Urban Spatial Presentation Post 911 Perspective

7/28/2019 Urban Spatial Presentation Post 911 Perspective

1/52

M E L I S S A A U W E R T E R

A N D R E W B E N O I T

A N D R E W B O U G H A N

N O E L L E B R I T T

A POST 9/11 PERSPECTIVE ONSEGREGATION, ENCLAVES AND

GHETTOS

Urban Spatial Theory Spring 2013


2/52

Americas Ghettos

There is a significant body of work on the problems ofAmericas ghettos Continuing high levels of racial and income segregation, and the

concentration of the poor in a small number of high-poverty

areas

Roots causes of residential segregationracial discrimination inhousing and employment, and the loss of manufacturing jobs

Adverse effects ghettos have on individuals (poor public services,

lack of access to good jobs, lack of positive role models), and oncities (high-crime areas outward from city centers)

Difficulties associated with poverty and minority deconcentration(suburban resistance to affordable housing developments)

Varady. Desegregating the City, Preface.


3/52

The Ghetto-Enclave Paradigm

There is much less focus on the ethnic enclave

The events of September 11, 2011 call for a reevaluationof these two terms and their connotations

The ghetto-enclave paradigm Ghettos are badnegative forms of residential segregation;

people forced to live there; arising social tensions

Enclaves are goodpositive forms of residential segregation;

voluntary; assets to urban vitality This paradigm is no longer valid because crime and

disorder exist in both these forms of segregation

Varady. Desegregating the City, Preface.


4/52

Spatial Clustering

Spatial clustering is an inevitable part of urban life Ghettos

Gated communities

Ethnic enclaves

Religious communities

Senior citizen communities

Involuntary and hierarchical clustering (derived from aranking systems that reflects superiority based onwealth, status, power, etc.) is undesirable and shouldpublic policy measures should address its flaws

Voluntary, nonhierarchical clustering is more desirable

Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State


5/52

What is Segregation? Formal Definitions

Clustering: concentration of a population group in space Formation of any area of spatial concentration

Segregation: process by which a population group,treated as inferior, is involuntarily forced to cluster in a

defined spatial area Process of the formation and maintenance of a ghetto

Racial Segregation: segregation based on race

Racial ghettos

Market Segregation: process that operates through thereal estate market which segregates lower income peopleinto class ghettos



6/52

Formal Definitions (contd)

Exclusion: can be spatial or socioeconomic Spatial exclusion is segregation

Socioeconomic exclusion with segregation leads to the formationof an excluded ghetto

Quartering: division of urban space into quarters, basedon the income or wealth of households

Can create or reinforce segregation

Congregating: voluntary coming together of a population

group for self-protection and advancement of its owninterests, other than through domination or exclusion

Process of the formation of an enclave



7/52


Withdrawal: voluntary and deliberate separation of asocially and economically dominant population group

Reinforces segregation

Process that leads to the in the formation of an exclusionary

enclave Walling out: extreme physical form of withdrawal

Involved in the formation ofcitadel

May be involved in the formation of an exclusionary enclave

Fortification: voluntary coming together of a populationfor protecting, strengthening, and symbolizing dominance

Process of forming a citadel



8/52


Confinement: deliberate, intentional separating of asocially and economically subordinate group and itsrestrictions to a specific location

Extreme social, economic, and/or legal form ofsegregation

May be involved in the formation of a ghetto

Walling in: extreme physical form of confinement May be involved in the formation of a ghetto

Desegregation: elimination of barriers to freemobility for residents of a ghetto

Integration: intermixing of population groups

Ongoing, positive, nonhierarchical relationships



9/52


Enclave: an area of spatial concentration in whichmembers of a particular group congregate to protectand enhance their economic, social, political, and/orcultural development

Exclusionary enclave: one whose members occupypositions of superior power, and excludes others fromunauthorized entry

Citadel: an area of spatial concentration in whichmembers of particular population group, defined by itsposition of superior power, cluster to protect, display,and enhance that position



10/52


Cluster: an area of spatial concentration of apopulation group

Quarter: an area of spatial concentration based on

the income or wealth of households Ghetto: an area of spatial concentration used by

forced within the dominant society to separate andto limit a particular population group, defined as

racial or ethnic or foreign, and held to be, andtreated as, inferior by the dominant society



11/52

The Origins of Clustering and Segregation

Cities are and have beendivided along a numberof lines that formdifferent patterns of

clustering Many of these divisions

reflect the conscious actsof those clustered or

clustering, and those inpower over of amongthem

These dividing lines arebased on:

Nationality

Class

Income Wealth

Occupation

Religion

Race Color

Ethnicity


o Coloro Ethnicity

o Languageo Ageo Household

compositiono Personal

culturalpreferences

o Lifestyle


12/52

Lines of Division

Three important lines of division:

1) Culture

2) Functional economic role

3) Position in the hierarchy of power



13/52

Cultural Divisions

Easily discernibledifferences in language, clothing,architecture style, etc.

Result in divisions by: Ethnicity

Country or nationality

Tribe of origin, parentage, or descent

Religion or belief Lifestyle



14/52

Cultural Divisions (contd)

Cultural differencesinclude: Worship

Music

Parenting

Language

History

Holidays

Clothing

Family relations

Are not dependent ontheir economicproductivity for theirhold on people, nor do

they require arelationship ofsuperiority orinferiority for their

strength



15/52

Functional Divisions

Divisions based on functional economic roles are theresult of either physical or organizational economiclogic E.g. Divisions between factories and residential areas

Some industries and occupations may require thoseinvolved in them to live close to their jobs Can lead to residential division (e.g. company-sponsored housing

developments) Functional divisions are independent of cultural

differences and express relationships of superiority orinferiority to other functions



16/52

Functional Divisions and Zoning

Zoning: division of a town or county into districts in whichcertain activities are prohibited and others are permitted

The accepted legal embodiment of functional divisions

Zoning defined in terms of economic use isnt always

apparent Performance zoningdefines permitted land uses by their

environmental impact (e.g. traffic generated, shadows cast, aircirculation impeded, green space occupied, etc.)

While use may separate manufacturing from retail fromresidential, it is not clear why residential use for one familyshould be different from the use by two or three families

Separation by function is still viewed as the acceptable way to

divide city spacesVarady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State

OFlaherty, Brendan. 2005. City Economics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Zoning definition)


17/52

Hierarchical Status Divisions

Differences in hierarchical status reflect and reinforcerelationships of power, domination, exploitation, stateservice, etc.

Imperial enclave in a colonial town; black townships of South

Africa Class is the major dividing line

Gated communities reflect and support power relationshipsjust as much as slums or working-class quarters

Power can exist in multiple dimensions Military power, political power, economic power, social power,

legal power (slavery)



18/52

How Cultural, Functional, and HierarchicalDivisions Interact

Cultural, functional, and hierarchical divisionsintertwine, overlap, and contradict each other

Cultural divisions can reinforce status differences,sometimes making it hard to distinguish betweenstatus and culture

Divisions of status and culture interfere with functionaldivision: groups differentiated by culture and statusunited by economic links need to work and live neareach other for efficient production



19/52

How Cultural, Functional, and HierarchicalDivisions Interact (contd)

Relations between status and function conflict in spatialimpact: employers wanting workers to live close to work,but not close to them

Differences in culture and status

within culturalgroups, there can be major differences in class andeconomic function

Because the role of space is not constant and is socially

created, it complicates these divisions Social relations determine spatial relations, but spatial

patterns do not always reinforce social relations



20/52

Conclusion

Clustering that reinforces hierarchical power relationshipsis unacceptable, while social or cultural clustering is moreacceptable

Although cultural or functional divisions may be voluntary,

they may not always be desirable

The role of public policy in residential segregation shouldbe: To lessen the impact of the three divisions and reduce segregation

To facilitate economic integration

To increase opportunities

To enrich culture

To promote intercultural understanding


21/52

State and Federal Governments

Role in Regards to Segregation


22/52

The States Role on Imposing Segregation

Divisions of function and culture are generallyvoluntary

-No group desires low status; it is imposed on them

Those of higher status maintain their separationvoluntarily; they need the means to impose lowstatus on others (against their wills).

-divisions by status require the use of force. (In a civilized society, this

is considered as a monopoly of the state)

Government action may (or may not) be involved inregulating these cultural divisions



23/52

Ghettoization Fostered by the U.S.

The Urban Renewal Program,adopted under Title 1 of the housingAct of 1949 was the basis for slumclearance and redevelopment in theUnited States

The federal highway constructionprogram massively subsidized withfederal funds after 1954 was a sign ofdeveloping white suburbs of thepostwar years (whites saw moving tothe suburbs as a motivation to escape

the growing black population indowntowns)

Whites with cars used highways toseparate themselves from blacks


Zoning ordinances enacted by localgovernments, explicitly allowing forcertain areas to be occupiedexclusively by whites.-These were finally ruled unconstitutional inBuchanan v. Warley

Federal courts provided judicialenforcement for restrictive covenants-this was a major device that excluded blacks from largeparts of cities and confines them to areas with highpercentages of blacks

-Violated Civil Rights Act of 1866, and ruledunconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in

Shelley v. Kramer, U.S. I (1948)

Redlining- denial of mortgage financingto owners of property in certaindesignated areas.

-termed redlined and selected primarily because of the

race of the residents


24/52

Measures Towards Combating Segregation

Expanded provision for public housing in differenturban areas (not just the ones with already a

substantial subsidized rentals) Ex. In newdevelopments, 30% of those new developments areprovided as affordable units (managed by housingassociations)

Use of tax incentives to promote local economicdevelopment and job creation within a broadintegrative framework.


d b i i


25/52

Measures Towards Combating Segregation(Continued)

Intermunicipal agreements with respect to housinglow income housing (could be especially useful whendealing)

Such agreements might be useful among cities andsuburbs (lower income housing in the center of thecities while suburban environments house upperincome populations towards the suburbs)

Zoning and land use controls can be used to prohibitdiscrimination in loaning and to steer newconstruction and development to more stable areas.

Control of Politian towards environmental advocatesVarady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State


26/52

The National Role in Imposing Segregation

The range of policies that might reduce segregationshould in fact include a wide variety of measures, inaddition to the following listed would reduceinequality (the underlying cause of partitioning)

In the long run, measures such as steeply progressiveincome taxes, protection of the rights of women aresteeply progressive income taxes

Ownership and control of economic activity, andenvironmental protection measures that take intoaccount and just the distribution of burdens and

benefits, would just reduce segregation.Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State


27/52

Muslim Residential Clustering

and Political Radicalism


28/52

Introduction

Levels of Muslim segregation in many Europeancities remain high

Segregation is primarily voluntary, which makes

government intervention difficult Muslim residential clustering seems to be hindering

cultural integration due to the absence of socialnetworks

Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism


29/52

Introduction

The increasing Muslim population in Europe livephysically and culturally separate from their hostcountry

With the rise of Islamic terrorism, Muslimcommunities continue to live in fear andnervousness



30/52

Level of Segregation among EuropeanMuslim Immigrants

In the European cities of Birmingham and Bradford,schools tend to be more segregated than residentialneighborhoods

Schools reach tipping point, white parents withdraw theirchildren and move away, other white families choose not tomove into the neighborhood

Residential neighborhoods change more slowly

Singles, young couples without kids, and empty-nesters areless affected by what happens in the local public schools



31/52

Causes of Muslim Segregation

Muslims often self-segregate in a voluntary manner Strong religious ties among Muslim immigrants leads to a

desire to self-segregate

Muslim neighborhoods are comprised of mosques,Muslim-oriented stores, and other ethno-culturalinstitutions

In addition, these Muslim communities in Britain

have shown a lower level of household income Women are not allowed in the job market



32/52

Causes of Muslim Segregation

Discriminatory practices also account for Muslimself-segregation

Many other sub-continent Indians are more dispersed

Muslim cluster neighborhoods are easy to distinguish

High vacancy rates account for neighborhood ethnicpopulation change Whites move out as they feel uncomfortable around foreigners,

surrounding area has acquired poor reputation, and quality ofschools decrease

Area becomes even more desirable to new immigrants



33/52

Consequences of Muslim Ethnic Clustering

Ethnic enclaves have typically been beneficial toimmigrants

Provide greater access to churches, social welfare groups, andstores

Obtain political influence, although continued clusteringprevents societal cohesion

Enclave-based firms provide better opportunities than thegeneral labor market



34/52

Socio-Economic Outcomes

Neighborhoods influence individuals in positive andnegative ways

Low income residents can have middle-class role models andmiddle-class social networks

Spatial separation can hinder residents socio-economicprogress

Some theorists believe that the negative aspects ofethnic enclaves outweigh the positive ones Poorly educated, non-working, welfare dependent

neighborhoods hinder the educational, professional, andemployment prospects of immigrants in the neighborhood



35/52

Cultural Integration

Chicago School of Sociologist Ethnic concentrations of undesirable

Supports identity retention and stunt assimilation

Census Report for 1930-1950 Segregated groups less likely to become citizen or to speak

English and have low intermarriage rates

Segregation for Other Races

Orthodox Jews self-segregate in order to remain within walkingdistance of a synagogue

Black segregation is largely a product of racial discrimination byrealtors, landlords, and financial institutions



36/52

Cultural Integration Cont.

Richard Descoing-Director of Paris Institute of PoliticalScience

Second generation immigrants often live in an environment thatis outside the French culture

They are not in the proper social networks.

French High School Graduates

Have opportunity to apply to premier school as a citizen

Few people from the working class are even aware that the

opportunity exists.



37/52

Cultural Integration Resistance

Conservative Muslims Parents Perceive Sweden as immoral and atheistic

Send their children to intercultural school to stop their daughtersfrom going to dances

Living in high-density ethnic clusters promotes themaintenance ethnic traditions

Can sometimes be inconsistent with the values of larger society

Social Pressures

Might lead residents of an ethnic enclave to support thepractice ofhonor killing

Where the father approves the murder of his daughter because shehas dated or married a man considered unacceptable to the family



38/52

London Bombing

After Bombing

News reports focused onimmigrant enclaves as oneof the possible causes

Theodore Dalrymple

Many fundamentalist

Muslims in GB and EU aregoing through identitycrisis

Racial Rioting



39/52

Identity Crisis

Reasoning One hand they are drawn

to Western Culture, but atthe same time they try toexpunge everything that is

non-Muslim fromthemselves

Suicide bombing istherefore the way suicide

bombers overcome thereligious doubts withthemselves.



40/52

Dalrymple Three Characteristics

Why its Difficult for Islam to Integrate intoMainstream UK

Refusal to educate women in society that requires two sourcesof income to achieve prosperity

The idea that one is already in possession of the final revealedtruth, leading to an inherently superior way of life, inhibitsadaptation to a more technically advanced society

The hatred of Western society because it is decadent,

materialistic and democratic, rather than theocratic



41/52

Solutions to Segregation

Two European Approaches to Ending Segregation Policies seek to cure segregation

Reduce the incidence of segregation

Aims to mitigate the effects of segregation

The Cure for Segregation

Ethnic mixing through housing allocation

Renting housing through positive marking to live in the housing,through benign quotas, and dispersing minorities across renting

stock These policies would not work in the US



42/52

Solutions to Segregation Cont.

Income Mixing Through Public HousingRestructuring

Strongly endorsed in Europe

To produce an income mix at the neighborhood level

HOPE VI Practice in the United States

Involves the demolition of high-rise buildings and theirreplacement with townhomes and single family homes

Busing to Reduce School Segregation Questions whether the resulting demographic mixing would

led to reduction in the social isolation of Muslim Children



43/52

Mitigating the Effects of Segregation

Community Development Improving existing social and physical conditions

As an alternative to public housing restructuring

If a community development results in a higher socio-

economic standard Households probably relocate to other neighborhoods, thereby

reproducing segregation

Anti-Crime Strategies

Moraccan FathersWalk the streets to develop personal contact with high school

dropouts

Has been effective in reducing crime



44/52

Mitigating the Effects of Segregation

Community Cohesion Decker & Rowland

Unrealistic to anticipatecreating an overall senseof unity on ethnically

diverse European housingestates

Realistic goal would be tocreate a sense of mutualtrust between differentethnic communities

Primary obstacle is thelanguage barrier



45/52

Sikhs and Muslims vs. New York MTA

Prior to 9/11, Muslim and Sikh transit workers were allowed to wearheaddresses with no regulations.

MTA established a brand or segregate policy due to security concerns

Muslim transit workers were required to brand the MTA logo on theirheaddresses, or face segregation

This new policy forced Muslims and Sikhs to work out of the public view ifthey chose not to brand their turban

In 2005, Sikh Coalition filed charges of discrimination with the EqualEmployment Opportunity Commission(EEOC).

After seven long years, Sikhs and Muslims settled this historic federal

lawsuit on May 30, 2012 As a result, Sikh and Muslim workers may now wear their religious

headdresses freely.

The Sikh Coalition


46/52

Sikhs and Muslims vs. New York MTA

The Sikh Coalition


47/52

Muslim Discrimination Post 9/11

U.S. Government increased security measures andimmigration policies

Results of these policies destroyed the relationship between Muslimsand U.S. Government

In addition to these legislative violations, Muslims havefaced physical abuse and social discrimination

In 2007, CAIR reported 1,900 complaints of abuse and violentcrimes against Muslims increased by 52 percent between 2003 and2004

With recent hate crimes, it is difficult for Muslims not to besegregated due to fear

Even ten years after 9/11, there are large debatesconcerning the construction of mosques around the nation

Ashley Moore.American Muslim Minorities: The New Human Rights Struggle

Sikh Community Target of Violence Ten


48/52

Sikh Community Target of Violence TenYears Later

http://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/12/ten_years_after_9_11_little
http://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/12/ten_years_after_9_11_littlehttp://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/12/ten_years_after_9_11_littlehttp://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/12/ten_years_after_9_11_littlehttp://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/12/ten_years_after_9_11_little


49/52

The New Public Spirit

Many important events have reshaped the fabric ofAmerican life

Although Muslim segregation has increased in theU.S., a new sense of community has emerged.

Recent trends have pointed toward a new vision ofcommunity which is secular, public spirited, andoriented toward social responsibility

Bruce J. Schulman. The New Public Spirit


50/52


Before 9/11, Americans spoke about the U.S.Government in a negative manner, calling for an endto the big government era.

Since 9/11, public employees in Congress, thePentagon, and the Post Office have emerged asheroes

Despite concerns over security, Americans are

seeking areas for informal social interaction anddemocratic exchange.



51/52


Americans realize they need to build civiccommunities outside of the home and themarketplace

They also realized that physical contact betweendifferent ethnicities and races had diminished

An overwhelming sense of togetherness and nationalidentity had swept through the nations after 9/11

As the desire for public space and social interactionincreases, our nation continues to desegregate and

become more diverse



52/52

Documents

Urban Spatial Presentation Post 911 Perspective