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Uplift and denudation of Mt Sanqingshan Geopark,Jiangxi Province, ChinaZhanghuang Yeabc, Bin Yind, Jiaqi Liue, Anjian Wanga & Qiang Yana

a Institute of Mineral Resources, CAGS, Beijing, PR Chinab Jiangxi Science and Technology Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, PR Chinac East China Institute of Technology, Nanchang, Jiangxi, PR Chinad Geological Survey of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, Jiangxi, PR Chinae Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaPublished online: 28 Oct 2014.

To cite this article: Zhanghuang Ye, Bin Yin, Jiaqi Liu, Anjian Wang & Qiang Yan (2014) Uplift and denudationof Mt Sanqingshan Geopark, Jiangxi Province, China, International Geology Review, 56:15, 1873-1883, DOI:10.1080/00206814.2014.966791

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2014.966791

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Uplift and denudation of Mt Sanqingshan Geopark, Jiangxi Province, China

Zhanghuang Yea,b,c, Bin Yind, Jiaqi Liue, Anjian Wanga and Qiang Yana*aInstitute of Mineral Resources, CAGS, Beijing, PR China; bJiangxi Science and Technology Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, PRChina; cEast China Institute of Technology, Nanchang, Jiangxi, PR China; dGeological Survey of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, Jiangxi,

PR China; eInstitute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

(Received 11 October 2013; accepted 15 September 2014)

Mt Sanqingshan, a global Geopark and world natural heritage site located in Jiangxi Province, China, is famous for itseroded granite peaks. The uplift and denudation history of the area has been reconstructed using fission track methods forthe first time. Apatite fission track ages (AFTAs) cluster into three groups at ca. 25 Ma, 45–55 Ma, and 70 Ma. These agescan be related to ancient multilevel denudation planes at about 900, 1200, and 1500 m above sea level, respectively. Theapatite data also reveal four cooling stages for the Mt Sanqingshan region, from ca. 90 to 65–60 Ma, 65–60 to 45 Ma, 45 to20–15 Ma, and 20–15 Ma to the present, with cooling rates of 1.96°C, 1.18°C, 0.37°C, and 3.78°C per million years,respectively, and an average cooling rate of 1.80°C per million years. Calculated uplift rates are 0.055, 0.034, 0.011, and0.11 mm year‒1 in the four stages, yielding uplifts of 4140, 570, 290, and 1940 m, respectively. The uplift rate of the laststage was significantly faster than that of the other three preceding stages, reflecting rejuvenation of Mt Sanqingshan, as aresult of new tectonism. The average uplift rate at Mt Sanqingshan is 0.053 mm year‒1, and the average denudation rate is0.048 mm year‒1, resulting in 3550 m of uplift and 2540 m of denudation relative to eustatic sea level. The 1010 mdifference is very close to the average elevation of about 1000 m at present. A comparison of uplift–denudation histories forMt Sanqingshan and Mt Huangshan shows that fission track results can be useful for defining geomorphological develop-ment stages.

Keywords: Mt Sanqingshan Geopark; uplift; denudation; fission track thermochronology; apatite

Introduction

Mt Sanqingshan, a global Geopark and UNESCO worldnatural heritage site located in the northeastern part ofJiangxi Province, is one of the most famous eroded granitelandforms in the world, featuring outstanding combina-tions of granite geology, landscape, and ecology. Recentresearch in the area has mainly focused on the granitepetrogenesis, structural setting, human geography, andtourism potential (Liu et al. 2005; Zhang et al. 2007; Yeet al. 2012, 2013b). No quantitative studies have beenconducted on how the landscape of Mt Sanqingshanformed, but such studies are needed to enhance the scien-tific significance of the Geopark and contribute to a betterunderstanding of how the landscapes of other famousEarly Jurassic granite mountains in eastern China formed,such as Mt Huangshan, Mt Jiuhuashan, and MtTianzhushan (Figure 1a). Fission track study of thesemountains could offer an improved understanding ofhow these remarkable landscapes formed, and this studyprovides an example of this approach.

Geological setting

Mt Sanqingshan Geopark is located at latitude 28°48′22′′–29°00′45′′ N and longitude 117°58′20′′–118°08′28′′ E. The

total area of the Geopark is 229.5 km2, with a central areaof 71 km2. Yujing Peak is the highest point in theGeopark, with an elevation of 1820 m above sea level.Mt Sanqingshan itself forms a long and narrow rangeoriented roughly N–S. The mountain has steep slopes onall but the north side.

Mt Sanqingshan area is part of the Huaiyu Mountains,which lie in the ancient suture zone between the Yangtzeand Cathaysian blocks, and also in the eastern segment ofthe Neoproterozoic Jiangnan orogen (Xue et al. 2010). Theregion has been affected by early Palaeozoic, Triassic,Jurassic, and Cenozoic orogenic events and has undergonethree periods of transgression and regression. MtSanqingshan and the surrounding areas record more thanone thousand million years of Earth history, with nearlycontinuous stratigraphic sequences from Mesoproterozoicto Quaternary time, with only middle Silurian to MiddleDevonian and Palaeogene units missing (Figure 1b). Thisexceptionally complete stratigraphic record is exposed suc-cessively mainly in the eastern part of the Geopark fromFengshui, through Jingsha, Zhihu, Sanqing Lake, and toYushan County. Igneous rocks are well developed in theregion. Neoproterozoic bimodal volcanic rocks (basalt andrhyolite) are exposed to the north, where they unconform-ably overlie the rocks of the Mesoproterozoic Zhangcun

*Corresponding author. Email: chuckverna@sina.com

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Group. Isotopic ages for rocks of the Zhangcun Group arebetween 1113 ± 118 and 1379 ± 65 Ma based on single-grain zircon U-Pb dating (Deng et al. 2003). Late Jurassicto Early Cretaceous felsic volcanic rocks crop out in thesoutheastern part of the region. Magma has erupted duringthe Cretaceous Shixi and Zhoujiadian cycles at 111–92 and128–119 Ma, respectively, based on Rb-Sr, U-Pb, and K-Argeochronologic studies (Wang et al. 2002). There is also aseries of granitoid intrusions in the region ranging in agefrom Neoproterozoic to Mesozoic. They can be divided intoS-type and A-type bodies based on geochemistry. The syn-orogenic S-type is mainly composed of granodiorite thatwas generated by partial melting of metamorphic sedimen-tary-volcanic rock during collision and crustal thickeningand belongs to synorogenitic magmatite. However, the post-orogenic A-type is mainly composed of granite with anisotopic mantle component. The two types of intrusionsare spatially distinct. The S-type granodioritic intrusionsare all situated in the northern part of the suture zone insouthern Anhui Province. These include the Xucun intru-sion, with an age of 850 ± 10 Ma as determined by LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb, located in the northernmost part ofthe studied region, and the Xiuning intrusion that yields aSHRIMP U-Pb zircon age of 826 ± 6 Ma. In contrast, A-type granites are all situated at the southern part of thesuture in northeastern Jiangxi Province. These include theLingshan and Shi’ershan intrusions. The former yields aSHRIMP U-Pb zircon age of 823 ± 18 Ma, and the latter,which is granite-porphyry formed in a post-orogenic rift

setting, yields a SHRIMP U-Pb zircon age of785 ± 11 Ma (Xue et al. 2010).

After several hundred million years without magma-tism, granitic rocks were again emplaced in an extensionaltectonic environment. Under the Early Cretaceous exten-sional regime, voluminous granitic magmatism formed alarge batholith (Yin et al. 2007; Yang et al. 2009). TheSHRIMP U-Pb zircon dates for granitic rocks at MtSanqingshan are 123 ± 2.2 to 115. 6 ± 2.0 Ma (Zhanget al. 2007), which indicates magma emplacement duringEarly Cretaceous time. They have relatively higher REE(except for Eu) and high strength field elements such asZr, Nb, and Ta concentrations, but lower Sc, Cr, Co, Ni,Sr, and Eu concentrations. In addition, they have high Ga/Al, characterizing A-type granite (Zhang et al. 2007; Yeet al. 2013a). Thus, the foundation of geology at MtSanqingshan was laid in late Mesozoic time. Throughfurther shaping by Cenozoic tectonic movements, the MtSanqingshan granite pluton was uplifted, and it was theinteraction of Cenozoic uplift and erosion acting onCretaceous plutonic rocks that created the beautiful mod-ern landscapes (Figure 2).

Folds and faults are well developed in the region.Repeated strong orogenesis tilted and folded the rocks, caus-ing numerous angular unconformities. The Huangtulinganticlinorium and Huameishan syncline are the major foldsin the region. Huangtuling anticlinorium (Figures 3a) is apart of the larger Huangtuling–Kaihua anticlinorium. Themain fold axis trends NE, as do the plunging subsidiary

Figure 1. (a) Tectonic position of Mt Sanqingshan and (b) regional geological map of Mt Sanqingshan (modified after AdministrationCommittee of Mt Sanqingshan Geopark 2009).

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folds, each extending approximately for 15 km. Fold axialplanes are nearly vertical, with the northwestern flank dip-ping at 300–350° / 30–75° and the gentler-dipping

southeastern flank at 120–150° / 30–60°. The strata in thecore of the anticlinorium are occupied by the lateNeoproterozoic (Sinian) Piyuancun Formation, which is

Figure 2. Mt Sanqingshan Geopark landform. (a) ‘Stone of Oriental Goddess’ granite pictograph, (b) ‘Tianmen’ granite peak cluster, (c)‘Wanhuchaotian’ granite peak wall, and (d) ‘Giant Boa’ granite peak column.

Figure 3. Structural phenomena at Mt Sanqingshan. (a) Huangtuling anticline, (b) Xiaxikeng-Bajiaowu Fault, and (c) Huameishansyncline.

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overlain by rocks of the early Cambrian Hetang Formation.The southeastern flank is well exposed and contains a super-imposed secondary anticline and syncline system. TheHuameishan syncline (Figures 3c) is located in the north-eastern part of the Geopark and has a fold axis trending NE–SW. Its southwestern limb was uplifted against the margin ofHuaiyu Mountain granite body, while the northeast endcontinues through Yuantou. The northwestern flank dips at40°–60°, whereas the southeastern flank dips at 30°–50°.The core of the structure is made up of the Early OrdovicianYinzhubu Formation, whereas the strata on the flanks com-prise the late Cambrian Xiyangshan Formation. Three majornormal faults – Fenglin–Zihu, Xiaxikeng–Bajiaowu (Figure3b), and Bajiaowu–Fenglin – transect Mt Sanqingshan gran-ite, forming a distinctive triangular fault framework (Figure1b). Movements along these faults have controlled the upliftof the mountain and the evolution of the landscape. About20–30 million years ago, the Himalayan orogeny uplifted thearea and created the Huaiyu Mountain range. During thisperiod, the triangular fault block was further uplifted withthe formation of Yujing Peak. It is this unusual structuraluplift that controlled the formation of Mt Sanqingshan andits spectacular geomorphology. Joints are well developed atMt Sanqingshan. There are two sets of vertical joints in thecore of the area: NE- to NNE-trending and NW-trendingsets, which together form a chess-board-like pattern. TheNE–NNE joints tend to converge to the SW and divergetowards the NE. These joints have controlled the formationof the peak walls in the west and the gorges in the south. TheNW-trending joints increase in number from N to S, out-cropping in groups. These are the main controlling structuresof the peak pillars in the central part of the Geopark and thepeak walls and gorges in the southeastern part. In addition,there is a set of horizontal joints that mainly controlled theformation of figurative stones.

Sampling

Samples were collected generally along a NE–SW sec-tion, and a portable GPS unit was used to measure theelevation and location of all sampling points. Samplesof at least 3 kg were collected from fresh outcrops ofCretaceous Mt Sanqingshan granite and the adjacentYujing Peak granite stock. All sampling was carriedout far from major scenic attractions in order to protectthe scenery.

The compositions of granite hand specimens showminor differences in mineral content, although all graniteis porphyritic and massive (Figure 4). They mainly con-sist of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase, and small amountsof biotite and muscovite (Figure 4d–g). Granitic rocksvary in grain size and colour. Coarse- to medium-grainedgranite (Figure 4a) is light red in colour. Phenocrysts that

are 10–15 mm in diameter are common. The modalcomposition is generally about 40% K-feldspar, 30%quartz, 25% plagioclase, and 5% biotite. Medium- tofine-grained granite (Figure 4b) varies from light red togrey in colour. Phenocrysts range from 4 to 7 mm dia-meter and consist of both plagioclase and K-feldspar. TheK-feldspar makes up about 37% of the rock, followed by30% plagioclase, 25% quartz, and 8% biotite. Fine-grained granite (Figure 4c) is light grey in colour.Feldspar phenocrysts comprise about one-half of therock and are 2.5–3.5 mm in diameter. On the quartz(Q)-alkali feldspar (A)-plagioclase (P) diagram, six sam-ples classify as granite (Figure 4h). The rock types con-form to the element geochemical characteristics of MtSanqingshan pluton (Ye et al. 2013a).

Analytical methods and experimental results

Fission track data (FTD), including FTAs and fission tracklength distribution (FTLD), can be interpreted to helpreconstruct the low T (about 100–150°C) thermal historyof an area. Fission tracks anneal with temperature increase,so the track density will decrease in number and length.Fission track annealing is related solely to temperature (T)and time (t). These data not only reflect the closure tem-perature at a specific time, but also record a rock’s coolinghistory.

The AFT) technique is perhaps best known for appli-cations to understanding of the thermal history of oil- andgas-bearing basins. However, since the middle 1980s, ithas also been widely used to successfully study the uplift-denudation histories of mountains and orogenic belts(Jiang et al. 1998; Kohn et al. 1999; Armstrong et al.2003; Reiners et al. 2003a, 2003b; Ding et al. 2006, 2007,2009; Wang et al. 2011; Yuan et al. 2011).

Our fission track measurements were conducted in2013 at the Institute of High Energy Physics, ChineseAcademy of Sciences, following the procedures of Green(1986). The samples were crushed to particle sizes thatmatch the mineral grain sizes in the rock. After primaryseparation, apatite and zircon were concentrated by elec-tromagnetic and heavy liquid techniques. The single-grainminerals were fixed with drops of epoxy resin to glassslides, and then ground and polished. Ages for five apatiteand two zircon samples were determined. Spontaneousapatite track density (ρs) was revealed using HNO3

(concentration 7%) for 30 s at 25°C, and zircon trackswere revealed by using NaOH (8 g) + KOH (11.5 g) for33 hr at 220°C. A low-uranium muscovite external detec-tor, tightly wrapped with a single-grain mineral, was put inthe reactor for irradiation and HF (concentration 40%) wasused for 20 s to reveal induced track density (ρi). Neutronflux was monitored by using CN5 uranium dosimeter

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glass. Densities and confined lengths in both natural andinduced fission track were measured with a microscope athigh magnification. Only those crystals with prismaticsections parallel to the c-crystallographic axis wereaccepted as such orientations have high etching efficiency.Ages of standard samples (from ρs/ρi) were measured withan external detector, and ρd was recorded by standarduranium glass muscovite. Annealing ages were calculatedby using the standard FTA equation and the Zeta constant(ξ) recommended by the International Union of GeologicalSciences.

The probability that all analysed grains belong tothe same age group was evaluated by the value ofχ2P(χ2) > 5%, which indicates that the FTA representsthe age of the last thermal event; P(χ2) < 5% indicatesthat the FTA of single-grain mineral spreads asymmetri-cally and that the traditional analysis based on the Poissonvariation is invalid. In this case, the ‘central age’ is essen-tially a weighted mixed age, and Binomfit software wasused to identify different age groups (Brandon 1992,1996). Seven groups of effective FTD were obtainedfrom the analysed apatite and zircon (Table 1).

The apatite FTAs range from 43 ± 4 to 70 ± 18 Ma.The calculated P(χ2) values for three samples (SQS02,SQS04, and SQS07) were all larger than 5%, and theirhistograms of single-grain ages have a typical singlepeak. However, two samples (SQS01 and SQS06) haveP(χ2) values less than 5%, and their histograms ofsingle-grain ages are characterized by twin peaks(Figure 5). Histograms of apatite track length distribu-tion also show similar characteristics (Figure 6). Notethat only three grains of apatite have been measured inSQS04, and thus there is no statistical significance fortrack length.

The average length for the apatite fission tracks is12.0 ± 2.1 μm to 12.4 ± 2.1 μm. The average track lengthsare relatively short, whereas the standard deviations arelarge, reflecting the impact of the last single thermal event.

Three age groups are identified in the age histogram:25 Ma, 45–55 Ma, and 70 Ma (Figure 7). These agegroups are related to the uplift denudation involved informing ancient multilevel erosion surfaces, now at about900, 1200, and 1500 m above sea level, respectively (Yeet al. 2012).

Figure 4. Photographs and photomicrographs of granite at Mt Sanqingshan. (a) Coarse- to medium-grained granite, (b) medium- to fine-grained granite, (c) fine-grained granite at Yujing Peak, (d–g) photomicrographs of granite samples at Mt Sanqingshan, (h) modal quartz(Q)-alkali feldspar (A)-plagioclase (P) ternary plot (modified after Maniar et al. 1989), and (i) residual weathering crust near SanqingTemple.

Notes: Mineral abbreviations: Qz, quartz; Pl, plagioclase; Bi, biotite; Ms, muscovite; Kf, K-feldspar. Rock type code: I, quartz alkali syenite; II, quartzsyenite; III, quartz monzonite; IV, quartz monzodiorite; V, quartz diorite; VI, tonalite, trondhjemite; VII, granodiorite; VIII, granite; IX, alkali granite.Tectonic environment abbreviations: IAG, island arc granitoids; CAG, continental arc granitoids; CCG, continental collision granitoids; POG, post-orogenic granitoids; RRG, rift-related granitoids; CEUG, continental epeirogenic uplift granitoids; OP, oceanic plagiogranites.

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Geological thermal history modelling

The initial conditions for inverse modelling are determinedaccording to the basic geological factors and the parametersof apatite fission track dating. Based on these initial condi-tions, we have modelled the inverse thermal history of MtSanqingshan by using the HeFTy, which is the newest ver-sion of AFTSolve (Ketcham et al. 2000; Ketcham 2005).

The start time of the modelling depends on the FTA ofthe samples. In this case, it is from 90 Ma to the present.The modelling temperature begins at 130°C, which isslightly higher than the apatite partial annealing zone(PAZ), and extends to the present surface temperature.Simulation results are shown in Figure 8. The measured

and modelled track lengths are very close, so are themeasured and modelled pooled ages. The values of K–S(Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, which is used to determinethe similarity between measured and predicted apatite FTAand length parameters) and GOF (goodness-of-fit) arehigher than 0.9. It is generally believed that if K–S andGOF parameters are higher than 0.5, the simulation resultis accurate (Yuan et al. 2011). The data indicate that thesimulated conditions are close to the actual ones, andtherefore the correct thermal history paths have beenobtained for each sample.

Modelling reveals that the thermal evolution history atMt Sanqingshan can be generally divided into four stages.

Figure 5. Histograms of apatite single-grain ages for each sample and their frequency curves.

Table 1. Analysis results of apatite and zircon fission track in Mt Sanqingshan.

Samples ElevationParticlenumber (n)

ρs (105/cm2)

(Ns)ρi (10

5/cm2)(Ni)

ρd (105/cm2)

(Nd)P

(χ2)Central age

(Ma)Pooled age

(Ma) L (μm) (N)

SQS01 421 m Apatite 27 2.259 (246) 19.152 (2086) 20.93 (9117) 4.3 43 ± 4 43 ± 4 12.4 ± 2.1 (33)SQS01 421 m Zircon 11 99.816 (991) 107.773 (1070) 22.95 (13124) 0.1 109 ± 9 106 ± 6SQS02 612 m Apatite 30 1.334 (223) 9.527 (1593) 20.041 (9117) 73.2 49 ± 4 49 ± 4 12.0 ± 2.2 (94)SQS04 1009 m Apatite 3 1.294 (22) 6.174 (105) 18.974 (9117) 17.7 70 ± 18 70 ± 17SQS05 1200 m Zircon 4 154.874 (883) 135.756 (774) 23.862 (13124) 60.0 137 ± 9 137 ± 9SQS06 1409 m Apatite 11 1.717 (204) 10.745 (1277) 20.397 (9117) 3.7 57 ± 7 57 ± 5 12.0 ± 2.1 (57)SQS07 1581 m Apatite 23 2.749 (223) 13.527 (1593) 19.257 (9117) 83.2 62 ± 3 62 ± 3 12.3 ± 2.0 (94)

Note: ρs, ρi, and ρd are spontaneous track density, induced track density, and standard track density, respectively; Ns, Ni, and Nd are the numbers ofspontaneous tracks, induced tracks, and standard tracks, respectively; L is the mean track length (±σ); P(χ2) is the test value of χ2.

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The earliest, from ca. 90 to 65–60 Ma, was when thetemperature was above 100°C, at the bottom of the apatitefission track annealing zone. The second, from 65–60 to45 Ma, was when the region experienced rapid coolingfrom 120–100°C down to 95–85°C. The third, from ca. 45to 20–15 Ma, was a period of slow cooling, during whichthe temperature dropped from 95–85°C to 80°C. The finalstage was rapid cooling from ca. 20–15 Ma to the present,during which the temperature dropped from about 80°C tothe present surface temperature of about 12°C.

Extent and rate of cooling

Sample SQS05, whose P(χ2) value >5%, has a zircon FTAof 137 ± 9 Ma; this mineral has a closure temperature of250°C. Taking 62 Ma as the boundary between stage 1 andstage 2, and 105°C as the average temperature during stage1 (137–62 Ma), then the temperature drop of 145°C indi-cates a cooling rate of 1.96°C per million years. Duringstage 2 (62–45 Ma), the temperature dropped 20°C and thecooling rate was 1.18°C per million years. During stage 3(45–18 Ma), the temperature dropped 10°C and the coolingrate was 0.37°C per million years. Finally during stage 4,the temperature dropped 68°C and the cooling rate was3.78°C per million years over the past 18 Ma, thus thehighest of all stages. The average cooling rate since lateMesozoic was 1.82°C per million years.

Another way to calculate the cooling rate is providedby the following formula (Wagner and Van 1992):

Cr ¼ ðTm � Tsurf Þ=tm;

where Tm is the mineral closure temperature of fissiontracks, Tsurf is the present surface temperature, and tm isthe FTA of samples. Given that the closure temperature ofapatite fission tracks is 110°C (Brown 1991) and the aver-age surface temperature is 12°C at Mt Sanqingshan, sam-ples SQS01, SQS02, SQS04, SQS06, and SQS07experienced cooling rates of 2.28, 2.00, 1.40, 1.72, and

Figure 6. Histograms of apatite track length distribution.

Figure 7. Histogram of apatite fission track age at MtSanqingshan.

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1.58°C per million years, respectively. The average coolingrate for these samples was 1.80°C per million years. Theresults obtained by the two different methods are essentiallythe same; therefore, we can take 1.80°C per million years asthe average cooling rate at Mt Sanqingshan.

Extent and rate of uplift

The following formula can be used to calculate the upliftextent and rate of Mt Sanqingshan during different periods(Liu et al. 2012):

Uplift ¼ cooling rate=geothermal gradient

The average geothermal gradient in eastern Chinatoday is 35°C km‒1 (Yuan et al. 2011); assuming thisgradient existed during late Mesozoic and Cenozoic timeand that the temperature is 145°C over a time span of75 million years, the uplift extent and rate at MtSanqingshan is 4140 m and 0.055 mm year‒1, respectively.Cooling during the second stage was 20°C, over a timespan of 17 Ma with an uplift extent and rate of 570 m and0.034 mm year‒1, respectively. Cooling during the thirdstage was 10°C over a time span of 27 Ma, with the extentand rate of uplift being 290 m and 0.011 mm year‒1,respectively. During the fourth stage, the cooling was68°C over a time span of 18 Ma, yielding an uplift of1940 m and an uplift rate of 0.11 mm year‒1.

The calculated average uplift rate for Mt Sanqingshanis about 0.053 mm year‒1, and the cumulative amount ofuplift is 6940 m. The results are in accordance with theconclusions from petrologic studies (Zhang et al. 2007). It

is estimated that the granitic magma at Mt Sanqingshanwas originally emplaced at a depth of about 6000 m,indicating a minimum uplift of at least 6000 m. If theelevations of the sampling points are taken into account,the extent of uplift defined by petrologic geobarometryand calculated from fission tracks is very close. In addi-tion, the uplift rate of the fourth stage was faster than theprevious three stages, which is consistent with rapid upliftaccompanying Neogene Himalayan orogeny.

Uplift relative to eustatic sea level (U) is given by therelationship:

U ¼ Dþ ΔH þ Δs:l:

where D is the amount of denudation, ΔH is the elevationdifference between the current surface and ancient surface,and Δs.l. is the changing magnitude of sea level (Englandand Molnar 1990).

For apatite fission track results, D + Δs.l. is equiva-lent to the depth at which the closure of apatite fissiontrack occurs. For example, for the apatite fission trackclosure temperature of 110°C, and a geothermal gradientof 35°C km‒1, the depth of closure is 3140 m. Therefore,the formula can be transformed into U = ΔH +3140.

All apatite FTAs obtained from Mt Sanqingshan weremore than 39 Ma, and the surface elevation at MtSanqingshan in Palaeogene was slightly higher than thatat Mt Huangshan (Pu and Guo 2007). Mt Huangshan isestimated to have been about 500 m (Yuan et al. 2011), sowe can assume 600 m as the elevation of Mt Sanqingshan.Therefore, ΔH for SQS01, SQS02, SQS04, SQS06, andSQS07 is −179, 12, 409, 809, and 981 m, respectively, and

Figure 8. Thermal history modelling at Mt Sanqingshan Geopark. The solid lines represent the thermal history path of the samples, thedashed lines represent an area of good-fit, and the dotted lines represent an acceptable zone. The sample number, measured and modelledtrack length, measured and modelled pooled age, K-S test, and GOF values are given at the top-left corner of each plot.

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the corresponding amount of uplift for each sample is2961, 3152, 3549, 3949, and 4121, yielding an averageuplift of 3550 m, which is the extent of uplift relative toeustatic sea level.

Extent and rate of denudation

The average amount of denudation can be calculated usingthe formula of Brown (1991):

ΔE ¼ 110� 10�C� Tsð Þ=Gþ d

where ΔE is the average denudation amount, Ts is theancient surface temperature, G is the palaeo-geothermalgradient, and d is the elevation difference between thebottom of the fission track annealing zone and the currentsurface.

Mt Huangshan area is assumed to have a temperatureof 13°C during Neogene time, and the bottom of thefission track zone was about 800 m (Yuan et al. 2011). Ifthe surface temperature was 14°C in the Neogene and thethermal gradient was still 35°C km‒1 at Mt Sanqingshan,the respective value of d for SQS01, SQS02, SQS04,SQS06, and SQS07 is 379, 188, −209, −609, and−781 m. Therefore, the corresponding amount of denuda-tion is 3122, 2931, 2534, 2134, and 1962, and the denuda-tion rates are 0.073, 0.060, 0.036, 0.037, and 0.032 mmyear‒1. The average denudation is 2540 m, and the averagedenudation rate is 0.048 mm year‒1.

These data suggest that the denudation rates in differ-ent sampling locations vary greatly, which is in agreementwith the field evidence. For example, an ancient weath-ering crust is preserved near Sanqing Temple (28°52′36′′N, 118°04′02′′ E). North of this point, fine-grained, biotiteporphyritic granite crops out, whereas to the south, thesedimentary strata–Cambrian banded limestone ofXiyangshan Formation is exposed, where fossils of trilo-bites and benthic brachiopods have been found (Figure 4i).But Nanqing Garden of Mt Sanqingshan has been deeplycut with granite peaks (Figure 2b–d). The former indicateslimited erosion and the latter suggests extensive erosion.

Since 56 Ma, which is the average apatite FTA at MtSanqingshan, the difference between the average rates ofuplift and denudation is 0.005 mm year‒1 (0.053–0.048 mm year‒1), and the difference between averageuplift and denudation amount is 1010 m (3550–2540 m),which is very close to the present average elevation ofabout 1000 m at Mt Sanqingshan. These data reflect theentire history of the granite, from magma emplacement at6000 m depth to the formation of a medium-sized moun-tain at present.

A comparison with Mt Huangshan, an adjacentMesozoic granite mountain in the same orogenic belt,shows that they have some similar characteristics.However, Mt Huangshan has a slower average cooling

rate (1.52°C per million years), a lesser amount of uplift(6710 m), and a slower average rate of uplift (0.045 mmyear‒1) (Yuan et al. 2011) than Mt Sanqingshan. Thus, MtSanqingshan had a greater amount of uplift, whereas MtHuangshan had more extensive denudation. These featuresare consistent with the recognized landform developmentstages and geological observations. According to geomor-phological descriptions, Mt Sanqingshan is in a late infancyto early mature stage, whereas Mt Huangshan is in a maturestage (Cui et al. 2007). The earlier the mountain-buildingstage is, the more uplift is expected. The theory suggeststhat Mt Sanqingshan has experienced more uplift than MtHuangshan. Furthermore, Mt Sanqingshan pluton hasintruded both early Cambrian and Devonian strata, whereasthe Mt Huangshan body intruded only into Cambrian strata.In addition, the sedimentary wall rock at Mt Sanqingshanoccurs at 400 m elevation, and its intrusive contact interfacewith Mt Sanqingshan pluton is exposed on the mountain’snorthern slope. These features indicate that the amount ofdenudation at Mt Sanqingshan is not as great as that at MtHuangshan. The different approaches used here prove thereliability of fission track experiments to determine therecent tectonic history of Mt Sanqingshan.

Conclusions

Mt Sanqingshan, with a geological record of more thanone thousand million years, is not only a geological treas-ure with great scenic appeal, but also possesses manygeological features with great scientific value and signifi-cance (Figure 9). The fission track method, as outlined inthe article, was used for the first time to analyse the upliftand denudation of Mt Sanqingshan. The following con-clusions have been drawn.

(1) The apatite FTAs can be divided into three groups:25, 45–55, and 70 Ma. These age groups arerelated to the uplift-denudation processes thatformed ancient multilevel erosion surfaces, nowat about 900, 1200, and 1500 m above sea level,respectively.

(2) The thermal evolution history at Mt Sanqingshancan be divided into four stages: from ca. 90 to65–60 Ma, 65–60 to 45 Ma, 45 to 20–15 Ma,and 20–15 Ma to the present. The cooling rateswere 1.96, 1.18, 0.37, and 3.78°C per millionyears, with an average of 1.80°C per millionyears. The uplift rates were 0.055, 0.034, 0.011,and 0.110 mm year‒1, respectively, and the relatedamounts of uplift were 4140, 570, 290, and1940 m, with a total uplift amount of 6940 m,which is in accordance with the petrologic conclu-sions. The uplift during the fourth stage was sig-nificantly faster than that of the three previousstages, reflecting the tectonic rejuvenation of Mt

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Sanqingshan resulting from Himalayan new tec-tonic movement.

(3) The average uplift rate at Mt Sanqingshan is0.053 mm year‒1, and the average denudationrate is 0.048 mm year‒1, with a difference of0.005 mm year‒1. The average amount of upliftat Mt Sanqingshan relative to eustatic sea level is3550 m, while its denudation is 2540 m. The1010 m difference between them is very close tothe present average elevation of about 1000 m atMt Sanqingshan.

(4) The apatite fission track technique can provideimportant constraints for different stages of land-form development and tectonic setting. Comparedwith Mt Huangshan, which is located in the sameorogenic belt, Mt Sanqingshan has a faster averagecooling rate, greater amount of uplift, and a fasteruplift rate. These features are consistent with thetheory of landform development stages and thelocal geology. Fission track analysis may proveto be a good new tool for use in geomorphologystudies.

AcknowledgementsWe are grateful to Mt Sanqingshan Geopark AdministrationCommittee and Professor Guosheng Yin for the field guidanceand constructive discussion, and to Dave Hann, David Yockney,Dr Hegen Ouyang and Dr Yingchun Cao for polishing the article.We especially thank the editors of IGR, Professor WanmingYuan, Dr Robert Stern, Dr Paul Robinson, and Dr RichardGoldfarb, as well as anonymous journal reviewers for their usefulcomments and constructive suggestions, which significantlyimproved the manuscript.

FundingThis research was financially supported by the Geological SurveyProject of China [grant number 12120113091800] and doctoralfoundation of Jiangxi Science and Technology NormalUniversity [grant number 3000990129].

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