and

without affecting the lifestyles of local people.

viii. Transportation

• Improvement in mass transport system to reduce increasing consumption of fuel,

traffic congestion and pollution;

• Improved transport system based on bio-energy and other non polluting energy

sources;

• Rail transport and pipeline transport instead of road transport, where ever

possible, by appropriate freight pricing so as to reduce congestion, fuel

consumption and environmental hazards.

ix. Human Settlements

To check unplanned growth of human settlements and to ensure a better quality of

life for the rural and urban population, the action points should include the following:

• Creation of gainful employment opportunities and provision for meeting the basic

needs through better communications, entertainment, medical and educational

facilities in rural areas to check rural-urban migration;

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• Decentralization of urbanization through establishment of secondary cities and

towns with requisite infra-structural services and employment opportunities by

developing human settlement perspective plan at national and state level;

• Disincentives for industrial and job location in existing urban centres which have

exceeded their carrying capacity;

• Improvement of infra-structural facilities such as water supply, sewerage, solid

waste disposal, energy recovery systems and transportation in an integrated

manner;

• Environmental appraisal of projects related to urban development and regional

planning, preparation of environmental/eco-development plans for sensitive

regions and sub-regions for evolving desirable norms and space standards;

• Prevention of environmental health problems and associated communicable and

non-communicable diseases by educating people on personal hygiene, sanitation

and use of potable water.26

E. People’s Participation: Emerging Scenario

In India, the need for community participation in development activities has

been fully appreciated and recognized. It is realized that developmental activities

undertaken with the active participation of major groups have a greater chance of

success and can also be more cost effective. In the area of education, health, family

planning, land improvement, efficient land use, minor irrigation, watershed

management, recovery of wastelands, afforestation, animal husbandry, dairy and

sericulture, considerable progress has been achieved by creating institutions for

people and encouraging community participation. However, the recent spurt in NGO

activities is a welcome sign. The pioneering organization in this regard is the Dahsali

Gram Swarajya Sangh (1964), a local Gandhian organisation, which started the world

famous ‘Chipko’ movement. A number of NGO’s are now involved in awareness

programmes to create an open forum for dialogue among all concerned, critically

analyse and prioritise the issue, devise multi-pronged plan for collective action, and

coordinate with other agencies. There are number of NGO’s who are working actively

in agriculture, natural resource management, and economic development. Some of

them are as follows:

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The Association of Sarva Seva Farms (ASSEFA) grew out of the Gandhian-

Sarvodaya tradition in Tamil Nadu. It began with cooperatives for landless people

who were voluntarily given land under the Bhoodan movement. From the mid-1970s

onward, ASSEFA began shifting its focus to integrated rural development based on

village associations (Gram Sabhas). In each Gram Sabha, ASSEFA promoted small

activity groups around agriculture, veterinary care, dairy, health, education, small

business, women’s development and housing. From the 1980s onwards, ASSEFA

began working intensively with government programs in the field of primary health

care, and primary and adult education. By 1997, ASSEFA had more than 45 projects

in six states, but its main work was concentrated in Tamil Nadu. ASSEFA is now

among the largest NGOs in India, with an annual program budget of around $11

million, about half of which comes from government.

The Centre for Youth and Social Development (CYSD) began in 1982 on

the initiative of a number of university professors as a support organization for social

entrepreneurship development training of youth activists in Orissa. In the late 1980s,

CYSD decided that trainers must have hands-on development experience and started

its field programs, first in the health and education sectors, and later added income

generation activities in forestry and plantation, pisciculture, infrastructure and micro-

credit. By the mid- 1990s, CYSD had set up three centers, one for field action

programs, one for the original training, and a third for policy research and advocacy.

Myrada was started in 1968 as a project to resettle Tibetan refugees who had

come to India in the wake of the Chinese takeover of Tibet. After it demonstrated

success with its original program, communities living close to the resettlement camps

demanded that Myrada also work with them. During those years, Myrada developed

its core approach based on self-help groups (SHGs) of 15 to 25 poor people who

constitute a homogeneous affinity group. These groups are the heart of Myrada

programs in the fields of habitat, sanitation, economic and social infrastructure

development, and watershed management. By now, Myrada has grown to become one

of the leading NGOs in India, having 16 projects in the states of Karnataka, Tamil

Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Its annual budget exceeds $5 million. Myrada is known

for its collaborative work with the government, bilateral aid agencies and other

NGOs.

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The URMUL Trust grew out of a successful dairy cooperative in the Bikaner

district, a desert region on the India–Pakistan border. Set up in 1985, it began with a

rural health service for the cooperative’s members, which was extended to all the

inhabitants of the region and then moved into other sectors. From the beginning, the

URMUL Trust was supported by government. The organizations that are part of the

URMUL Trust now work in around 280 villages in six districts in Western Rajasthan;

their areas of action include health, non-formal basic education, rural craft and

weaving, and savings and credit. This group is recognized as the largest NGO

development initiative in the area and has been consulted by the state government in

various development programs. In 1995, URMUL Trust began with a strategy of

spinning off new units, a process which is still evolving.27

Gramin Vigyan Vikas Samiti (GVVS), Jodhpur, Rajasthan. GVVS focuses

on the problems of the people living in the desert areas. It has developed an action

strategy based on social research, community participation and co-operative

application. GVVS looks for traditional agricultural and environmental conservation

techniques that have been developed over centuries. It seeks ways, in which these

practices can be effectively modified, reintroduced and propagated as an alternative

low cost and environmentally sound approach development. 28

Samaj Parivartana Samudaya (SPS) of Dharwad, Karnataka, has been

working for several years on environmental improvement. People for Progress in

India funded several of their projects. The first project reclaimed degraded land on a

hillside near Hirebasur by planting economically productive plants and organizing the

villagers to care for the land. Its success seeded similar reclamation efforts in other

villages in the area. Two other projects continued the efforts of SPS to educate and

organize villagers to utilize land more productively and to make use of available

government resources in developing the land. PPI assisted in these efforts and also

funded a motivator's salary. 29

Seva Mandir work on restoring and enhancing productivity of the natural

resource base in its work area dates back to the 1970s. Land, Water and Forests play a

major role not only in strengthening sustainable livelihoods but also in contributing to

the development of social solidarity. At present the work includes afforestation on

both private, common and forest lands, developing water resources for agricultural,

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livestock and human needs; promoting sustainable agricultural practices to improve

crop productivity and diversity; and engaging in policy advocacy and networking to

share lessons and insights with the rest of the development sector30. In combating

industrial pollution, it is heartening to note that in Orissa a group of 21 NGOs joined

together to establish the District Action Group (DAG) (Council for Professional

Social Workers, 1993).31 Besides, NGOs are also involved at the policy making and

execution level though on a limited scale. The two states where government agencies

effectively coordinate with NGOs are Karnataka and West Bengal. In Karnataka,

NGOs are involved at the district level in committees for environmental problems to

express views and concerns for local people on the issues. Similarly, in West Bengal

and Andhra Pradesh, NGOs are doing commendable job in coordination with forest

department in the field of joint forest management. Recently, in Rajasthan also efforts

are being made at the official level to involve NGOs to make the watershed

development programme a success. People’s initiative for conserving nature has

resulted in rejuvenation of 5 rivers in Rajasthan. Water intensive crops have been

extensively banned. Therefore, water for common use has not been over-exploited. It

has been estimated that 6,500 sq km of areas consisting of 750 villages has been

completely transformed.32 It is interesting, however, that no worthwhile NGOs have

come up in Green Revolution areas of Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh where a

considerable damage to agricultural ecology has been done due to intensive

commercial agriculture. In majority of states, the government departments are hostile

to NGOs participation in environmental problems and issues. This makes one of the

important factors in non- emergence of NGOs in the policy making and execution in

the sphere of environment and ecology.

3.4 Lack of Integration between Environmental Policies and

Economic Planning

The legal provisions of the legislation in India relating to the environment are

mostly command-and-control types of regulatory measures. The poor quality of

environment in many parts of India proves that these measures have not worked. This

is because only few of them suggest that framers of the legislations have taken a long-

term perspective. Implementation of the Acts leaves much to be desired. In India

environmental concerns were made explicit mainly under the pressures like

83

environmentalists, NGOs and, to some extent, external donors. Hence, a piecemeal

rather than an integrated approach to the planning is bound to be there. In fact, there is

hardly any coordination between departments concerned with environmental

problems. Over the last two decades the Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) have

initiated thousands of court cases against polluting industries but have obtained only a

handful of convictions. Most of these departments are ineffective in implementing the

environmental policies due to the limited powers given to them. Neither have they had

resources to assess the extent of environmental degradation in a scientific manner.

The functioning of various departments does not reflect the concern of the policy-

makers towards environment. For instance, as a step towards liberalisation the

Finance Ministry recently announced that small-scale industries are exempted from

environmental norms. One fails to understand why this decision did not receive due

attention from any source including the Ministry of Environment and Forestry.

In India we are not short of environmental plans or programmes. But the

problem is always at the implementation level. Some states are, in fact, doing well in

tackling the problems of environmental degradation. For instance, Maharashtra and

Karnataka, and now Rajasthan, are doing well with regard to watershed management,

while West Bengal's joint forest management programme is highly acclaimed. But

these are rather stray examples and in their case also the effectiveness is programme

specific. The integrated approach to tackle environmental problems is missing. There

is a need for integrating environmental concerns with the activities of all departments

and agencies. A pre-requisite for this is bringing environmental awareness among the

policy-makers.

In this respect, environmental accounting is another area of concern. There is a

need to incorporate environmental concerns with some macro-economic policies to

ameliorate environmental problems in country. Environmental costs and benefits as

well as depreciation of natural resources should be incorporated in the national

accounts statistics. For this purpose one needs to build up information systems on

environment and wide dissemination of relevant information. The principle of

'polluters-pay' should be strictly adhered to in order to mitigate the environmental

problems. For this purpose, the implementation capacity of the functional agencies

should be enhanced. Natural resources should be priced/regulated according to

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present and future scarcity conditions. At the project planning level proper

environmental impact assessments should be carried out and the information should

be made public in order to avoid future conflicts.

Another issue relates to the understanding of micro realities and incorporating

them in macro policies. In a federal system with vast socio-economic, cultural and

physical diversities, as India has, such a thing is highly desirable to give sustenance to

environmental policies. In this context the need to strengthen the institutional frame,

especially in rural areas, is paramount. People's participation though believed to be

the key for attaining sustainable development, is nowhere evident in practice.

Apparently, we are getting bogged down with the conceptual details rather than

concentrating on realising the basic objectives. Though India is one of the few

countries with the history of 'participatory process', it has been destroyed over the

years and hence needs to be revoked in a serious and systematic way33. In the present-

day conditions, bringing environmental awareness among the masses through formal

education is a prerequisite for achieving effective people's participation. In this

regard, it is quite important that it has to be involved from within, rather than

imposing it. This will require identification and involvement of NGOs, having

effective link between people and the state.

In order to make policies effective, a part from making people aware of

environmental concerns, Educational policies play a vital role in bringing

environmental awareness through setting up of appropriate curricula, syllabi, etc. For

the first time in India the need for creating environmental consciousness through the

educational process was addressed in 'The National Policy on Education' in 1986.

According to this policy "there is a paramount need to create a consciousness of the

environment. It must permeate all ages and all sections of society, beginning with

child. Environmental consciousness should inform teaching in schools, colleges and

especially in Universities where higher level of education prevailed. This aspect will

be integrated in the entire educational process34. Apart from these institutions of

higher education there is a programme for environmental research which aims to

develop strategies for sustainable resources management and create facilities and

trained manpower to conduct research in priority areas. The major programmes

include (a) integrated, action-oriented, eco-development research and extension

85

programme in the Himalayan region, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and Kaveri basin,

and (b) All-India coordinated projects on ethno-biology, air pollution, and plants and

conservation of endangered plant species.

Further, The Ministry of Environment and Forests has launched ‘National

Green Corps’ (NGC) with the basic objective of creating environmental awareness

through people’s participation especially among school children. During the Tenth

Plan it is expected that about 50,000 schools will participate in NGC related activities.

In addition, 3,000 eco-clubs have been set up in schools with the Ministry’s

assistance.

Priority is accorded by the Ministry of Environment and Forests to promote

environmental education create environmental awareness among various age-groups

and to disseminate information through Environmental Information System (ENVIS)

network to all concerned. A major initiative to include environment education as a

separate and compulsory subject in the educational curricula has been taken by the

Ministry at all levels of formal education, i.e., secondary, senior secondary and

tertiary levels. Paryavaran Vahinis (environment launch-vehicle) are proposed to be

constituted in 194 selected districts all over the country, which have a high incidence

of pollution and density of tribal and forest population. The Vahinis also play a

watchdog role by reporting instances of environmental pollution, deforestation and

poaching. They function under the charge of District Collectors, with the active

cooperation of the State/Union Territory governments. This scheme is entirely

financed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Seven Centres of Excellence

have been set up by the Ministry to strengthen awareness, research and training in

priority areas of Environmental Science and Management. These are: Centre for

Ecological Sciences, Bangalore; Centre for Mining Environment, Dhanbad; Centre

for Environmental Education, Ahmedabad; CPR Environmental Education Centre,

Chennai; Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore; the

Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, Delhi, and the

Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. The

National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) set up in New Delhi in 1978, is

concerned with the promotion of non-formal education in the area of environment and

conservation.35

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Further, we need to develop a strong database on environmental issues, which

our policy framers mostly lack. Time series data in this regard is mostly a dream even

in times to come. The research inputs of various organisations, which are valuable for

policy formulation and their effective implementation, can be achieved when there

will be cooperation and coordination between departments/agencies.

87

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