Reports

’ Simon Maxwell, ‘Food aid for that no child moves up by more than one of children suffering from severe, mild and supplementary feeding programmes - an category and that no child moves down a no malnutrition to be in the ratios analysis’, Food Policy. Vol 3. No 4, 1978. category. Relaxing these assumptions 13.4/l .7/l. See A. Sommer and M.S. 2 WFP, Interim Evaluation Report (Project would reduce correspondingly the number Loewenstein. ‘Nutritional status and Mexico 3071, WFP/IGC 26/l 1 Add A3. of ‘improvers’. mortality: a prospective validation of the Rome, 1974. 4 In Bangladesh, Sommer and QUAC stick’, in American Journal of 3 In the matrix presentation it is assumed Loewenstein have shown mortality rates ClinicalNutrition. No 28, March 1975.

Upland rice: an underdeveloped crop of Latin America

Rice is a staple of the Latin American diet and one of the most widely

cultivated crops in the region. Although mention of rice calls to mind carefully

tended plots of irrigated land, that is not the typical method of cultivation in

Latin America. Over 70% of the rice grown is of the upland type, providing

more than 50% of total aroduction.

In recent years world attention has been drawn to the development of new, high- yielding varieties of irrigated rice. These have made significant contributions to increased productivity in Asia. Latin America, especially Colombia, has also benefitted from these new varieties. However, since upland rice is the dominant type cultivated in Latin America, the achievements have had limited impact on a majority of the rice cultivation of the region. That fact takes on added significance when one considers that much of the upland cultivation involves small or subsistence farmers. No one would deny the overall benefits to the general population in countries such as Colombia where increased rice production has improved the nutritional picture, but that is a situation involving only the cash economy and not the subsistence levels of living still common in the countryside.

The definition of upland rice used by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) is ‘rice grown on both flat and sloping fields that are not bunded, that were prepared and seeded under dry conditions, and that depend on rainfall for moisture’.’ A similar definition is found in a general study which classifies tropical farming systems.* This definition is useful because it clearly excludes rice which is grown with any source of

supplementary moisture. However, the equivalent terms arroz de secano in Spanish and arroz de sequeiro in Portuguese are not used in such a restrictive sense in Latin America. Therefore the dichotomous classification of production systems, into upland and irrigated, in Latin America typically places within the former category some areas of cultivation (especially on floodplains) where the crop enjoys additional moisture derived from the soil and where it is not dependent exclusively on rainfall. No estimates exist as to the extent to which such areas are represented under the upland category. Therefore in this article upland rice is used to designate the crop according to the Latin American connotation.

Geographic distribution

Brazil is pre-eminent in overall rice production and ranks as the leading non-Asian producer and sixth largest in the world. Upland rice represents 86% of the total area under rice cultivation in the country (Table I), and is concentrated in the south-central portion of the Brazilian Plateau. The six Central American countries together account for the second largest area of upland rice, representing 93% of all rice they cultivate. The crop is most important in Panama and Costa Rica,

in the highlands and western coasts. Mexico ranks as the third most important upland rice grower, with 65% of the crop under upland conditions. Cultivation is concentrated in the southern and southeastern states of Mexico.

Colombia continues to derive one quarter of its rice from upland cultivation. As recently as 1966, Colombian rice production in terms of area was equally divided between irrigated and upland; however, introductions and local development of new high-yielding varieties of irrigated rice have brought about a major shift from upland to irrigated rice growing. Current upland rice cultivation is mainly found in the coastal lowlands. In neighbouring Ecuador, where three quarters of the rice is of the upland type, the coastal lowlands also represent the major area. Bolivia’s rice production is totally of the upland type, coming from the eastern lowlands of the country. Venezuela, despite recent expansion of irrigated cultivation, still obtains 40% of its rice from upland cultivation, chiefly in the Orinoco Lowland. Peru currently derives one fifth of its national rice production from upland cultivation in the eastern lowlands.

A small amount of upland rice is grown in the Caribbean, in Haiti, Jamaica and the Dominican Republic, but it is of minor importance. Paraguay has a modest amount of rice production, with 42% derived from upland cultivation, all coming from the northeastern portion of the country adjacent to Brazil.

From the above discussion it is clear that upland rice growing in Latin

54 FOOD POLICY February 1979

a Excluding Belize.

b 1976 FAO data for Cuba added, all irrlgateti

c 1976 FAO data added.

Soc~rce Workshop on the Development of Strategies to Improve Rice Production in Latin America, Centro lnternacional de Agllcultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia, 31 October 3 November 1977 and FAO Prodc/ctior, Yearbook 1976, Vol 30. FAO, Rome, 1977.

Country or region Upland Irrigated Total % upland

Brazil 4069 650 4719 86 Central Americaa 268 20 288 93 Mexico 114 61 175 65 Colombia 95 280 375 25 Ecuador 90 30 120 75 Bolivia 70 0 70 100 Venezuela 60 90 150 40 Peru 25 105 130 19 Caribbean b 20 300 320 6 Paraguay 15 21 36 42 Guyanas 0 150 150 0 Argentina 0 105 105 0 Uruguay’ 0 52 52 0 ChileC 0 29 29 0

Total 4826 1893 6719 72

America is concentrated in the tropics, in lower elevation plateau areas and lowlands.

Production

Upland rice is cultivated under systems that range from shifting cultivation to modern mechanized production. The various systems are found under different climatic and soil conditions, each with subtle modifications. It is possible to classify production systems into numerous types: a recent study, for example. described six basic systems for upland rice in Latin America.) Rather than follow that example, however, I propose to use production purpose as the paramount criterion and discuss three basic types of cultivation: subsistence cultivation, transitional cultivation and commercial cultivation.

plants becomes a major problem. A new plot is then cleared. Upland rice is commonly grown in the same plot with other subsistence crops, such as maize, maniac, beans and squash. Under such conditions rice yields alone are difficult to measure: local varieties in eastern Peru produce 053.0 metric tons per hectare, depending upon rainfall distribution.’ In the state of Maranhio in northeastern Brazil, an area of dependable rainfall, yields are about 1.6 metric tons per hectare with local \ arieties.?

Shifting cultivation is often carried on by peasants who do not own the plot of land and may be occupying it without the owner’s permission, and is therefore most common in remote areas of Latin America such as the Amazon Basin in Brazil and in adjoining countries.

clearing is commonplace. Upland rice is grown during the rainy season on the newly-cleared land, most often without benefit of fertilizer. After two or three years, other crops such as maize or soybeans or pasture grasses are cultivated in place of rice. Planting of grasses is related to the development of new lands for extensive large scale cattle raising. Upland rice is grown as a cash crop. with most of the production being shipped to markets elsewhere in the country. Under mechanized cultivation, fertilizer, insecticides and improved seed may be utilized, if the landowner so chooses.

Subsistence cultivation

This type of upland rice growing is typically associated with shifting cultivation in areas of primary and secondary forest. Small plots of up to 2 ha are cleared during the dry season and the felled trees permitted to dry out. At the end of the dry season the trees and brush are gathered into piles and burned. With the onset of the rains, rice is direct seeded in the ash covered plot. Some weeding is done when the plants are young. The grain is harvested by hand. sun dried and threshed by hand. The same plot may be used for two or three years before soil fertility drops and the encroachment of weeds and woody

An unknown but probably small amount of subsistence cultivation involving upland rice does occur in floodplain areas where soil moisture is available.

Transitional cultivation

Upland rice is both a cash and a subsistence crop associated with short periods of cultivation of newly cleared land before it is converted into pasture. This is occurring on the agricultural frontier. Brazil provides the best example of this type of cultivation. Two different systems have been identitied.b

The first is in south-central part of Brazil. in the states of Goi& and Mato Grosso, where transitional cultivation associated with mechanized land

The second transitional cultivation system is best exemplified in the state of Maranhao. There plots of forested land are rented by the owners to small farmers, under either a cash rental or sharecropping arrangement. The farmers clear the plot by hand, plant upland rice and other subsistence crops for about two years. Then they are obligated to plant pasture grass and return the land to the owner, who in turn proceeds to use it for cattle grazing. The farmers then move into new areas and repeat the process. Thus they remain at the leading edge of the agricultural frontier, leaving behind them grazing lands and an agricultural landscape dominated by cattle raising. This transitional system is quite similar to the shifting cultivation described above, except that the plots become grazing land rather than reverting to forest. Upland rice yields under transitional cultivation are comparable to those of subsistence cultivation.

FOOD POLICY February 1979 55

Reporls

Table 1. Latin American rice cultivation, 1976 (1000 hectares).

Reports

Commercial cultivation

Large scale. mechanized cultivation of upland rice is found in the south-central portion of the Brazilian Plateau. It occurs on already cleared lands on which a number of commercial crops are grown, such as soybeans, maize, sugarcane and beans, depending upon market demands. Commercial cultivation is typically mechanized and utilizes fertilizer. insecticides and selected seed. Yields of commercially grown upland rice show wide variation depending upon the average rainfall of the area and of the particular growing season. A figure of 1.5 metric tons per hectare would be average. These yields are less than one half the quantity of rice per hectare produced under irrigation in Brazil. However, the cost of production under upland conditions is less. Higher yields of irrigated rice do not offset the high cost of water.

Improvement

Latin America faces steadily increasing food needs because of high rates of population increase, and rice is bound to play a major role in meeting those future needs. As of 1974, the Latin American region was a net importer of more than 300000 metric tons of rice. Broken down by subregions, the pattern shows that Mexico and the Caribbean were rice deficit areas, Central America was barely self sufficient, and South America was a net exporter of about 140 000 metric tons.7 The pattern in 1977 remained about the same for the different regions.

Latin America possesses land resources that could be developed for upland rice cultivation to provide, at a relatively low cost of production, food for the burgeoning population. Upland rice areas exhibit considerable yield variation because of rainfall and soil conditions. In an assessment of strategies for improvetnent of the crop, it is necessary to take into account what

types of improvements are most feasible. Putting aside the economic and political issues and focusing on plant breeding and farming practices, it becomes obvious that differing levefs of constraints exist. Overall, the basic impediment to improving upland rice is lack of moisture for plant growth, either

Such a research strategy is confronted by some fundamental problems of geography. namely, the effective and accurate delitnitat~on of those land areas which fall into the two categories. With regard to rainfall amounts, it has been shown that monthly averages are inadequate to accurately define conditions for crop production. The short periods of drought (k>et-nrrico) experienced during the rainy season in south-central Brazil are a good example. These brief drought periods may extend for 15-25 days and most comtnonly fall over the period late January-early February and thus are not necessarily evident from monthly averages.” In order to effectively assess

areas in relation to such drought periods, rainfall data by five day intervals is needed. To complement more detailed rainfall data in such environments, water balance models should be developed to aid in agroclimatic anaIysis.‘”

Soils

Soil and topography data are another major geographic difficulty. Existing soils maps are only available for large areas and at small scales. Large scale coverage is spotty and is not based on a uniform soil classification system for all of Latin America.

seasonally or in terms of short drought periods.

It has been suggested that upland rice lands be divided into favourable and unfavourable areas. Favourable areas are defined as areas of level topography, fertile soils, a high water table and rainfalt of at least 250 mm per month. Unfavourable areas are those with infertile soils. a low water table and rainfall of less than 250 mm per month; in these areas water stress is the factor holding rice yields to very low levels. In the favourable areas plant breeding could increase yields to a range of 2-4 metric tons per hectare. Regarding farming practices, measures could be taken to convert suitable favoured upland areas into areas of rainfed rice, wherein bunds are constructed to impound rainwater for flooding the rice fields. Not much improvement is possible through plant breeding for the utlfavoL~red areas since there is no simple solution to water deficiency.”

Climate and soils are the basis for appropriate crop zonation. Crop zonacion as an area of applied research has been neglected in the region. partly because of the more immediate results that can be derived from plant breeding which leads to increased yields, and partly because of the lack of baseline data for such studies. In Brazil, agro- climatic zonation is being given increasing support at the regional and state levels and a number of crop zonation atlases and maps now exist. Other Latin American countries are also giving more attention to crop zonation.

A development strategy for upland rice based on parallel lines of research in plant breeding and farming practices, especially crop zonation, could bring significant results.

Conchsion

A research programme to improve upland rice productivity would be of benefit to commercial and subsistence farmers alike. Although focusing on favoured upland areas. the development of higher-yielding varieties would also have some suitability on the unfavoured lands which are, because of current land tenure patterns. often occupied by subsistence farmers.

Annual per capita rice consumption in Latin America is relatively low. Current estimates place it at 9 kg in Mexico, 17 kg in Venezuela, and 29 kg in Colombia. By comparison, Brazilians consume 45 kg of rice per year.” Clearly, upland rice could play a much greater role as a foodstuff of the region. It also has advantages in that it is a widely accepted food. needs a minimal amount of processing and has relatively low production costs. Upland rice could make a major contribution to food self sufficiency in a majority of the Latin American countries.

Dennis Johnson,

Department of Geography,

University of Houston,

Houston, TX,

USA

1 International Rice Research Institute, /Vfajor Research in Up/and Rice. I R R I, 10s Baiios. 1975, p 2. z Hans Authenberg. Farming Sysfems in

56 FOOD POLICY February 1979

Reports

lo H.A. Nix, ‘Climate and crop productivity in Australia’, Proceedings of the Symposium on Climate and Rice, International Rice Research Institute, Los Barios, 1976, pp 495-508. I1 In comparison to consumption levels in Latin America, those in West Africa, where upland rice is dominant, are much higher. Annual per capita rice consumption in Sierra Leone is calculated to be 127 kg, in Liberia 1 19 kg. See Alan C.G. Best, ‘Rice production and rural development in Sierra Leone and Liberia: methods and policies compared and contrasted’, Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers, New Orleans, 9-l 2 April 1978.

the Tropics, 2nd ed. Claredon Press, Oxford, footnote pp 163-l 64. 3 F.B. Brown, ‘Upland rice in Latin America’, International Rice Commission Newsletter, Vol 18, No 1 1969, pp l-5. 4 Pedro A. Sanchez, ‘Agronomic practices for optimizing the yield potential of short- statured rice varieties in Latin America’, Seminar on Rice Policies in Latin America, Centro lnternacional de AgricLlltura Tropical, Cali. Colombia, 1 O- 14 October 197 I. 5 Empresa Maranhense de Pesquisa AgropecuAria, ‘lnforma@es corn a cultura de arroz no Maranhso’. SBo Luis, 1977. 6 Dennis Johnson, ‘Agronomic aspects of rice production in Brazil’, Workshop on

Development of Strategies to Improve Rice Production in Latin America, Centro lnternacional de Agricultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia, 3 1 October-3 November 1977. ‘Grant M. Scobie and Rafael Posada T., The Impact of High-Yielding Rice Varieties in Latin America, with Special Emphasis on Colombia, Centro Inter- national de Agricultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia, 1977. ’ Peter Jennings, ‘Restraints to regional rice production in relation to CIAT research priorities’, Workshop .., op tit, Ref 6. ‘Jose Francisco Valente Merges, ‘El arroz en el Brasil’. Workshop , op cit. Ref 6.

What will we eat tomorrow? UK food industry and its market

An OECD report on Food Marketing and Economics stated in 1970 that ‘the

basic direction of development is towards a food industry dominated by a

limited number of large, efficient, dynamic, market-oriented companies’. This is

certainly so. In the UK, from one to three companies already account for from 60

to 96% of the sales of a wide range of processed foods (biscuits. breakfast

cereals, bread, frozen fish, frozen vegetables, ice cream, margarine, potato

crisps, sugar, tea, tinned fruit and tinned soups). Out of f362 million spent on

advertising in 1973, f88 million was spent on food, more than on any other

product category. Undoubtedly, the food industry is influencing to an increasing

extent what people eat, and their nutrition. An extensive report on the status of

the UK food industry and many of its sectors, British Food Profile’, was released

in 19 78. The report is discussed below.

The total food market, in volume terms, is more or less static. People in the western world have started to eat less and to spend a smaller proportion of their incomes on food. This trend was reversed in 1973-76 as real incomes remained steady or fell, and food price inflation was higher than overall inflation. In the introduction to British Food Profile the reasons for this higher food price inflation are stated to be: (a) the UK’s dependence on imports, and the falling value of the pound; (b) climatic conditions, political upheavals and a growing awareness of the need to conserve food resources, which have affected availability and therefore price (eg coffee, cocoa, potatoes, vegetables, cod and herring): and (c) the enormous increase in the cost of energy and of oil- based fertilizers, which has severely affected the cost of many foods.

Probably because of a shortening working week and continuing transition to more sedentary work, there has been a drop in the per capita food requirements of about 2% per annum. How, then, can a food company increase its sales and grow? It will drop behind the general growth rate of the economy unless it grows at the expense of its competitors, or concentrates on products with better than average growth rates. The effort to gain a larger share of the market has led to a marked proliferation in the number of lines of processed foods in the UK, to 10 000 in 1974 compared to 1500 in 1950. An extraordinary range of new foods has been successfully marketed, especially in the past 15 years, amounting to f650 million of consumer spending. Frozen foods, especially vegetables, are the fastest growing sector of all, and nearly

one third of Birds Eye Frozen Foods sales is in products introduced since 1970. A second way of increasing sales is by increasing the value added to the product - hence convenience foods, and texturized vegetable protein rather than beans.

Meal replacement

British Food Profile points to the declining importance of formal meals. Their importance is being eroded by the high and increasing ratio of working women in the UK, which has the highest

in the European Economic Community (EEC). (The number of working women has increased from 2.7 million in 1951 to 6.2 million in 1976.) Quite a number of people eat no breakfast at all, many no longer eat a cooked breakfast, fewer midday meals are eaten at home, and evening meals are lighter. There is, to compensate, more between meal eating and what is called ‘meal replacement eating’ (snacks of various kinds), which perhaps now account for as much as one quarter of all food and (non- alcoholic) beverage expenditure. It is significant that no less than 40% of the advertising expenditure (now about f 120 million per annum) is concentrated on this market, which obviously is dominated by processed foods. It is predicted that this market will continue to grow.

FOOD POLICY February 1979 57