ORIGINAL PAPER

Uranium distribution in broiler organs and possibilitiesfor protection

Branislava Mitrovic • Gordana Vitorovic • Milijan Jovanovic •

Mirjana Lazarevic-Macanovic • Velibor Andric •

Mirjana Stojanovic • Aleksandra Dakovic • Dusko Vitorovic

Received: 7 May 2013 / Accepted: 21 September 2013 / Published online: 5 October 2013

� Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

Abstract The aim of the present study was to investigate

the distribution of uranium (uranyl nitrate hexahydrate,

UN) in muscle and organs (kidney, liver, and brain) of

broilers, after a 7-day contamination with UN and admin-

istration of two different adsorbents (organobentonite and

organozeolite). The birds were contaminated during 7 days

with 25 mg/UN per day. Adsorbents were given via gastric

tube, immediately after contamination with UN. In group 1

that did not receive any adsorbents, histopathological

changes in the contaminated broilers were observed in

small intestine, liver, and kidney in the form of necrosis of

intestinal villi, oedema and cytoplasmic vacuolation of

hepatocytes, and dystrophic changes in the kidney tubules

epithelium. Organobentonite administered via gastric tube

(group 2) reduced uranium distribution by 66 % in kidney,

81 % in liver, and 34 % in brain. In group 3, administration

of organozeolite reduced uranium distribution by 67 % in

kidney, 68 % in liver, and 49 % in brain. In groups 2 and 3,

where the broilers received adsorbents immediately after

the UN contamination, no histopathological lesions were

observed.

Keywords Uranium � Toxicity � Broilers �Adsorbents � Organobentonite � Organozeolite

Introduction

In the literature, there are insufficient data on the transfer of

uranium and its toxicity in birds. Phosphate mineral pre-

mix, especially dicalcium phosphate, may contain uranium

from 30 to 200 ppm (corresponding to an activity range

from 388 to 2,444 Bq/kg) (Arruda-Neto et al. 1997).

Dicalcium phosphate can be used as mineral fertilizer, as

well as phosphate mineral premix for animal feed. When

importing dicalcium phosphate in Serbia, gamma-spectro-

metric analyses are mandatory. At this occasion, it was

found that the activity of uranium in dicalcium phosphate

may be up to 3,000 Bq/kg and import of mineral premix

was banned. This demonstrated the need to study transfer

of uranium and its toxicity in birds in more detail.

Uranium (U) is a naturally occurring radioactive and

chemically toxic heavy metal. The harmful effects of ura-

nium are mainly due to its chemical toxicity. Additionally,

ionizing radiation emitted during the decay of uranium can

increase the incidence of cancer in various tissues, as a

stochastic risk (NRC 2008). After contamination, uranium

accumulates mainly in the bones (66 %), kidneys (8 %),

and liver (16 %) (ICRP 1996), in humans. Some studies

showed—for humans, rabbits, rats, and mice—that the

kidneys are the primary target organ for toxicity of ura-

nium, where uranium caused renal damage, both structural

B. Mitrovic (&) � G. Vitorovic � M. Lazarevic-Macanovic �V. Andric

Department of Radiology and Radiation Hygiene, Faculty

of Veterinary Medicine, University in Belgrade, Bulevar

Oslobodjenja 18, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

e-mail: slavatab@vet.bg.ac.rs; radijacija@vet.bg.ac.rs

M. Jovanovic � A. Dakovic

Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary

Medicine, University in Belgrade, Bulevar Oslobodjenja 18,

11000 Belgrade, Serbia

M. Stojanovic

Institute for Technology of Nuclear and Other Mineral Row

Materials, University in Belgrade, Bulevar Frans d‘Eperea 86,

11000 Belgrade, Serbia

D. Vitorovic

Faculty of Agriculture, University in Belgrade, Nemanjina 6,

11080 Zemun, Serbia

123

Radiat Environ Biophys (2014) 53:151–157

DOI 10.1007/s00411-013-0496-3

and functional (Vicente-Vicente et al. 2010; Gilman et al.

1998a, b, c; Olguin et al. 1997; Domingo et al. 1987).

Uranium can also accumulate in the liver and brain of mice

as observed by Ozmen and Yurekli (1998). Ghosh et al.

(2007) report that uranyl nitrate administrated in acute

nephrotoxic dose caused oxidative stress in brain and bone

of Wistar rats, manifested as a lipid peroxidation and his-

topathological damage.

In general, animal contamination with uranium can

occur through ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact.

Among these pathways, ingestion is the most common way

of contamination. In order to satisfy the nutritional

requirements for minerals, phosphate mineral supplements

(mostly monocalcium and dicalcium phosphate), which

may contain high concentrations of uranium, are added in

animal feed (Arruda-Neto et al. 1997; Izak-Biran et al.

1989). These mineral supplements were given to the ani-

mals from their early period of life to the slaughtering. In

an experiment performed with Beagle dogs from post-

weaning until the adult phase, where uranium mixed with

food was administered to the animals, it was observed that

uranium accumulates at same amounts in mineral bone and

bone marrow, and that saturation is reached only after

about 10 years (Arruda-Neto et al. 2004). These authors

reported that after a chronic ingestion period of about

5 years, for each ppm ingested (1 lg U/g food), accumu-

lation in bone and bone marrow is equal to 1 lg U/g bone

(in terms of U dry mass). However, anatomy, physiology,

and metabolic capability in birds are different when com-

pared to mammalians. The retention of ingesta and the pH

values at certain sites of the digestive tract are different in

each segment of digestive tract (Denbow 2000; Klasing

1999; Buyse et al. 1993; Shires et al. 1987).

In veterinary medicine, administration of protectors,

applied as a food additive, is one of the countermeasures to

reduce internal contamination with radionuclides (Mitrovic

et al. 2012, Slavata and Vitorovic 2004; Vitorovic et al.

2002; Howard et al. 2001), to eliminate heavy metals

(Papaioannou et al. 2005), and to protect animals against

mycotoxin intoxications (Oguz 2011; Rizzi et al. 2003;

Ortatatli and Oguz 2001; Parlat et al. 1999). Sorption of

uranium, under in vitro conditions, on modified bentonite

(Majdan et al. 2010a; Donat and Aytas 2005; Olguin et al.

1997) and organozeolite (Matijasevic et al. 2006) has a

very important role in environmental remediation. The

organobentonite reveals sufficient sorption ability towards

U (VI) both from acidic and from alkaline solutions

(Majdan et al. 2010b).

In the present work, the ability of organobentonite to

remove uranium (VI) at different solution pH values

(in vitro conditions), and further, the possibility of its use in

case of broiler contamination with uranium (in vivo

experiments) are described. Since organozeolites were also

demonstrated to show an affinity towards uranium under

in vitro conditions (Matijasevic et al. 2006), this chemical

was used here as a second adsorbent (kindly provided by

Matijasevic et al. (2006)). The uranium distribution in

kidney, liver, brain, and muscle, after a 7-day contamina-

tion with uranyl nitrate (UN), was determined. The

experiments were performed on broilers receiving UN and

adsorbents, via gastric tube, during the 7 days. In order to

determine the toxicity of uranium, histopathological

examinations of kidney, liver, brain, and small intestine

were performed.

Materials and methods

Adsorbents

Natural bentonite from Sipovo, a deposit in Bosnia, was

used as the starting material. The main mineral in the raw

material is montmorillonite, while accessory minerals are

quartz and calcite. After concentration, the bentonite

sample was activated with ‘‘Dodigen 1828’’ (Hoechst AG,

Germany). ‘‘Dodigen 1828’’ is a mixture of alkylammo-

nium salts with alkyl chain length of 14–18 carbon atoms.

The zeolitic sample used in these experiments was from

the Beocin deposit (Fruska Gora, Serbia). It mainly consists

of heulandite with smaller amounts of quartz, feldspar, and

calcite. The organozeolite was prepared by treatment with

hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride (HDTMA) sup-

plied by Hoechst AG (Germany). The procedure for

preparation of organozeolite was described by Matijasevic

et al. (2006).

Uranium sorption (in vitro conditions)

In order to investigate the uranium (VI) adsorption on or-

ganobentonite (OB), different amounts (0.01, 0.025, 0.05,

0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9, and 1 g) of adsorbent were added to

50 ml of uranium (VI) solution. The adsorption of uranium

(VI) ions on organobentonite was studied at pH 3 and 6.

The pH of the solution was adjusted with HNO3. Uranium

(VI) solutions were prepared using uranyl nitrate hexahy-

drate (UO2(NO3)2�6H2O) (Sigma-Aldrich Co.). Uranyl

nitrate was used because a procurement procedure of ura-

nyl nitrate is simple. Also, most of the experiments

described in the literature were performed with uranyl

nitrate. Initial concentration of uranium (VI) ions was

constant in each probe (10 lgU/ml (500 lg U/50 ml) in

pure distilled water). The samples were shaken for 5, 10,

15, 30, 60, 120, 240, 360, and 1,440 min at mechanical

shaker [150 revolutions per minute (rpm)].

After shaking, solids were separated by filtration, and

the concentration of uranium (VI) remaining in solution

152 Radiat Environ Biophys (2014) 53:151–157

123

was determined using a fluorometric method. The per-

centage of uranium adsorbed (%) was calculated by:

Adsorption %ð Þ ¼ Ci � Cf=Cið Þ � 100

where Ci is the initial uranium (VI) concentration, and Cf is

the uranium (VI) concentration in final solution. All

experiments were performed in duplicates.

Uranium sorption in vivo conditions

Experiments were performed on thirty-five-day-old broilers

of linear hybrid Hybro, showing a mass of about 1,000 g.

By the method of the random sampling, 36 broilers were

selected. Food and water intake were ad libitum. The birds

were kept under constant temperature (21 ± 2 �C) with a

12:12-h (light–dark) cycle. They were divided into five

experimental groups, with six birds per group. The zero

group (0) was administered neither UN solution nor

adsorbents.

During the 7 days, birds in groups 1, 2, and 3 were

contaminated via gastric tube, with uranyl nitrate water

solution (UO2(NO3)2�6H2O) (Sigma-Aldrich Co.), in

quantity of 25 mg UN/per day. The control group (1)

received only UN and no protectors. After the UN con-

tamination, the broilers in groups 2 and 3 received or-

ganobentonite (OB) and organozeolite as adsorbents,

immediately after contamination. The broilers in group 2

received a dose of 2 g organobentonite daily, while broilers

in group 3 received 2 g organozeolite daily. In group 4,

broilers received only organobentonite (2 g/per day),

whereas the broilers in group 5 received only organozeolite

(2 g/per day). In our earlier investigation (Slavata and

Vitorovic 2004; Mitrovic et al. 2012), we found that 2 g of

adsorbents did not show any significant health effects.

On the eighth day, the birds were stunned and then

killed by cervical dislocation, and uranium concentration

was determined in muscle, kidney, liver, and brain of

broilers. Histopathological analyses were performed on

samples of small intestine, kidney, liver, and brain.

Sample preparation

Organs (kidney, liver, brain, and muscle) were weighed to

get the fresh weight and then dried at 105 �C. After drying,

all samples were dissolved by microwave digestion on

‘‘Milestone Ethos 1.’’

Quantification of uranium

Uranium content in the initial solution, filtrate, muscle and

organs of broilers (kidney, liver, brain) was determined by

fluorometry based on the fluorescence of uranium in a fused

mixture of NaF, Na2CO3, and K2CO3, on a ‘‘Jarrell Ash

26-000 Division.’’ Uranium extraction was done with

10 cm3 synergistic mixtures 0.1 M TOPO (tri-n-octylphos-

phine oxide) in ethyl acetate. Organic phase aliquots were

evaporated to dry, and the dry residue was heated to 700 �C

with a mixture of NaF (9 %) ? NaKCO3 (91 %). Fluores-

cence intensity was then measured with a fluorometer that

showed a linear dependency with uranium concentration.

The concentration of uranium was determined from standard

uranium calibration curves (detection limit 0.005 mg/kg,

correlation coefficient R [ 0.997) (Stojanovic et al. 2010).

Histopathological analyses

After the birds were killed, samples of small intestine,

kidney, liver, and brain were rinsed with NaCl 0.9 % and

fixed in 10 % formaldehyde solution, dehydrated, embed-

ded in paraffin, and cut into 5-lm-thick sections. The

resulting histopathological slides were stained with hae-

matoxylin and eosin (H&E).

Results

In vitro experiments

It is well known that uranium (VI) speciation is highly

dependent on pH (Gadelle et al. 2001): at low pH values,

U(VI) exists as uranyl cation, UO22?, while at higher pH

values, mononuclear (e.g., [UO2(OH)?]) as well as poly-

nuclear (e.g., [(UO2)2(OH)2]2?, [(UO2)3(OH)5]?) hydro-

lysis products are formed. Occurence of species such as

U2O52?, U3O8

2? has also been suggested (Misaelides et al.

1995), while uranium (VI) carbonate anionic complexes

may be formed at pH values higher than 9. Thus, the pH

values of the initial solution are important variable for the

adsorption of uranium (VI) ions on the adsorbents (Donat

and Aytas 2005).

In the present experiments, kinetics of uranium (VI) ions

adsorption at different pH values was studied. Figure 1

shows the results of uranium (VI) ions adsorption on or-

ganobentonite (0.5 g), for different contact times, at pH 3

and 6. The uptake of uranium (VI) ions by organobentonite

at pH 6 was initially rapid reaching 100 % after 5 min, and

at this level maintained constant during the whole experi-

ment. In contrast, uranium (VI) ions adsorption at pH 3 was

lower and significantly slower, but increased over time.

Desorption processes were not observed. Adsorption of

uranium (VI) ions at different amounts of organobentonite,

at pH 6 and 3, is shown in Table 1, for a contact time of

2 h. A preliminary experiment at pH 3 showed that when

the amount of organobentonite was \0.1 g, the adsorption

of uranium (VI) ions was low; thus, experiments with

lower amounts of organobentonite were not performed.

Radiat Environ Biophys (2014) 53:151–157 153

123

These results indicate that adsorption of uranium (VI)

ions, at pH 3, increases with increasing amount of or-

ganobentonite. However, much higher adsorption of ura-

nium was observed at pH 6 (Fig. 1), and uranium

adsorption also increased with increasing adsorbent mass

(Table 1). For organozeolite (OZ), Matijasevic et al. (2006)

also reported that adsorption of uranium increased with

increasing amount of organozeolite and that higher

adsorption was achieved at pH 6 than at pH 3. Note that

this organozeolite was also used for the in vivo studies

described below.

These results shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1 are used for

setting up the parameters for the in vivo studies described

below, where a mass ratio adsorbent:U of 80:1 (2 g of each

adsorbent and 25 mg U) was used.

In vivo experiments

In muscle and selected organs of broilers in groups 0, 4,

and 5, uranium could not be detected (\0.001 lg/g). In

contrast, uranium residues were detected in kidney, liver,

and brain of broilers in the control group (group 1) and in

groups where the broilers received adsorbents after the

contamination (groups 4 and 5; Table 2). The mean ura-

nium concentration in kidneys from group 1 was three

times higher compared to that from groups 2 (UN ? OB)

and 3 (UN ? OZ), while in liver, mean uranium concen-

tration in the control group was three to five times higher

compared to that in groups 3 and 2. Finally, uranium

concentration in brain from group 1 was about one and half

to two times higher than that from groups 2 and 3. No

effects of broilers’ food and water intake and behaviour on

uranium concentrations were observed.

Histopathological changes in broilers contaminated with

a dose of 25 mg 238U/daily were found in the kidney, liver,

and small intestine, in the form of dystrophic changes in

the kidney tubules epithelium (Fig. 2), oedema and vacu-

olization of the cytoplasm of hepatocytes (Fig. 3), and

necrosis of intestinal villi (Fig. 4). In contrast, the exam-

ined tissues of broilers that received adsorbents OB and OZ

after their contamination with UN (groups 2 and 3), and of

broilers that received only adsorbents OB and OZ (groups

4 and 5), did not show any difference from the normal

histological structure.

Discussion

The digestive tract of broilers is different to that of mam-

mals. The pH values in the digestive tract of broilers range

from 2.5 to 8 (crop 5.5, proventriculus/gizzard 2.5–3.5,

duodenum 5–6, jejunum 6.5–7.0, ileum 7.0–7.5, colon 8)

(Denbow 2000; Klasing 1999). The mean retention time of

feed in crop and gizzard is about 8 and 50 min,

Fig. 1 Adsorption of uranium (VI) ions on organobentonite (0.5 g),

at different contact times, for pH values 3 and 6

Table 1 Adsorption of uranium ions (%) for different masses of

organobentonite, at pH values 6 and 3, and for a contact time of 2 h

Mass of

adsorbent (g)

Uranium removal (%)

at pH 6

Uranium removal (%)

at pH 3

0.01 65.7 –

0.025 84.5 –

0.05 93.1 –

0.1 99.3 19.1

0.25 99.6 20.1

0.5 99.7 77.8

0.7 99.9 91.8

0.9 – 97.3

1 – 99.8

Table 2 Uranium residues (lg/g) in muscle and selected tissues of broilers

Group Muscle Kidney Liver Brain

UN control (group 1) 0.09 ± 0.03 1.25 ± 0.21 1.0 ± 0.13 0.41 ± 0.09

UN ? OB (group 2) 0.03 ± 0.01 0.42 ± 0.13 0.19 ± 0.06 0.27 ± 0.09

UN ? OZ (group 3) 0.07 ± 0.02 0.41 ± 0.02 0.32 ± 0.07 0.21 ± 0.05

Data are given as means of six animals in each group and corresponding standard deviation

UN uranyl nitrate, OB organobentonite, OZ organozeolite

154 Radiat Environ Biophys (2014) 53:151–157

123

respectively, while the mean retention time in the whole

intestinal tract is about 6 h in 800 g weight broilers (Buyse

et al. 1993; Shires et al. 1987). The present in vitro study

showed that the adsorption of uranium (VI) ions at pH 6 is

high and fast, and equilibrium is practically achieved

already after 5 min of contact between uranium (VI) ions

and organobentonite. Although adsorption of uranium (VI)

ions at pH 3 is lower, it was observed that the fraction of

uranium adsorbed increases with increasing contact time

between the adsorbent and the uranium (VI) ions. The

present results also show that administration of organo-

bentonite to broilers, immediately after the contamination

with uranium, will reduce the uranium distribution in tis-

sues and organs.

By examination of uranium distribution in broilers, the

target organs for uranium contamination could be identi-

fied. After 7 days of contamination with UN, broilers

showed a significant distribution of uranium in kidney and

liver. Uranium concentration in brain was three times less

than that in kidney and 2.5 times less than that in liver.

Additionally, in muscle, the uranium concentration was 14

times lower than in kidney, 11 times lower than in liver,

and 4.5 times lower than in brain, indicating that muscles

are not the major target for uranium deposition. Ozmen and

Yurekli (1998) found that after subacute uranyl acetate

exposure of mice, the radioactivity was higher in brain than

in kidney and liver.

After the contamination of broilers with UN and protec-

tion with adsorbents organobentonite and organozeolite,

uranium concentrations in selected organs and muscle were

less than those in the control group (group 1). It was shown

here that in broilers the application of organobentonite

(group 2) reduced uranium concentration by 66 % in kidney,

81 % in liver, 34 % in brain, and 67 % in muscle. In contrast,

in group 3, administration of organozeolite reduced the

uranium concentration by 67 % in kidney, 68 % in liver,

49 % in brain, and 22 % in muscle. Based on the presented

data, it can be concluded that the investigated adsorbents

showed a high efficiency of protection in liver and kidney,

while the efficiency of protection in brain and muscle was

lower. According to the present results, the efficiency of

protection in kidney, liver, and brain is on average 60 % for

organobentonite and 61 % for organozeolite.

Fig. 2 Renal cortex from broilers a in zero group (group 0):

glomerular and the tubular basement membrane are normal; HE

(haematoxylin and eosin) 940 (microscope magnification); b in

control group (group 1). Dystrophic changes in the kidney tubules

epithelium (arrow). HE 940

Fig. 3 Liver from broilers a in zero group (group 0): normal

histological liver structure. HE 920; b in control group (group 1):

oedema and vacuolization of the cytoplasm of hepatocytes. HE 920

Radiat Environ Biophys (2014) 53:151–157 155

123

The histopathological changes observed in kidney, liver,

and small intestine from birds of the control group (group

1) demonstrate the toxic effects of uranium. In case of oral

contamination, the digestive tract is the entry way of ura-

nium into the organism, and accordingly, changes were

indeed observed in the small intestine. In contrast to the

present study, however, no gastrointestinal effect was

observed in rats exposed to uranyl nitrate hexahydrate in

drinking water at 40 mg/kg per day for 28 days, or in

rabbits exposed to uranyl nitrate hexahydrate in drinking

water at up to 600 mg/L for 91 days (Gilman et al. 1998a,

b, c).

Physiological characteristics of the kidneys to reabsorb

and accumulate divalent metals make kidney as target

organ of heavy metals intoxication (Vicente-Vicente et al.

2010; Kurttio et al. 2002). Accordingly, in kidneys, dys-

trophic changes in the epithelium of the tubules were

observed here, which was confirmed by other authors after

acute, subacute, and chronic uranium exposures (Vicente-

Vicente et al. 2010; Gilman et al. 1998a, c; Ozmen and

Yurekli 1998; Haley et al. 1982). In rats, under chronic

exposure with UN, histopathological lesions were observed

primarily in the liver, thyroid, and kidney (Gilman et al.

1998c), even though the uranium levels in the liver were

below detection. In the present study, in broiler liver, the

uranium concentration was detectible and histopathological

changes were found in the form of oedema and cytoplasmic

vacuolation of hepatocytes. Minimal lesions in kidney and

liver of the rats receiving uranyl acetate orally have been

detected by Domingo et al. (1987).

In groups 2 and 3, where the broilers received adsor-

bents immediately after UN contamination, no histopa-

thological lesions were observed in the investigated organs

and tissues. Thus, the uranium concentrations that were

detected in these organs did not cause any pathological

effects. In broilers that received only adsorbents (groups 4

and 5), no histopathological changes were observed in any

of the investigated organs, suggesting that use of the

investigated adsorbents is safe.

Conclusion

Because ingestion is the main route of the contamination of

broilers with toxic substances, their feed must be safe, to

make sure that none of these toxic elements can enter the

human food chain. After years of successful field testing,

many feed suppliers and end-users have included a feed

additive (of only 0.5–5 %) in their feed supply programme.

Note that animals in intensive production are kept in indoor

facilities under strictly controlled environmental condi-

tions. Mineral supplements, such as monocalcium and

dicalcium phosphate, are a major source of uranium in

animal feed, and therefore, continuous monitoring of these

nutrients is necessary. The chickens’ ingestion of dicalcium

phosphate is about 2.93 g daily, which corresponds to

7.23 Bq/day due to 238U (Arruda-Neto et al. 1997). In order

to determine the possibility to protect broilers with or-

ganobentonite and organozeolite in case of alimentary

contamination with uranium, a rather high concentration of

uranyl nitrate was used in the present study.

The results obtained in the present study show that

uranium in broilers primarily accumulates in kidney and

liver compared with brain and muscles. In animal nutrition,

adsorbents are used as feed additives for elimination of

various toxins and improvement of meat production. In all

situations where there may be a risk of alimentary con-

tamination with uranium, the use of organobentonite and

organozeolite is therefore recommended. Currently, other

types of adsorbents are also studied, and the results will be

published once available.

Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Ministry of

Education, Science and Technological Development of Serbia, in the

frame of Project Nos. 31003 and 34103.

Fig. 4 Small intestinal from broilers a in zero group (group 0):

normal structure of intestinal villi. HE 910; b in control group (group

1): fusion, shortening, and necrosis of small intestinal villi. HE 910

156 Radiat Environ Biophys (2014) 53:151–157

123

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