UNVEILING THE POTENTIAL UTILITY OF EGGPLANT: A …€¦ · UNVEILING THE POTENTIAL UTILITY OF EGGPLANT: A ... some cultivars from Europe upon seeing the colour of some eggplants resembling

Proceedings of INCEDI 2016 Conference 29th-31st August 2016, Accra, Ghana 883 ISBN: 978-9988-2-3994-7

UNVEILING THE POTENTIAL UTILITY OF EGGPLANT: A REVIEW

FRANCES BETTY FRAIKUE

Takoradi Polytechnic

GHANA

Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Eggplants are non-climacteric fruits which were seen growing wild in the forest of India.

Cultivation began widely in China around the fourth century and is currently described as

one of the ten world’s healthiest food. The main objective of the study was to unearth its

historical profile as well as the culinary, health and useful importance to mankind.

Eggplants grow into 98 different species and belong to three categories, namely; solanum

melongena, solanum aethiopicum, and solanum macrocarpon with 58, 27, and 16 varieties

respectively. The shape of eggplants range from large zucchini to small pebbles and weigh

from 15 to 1,500 grams. Eggplants contain protein, fat, carbohydrates, mineral, vitamins

and water. They reduce the risk of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, pre-menstrual

syndrome, amenorrhea, antenatal anaemia and cholesterol. They also soak injurious

chemicals, enable weight loss and manage diabetes. Finally, the leaves, stem, fruit and

roots of eggplants are used for food, fuel, rituals, decoration, and to cure diseases.

Keywords: Eggplant, Nutrients, Solanaceous, Solanum Melongena

1. Introduction

All eggplants belong to the scientific family solanaceae or nightshade and a scientific order

called Polemoniaries (Rushton et al, 2008). Botanically, most eggplants are called Solanum

melongena and they are one of the non-tuberous cultivated herbs (Bhaskar and Ramesh

Kumar, 2015, Rushton et al, 2008,). Similarly, they are non-climacteric fruits, described as

an agronomically important crop and an autogamous diploid having *12 chromosomes

(Concellòn, Anόn & Chaves, 2004, Sḛkara, Cebula & Kunicki, 2007,). Eggplant was

initially named by an experimental Botanist, Thomas Jefferson, who also introduced it in

the United States in 1706 (Jett, 2011, Noda, Kaneyuki, Igarashi & Moril, 2000,). In the 18th

century, some cultivars from Europe upon seeing the colour of some eggplants resembling

yellow and white eggs of hen and goose also gave it the name eggplant (Asiedu-Addo,

2014). These eggplants grew wild in the forest of India as strange looking fruit years ago

(Bhasker & Ramesh Kumar, 2015, Caguiat and Hautea 2014, Matsubara, Kaneyuki,

Miyake & Mori, 2005,).

Knowledge of eggplant began in the 3rd century in India, in China around the 4th and 5th

century, then in Africa around the 9th century (Bhaskar and Ramesh Kumar, 2015, Sḛkara

et al, 2007,). Historical evidence revealed by some authors affirm that production of

eggplant originated from India but was first widely cultivated in China (Bhasker & Ramesh

Kumar, 2015, Chong, 2005, Samuels, 2012, Matsubara et al, 2005,). Additionally, India

was further labeled as the center of diversity and primary growth of varietal eggplant. The

production of eggplant is highly concentrated in China - 58% and India - 25%. These two

countries are termed as the leading producers worldwide. Similarly, world production

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records affirm that China and India yield about 84% output (Caguiat and Hautea 2014,

Matsubara et al, 2005,).

Eggplant is known as one of the ten sources of the world’s healthiest food which is also

described as best species cultivated worldwide (Bliss and Elstein, 2004, Caguiat and

Hautea 2014,). It has also gained the interest of scientist in a pharmacological sense as they

belong to a group of compounds called alkaloids (McGehee, 2000,). In general, alkaloids

are toxins found in all eggplants and these substances are what develop the green tint and

bitter flavour, although, cooking aids in the reduction of alkaloids (McGehee et al, 2000,).

India, South Africa, Malaysia and Singapore, eggplant is captioned the king of vegetables

due to the common usage (Bhaskar and Ramesh Kumar, 2015, Sḛkara et al, 2007,). It is

measured as poor man’s vegetable mostly consumed by low income earners, yet it is still

a staple diet for Indians (Bhasker &Ramesh Kumar, 2015).

In the midst of fear to consume eggplants among some people due to some historical

rumour, production of eggplant keeps increasing due to the culinary and health benefit

(Sḛkara et al, 2007). Among the elite, they prefer the intake of exotic vegetables such as

lettuce, cabbage, carrot cucumber, cauliflower (Habwe, Waling & Onyango, 2008), more

than eggplant, dandelion, alefo, ayoyo because it is indigenous and they think it cannot be

used for formal food service unless it has been transformed. The international plant genetic

resource institute (IPGRI-Bioversity) have been involved in the promotion of indigenous

plants but unfortunately, much attention has not been paid to it (Habwe et al, 2008). Also

most people only eat eggplants as and when they desire because they have limited

knowledge on the culinary and health benefits of eggplants (Bhaskar and Ramesh Kumar,

2015, Putra, 2011, Tweneboah, 1998,).

The main objective of the study was to unearth the historical review of eggplants in relation

to the origin, species, cultivation, growth and types amongst others. Then identify the

culinary importance, health benefits and use of eggplant to mankind.

1.2 General development of eggplant

The name eggplant/aubergine/brinjal are three common names used to call all the

numerous species of eggplant depending on the country or continent. They also have

several shapes ranging from huge, through to small due to cultivar differences. As some

look like large, cylindrical, oval and long necked fruit such as large zucchini, others look

like round, small green fruits such as peas, small pebbles and small tomatoes (Bhasker &

Ramesh Kumar, 2015, Hirst, 2014, Sḛkara et al, 2007, Whitaker and Stommel, 2003,).

Further description of eggplant cultivars were categorized into three botanical varieties

based on their shape (Ali et al, 2011, Sḛkara et al, 2007,). Classification was proposed by

(Choudhury, 1976).

“S. melongena var. esculentum Dunal (Nees) – round, oval or egg-shaped fruits,

S. melongena var. serpentinum L. – long slender fruits,

S. melongena var. depressum L. – small, miniature fruits, dwarf, and early types”.

Likewise, it has been affirmed that the divisions were based on the shape of fruits (Ali et

al, 2011). In recent years, there have been a close association among the three botanical

varieties but differs slightly due to geographical isolation and genetic diversity (Ali et al,


2011). These species are widely distributed in countries such as Asia, Europe, North

America and Africa (Ali et al, 2011). In addition, it was hypothesized that, eggplant

cultivars were differentiated not only by shape but also by colour and origin (Sḛkara et al,

2007). They were given names as dark purple, miniature, oriental, Chinese, Japanese, Thai

and Indian eggplants. Still on their description, it was discovered that out of 98 accessions

of eggplants, 58 belonged to Solanum melongena, 27 were Solanum aethiopicum and 16

were Solanum macrocarpon (Polignano, Uggenti, Bisignano, Della & Genet, 2009, Sḛkara

et al, 2007,). Collectively, all these species of eggplant have marked similarities and

dissimilarities with significant differences (Ali et al, 2011, Biology of Brinjal, 2015, Sḛkara

et al, 2007,).

The growth of eggplant description commences with the weight of very small ones to the

largest. Eggplant grow much like tomatoes whereby it hangs free from the vines with

several feet in height but weighs from 15 to 1500 grams (g) (Bhaskar and Ramesh Kumar,

2015,). They also grow in colours such as purple, white lavender, jade, green, orange,

yellow-white, creamy-white, lime, pink, red-plum, burgundy and dusty brown (Concellòn

et al, 2005, Jett, 2011,). Their varying composition of fruits also appear as single or in

clusters of about 10-15 especially for the pea sized. All species of eggplants are very

perishable and sensitive to cold and heat, therefore storing at 50 degrees Fahrenheit (ᵒF) or

ten degrees Celsius (10ᵒС) were termed as ideal. During storage, eggplants should not be

washed, it should be kept in polyethene bags preferably perforated and refrigerated only

for few days (Kwon, Apostolidis & Shetty, 2004).

In the cultivation of eggplants, spacing should be 45 to 60 centimeters (cm) between plants

and 60 to 90cm in between rows. As some grow from 50 to 60cm tall, others grow to 2

meters (m) tall (Bliss and Elstein, 2004,). Eggplants have a biological structure where the

anthers favour self-pollination. It has correspondingly been reported that cross-pollination

within these eggplants range from 2% to 48% (Bhasker & Ramesh Kumar, 2015, Hirst,

2014,). Again, a review (Bhaskar and Ramesh Kumar, 2015) concerning the required

temperature for proper growth and fruit set, ranging from 20-30ᵒС (warm to hot conditions)

were confirmed by some other authors (Ali et al, 2011, Biology of Brinjal, 2015, and

Polignano et al, 2009,). It was further stated that fruit set drastically gets reduced if

temperature at night is 22-24ᵒС and day is 33-35ᵒС.

Again, eggplants grow well in tropical and sub-tropical climate and in organic rich soil,

however, early crops do well in light soils whilst clay loam and silt aids the production of

high yields (Bhasker & Ramesh Kumar, 2015, Dias, 2012,). Additionally, an acidic pH

ranging from 5.5 to 6 is required for mass production. The eggplant becomes ready for

harvesting when the fruits appear shiny, glossy and soft when pressed. It ought to be free

from discolouration, scars and bruises and should possess a spongy texture (Choudhury,

1976, Putra, 2011,). As a result, waxed eggplant should not be purchased by consumers

who might think that it is ripe. Conversely, one has to gently press the skin with the padded

part of the thumb and once it bounces back, it means it is ripe (Sḛkara et al, 2007). Also,

failure to harvest at the due time renders it susceptible to discolouration and rottenness as

well as insect infestation (Kwon et al, 2004, Sḛkara et al, 2007,).


1.3 Types of eggplant

Eggplants come in numerous assortments and the varying names given to them emanates

from different countries, shapes and colours. Again, (Sḛkara et al, 2007) are of the view

that there are 33 Sanskrit names for eggplant in ancient Indian literature, whiles (Hirst,

2014) currently affirms that eggplants have between 15-20 common varieties.

Table 1. Samples of eggplant with brief description

Black beauty

eggplant

Silician eggplant Italian eggplant White beauty

eggplant

Indian baby eggplant Japanese eggplant Chinese eggplant American eggplant

African eggplant Ping Tung long

eggplant

Thai eggplant Chinese round

mauve

Japanese white Dark purple

eggplant

Turkey berry Indian paint

eggplant


Cherry eggplant Oriental eggplant Pea eggplant African garden eggs

Source: Bhasker & Ramesh Kumar, 2015, Hirst, 2014, Mak Keua, 2013, Nyadanu et al,

2014, Sḛkara et al, 2007.

1.4 Nutrients present in eggplant

Eggplants contains numerous nutrients which are all needed in the body predominantly for

growth, repair of worn out tissues and then for protection. They are made up of a host of

vitamins and minerals, dietary fibre, proteins, antioxidants, as well as phytochemicals that

possess antioxidant activity (Concellòn et al, 2004, Noda et al, 2000, Whitaker and

Stommel, 2003,). The major phytochemical found in eggplant is glucoside, phenolic

compounds (caffeic, chlorogenic) and flavonoids (nasunin, delphindin). Also, nasunin is a

pigment found in the peel of eggplant (Bhasker & Ramesh Kumar, 2015, Cassidy et al,

2013, Choudhury, 1976, Kwon et al, 2004, Matsubara et al, 2005,).

Nutrients are mostly calculated both in the raw and cooked state. The nutritional value per

100 grams of raw eggplant extensively calculated by several authors exhibited closely

related quantities. More so, nutrients present in cooked eggplants exhibited some

significant changes when it was compared to raw eggplants. Table 2, outlines the nutrients

present in both raw and cooked eggplant as well as the differences among them. Some

nutrients (carbohydrates, vitamin A, linoleic and omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids) gain

extra nutrients when cooked. However, majority (about 75%) of the entire nutrients

present, suffered less than one percentage of losses. A few significant losses ranging from

-1.0% to -7.7% were folate, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, glutamate and

proline. This review divulges the fact that cooked eggplants can be consumed alongside

with the raw/fresh ones for their nutritional benefits.

Table 2. Nutritional value of raw and processed eggplant per 100 g

Food nutrients Raw eggplant and percentage of RDA

Energy (1%) 100 - 104 kJ

Carbohydrates (4%) 4.70 - 5.88 g

Sugars 2.35 - 3.53 g

Dietary fiber (9%) 2.80 - 3.40 g

Fat 0.18 - 0.20 g


Protein (2%) 0.80 - 1.01 g

Vitamins

Retinol (A) (1%) 0.8 mg/22.1 - 27

Thiamine (B1) (3%) 0.039 mg

Riboflavin (B2) (3%) 0.037 – 0.11 mg

Niacin (B3) (4%) 0.649 mg

Pantothenic acid (B5) (6%) 0.281 mg

Vitamin B6 (6%) 0.084 - 0.1 mg

Vitamin K (3%) 2.9 mg/3.5 mg

Folate (B9) (6%) 18 - 22 mg

Vitamin C (3%) 1.8 - 2.2 mg

Vitamin E (2%) 0.2 - 0.3 mg

Minerals

Calcium (1%) 7.4 - 9.0 mg

Iron (2%) 0.20 - 0.24 mg

Magnesium (4%) 13.5 - 14 mg

Manganese (11%) 0.20 - 0.25 mg

Phosphorus (3%) 22.5 - 25 mg

Potassium (5%) 129 - 130 mg

Zinc (2%) 0.10 - 0.16 mg

Selenium 0.2 mg

Sodium 1.6 – 2.0 mg

Copper 0.1 - 0.12 mg

Other nutrients

Saturated Fats

Palmitic 20.5 mg

Stearic 7.4 mg

Mono Fats

Oleic 11.5 mg

Poly Fats


Linoleic 51.7 mg

Linolenic 10.7 mg

Other Fats

Omega 3 Fatty Acids 10.7 mg

Omega 6 Fatty Acids 51.7 mg

Amino Acids

Alanine 41.8 mg

Arginine 46.7 mg

Aspartate 134 mg

Cystine 4.9 mg

Glutamate 153 mg

Glycine 33.6 mg

Histidine 18.9 mg

Isoleucine 36.9 mg

Leucine 52.5 mg

Lysine 38.5 - 39 mg

Methionine 9.0 mg

Phenylalanine 35.3 mg

Proline 35.3 mg

Serine 34.4 mg

Threonine 30.3 mg

Tryptophan 7.4 mg

Tyrosine 22.1 mg

Valine 43.5 mg

Source: Çağlarırmak & Hepçimen, 2013, Matsubara et al, 2005, Nyadanu et al, 2014,

Small, 2009, Siemomsma & Piluek, 1994, Putra, 2011, Skip ThePie link, 2015, USDA

database, 2012.

1.5 Health benefits of eggplants

Eggplant is described clinically as a fruit because of the seeds presents in it, though

contrariwise, it is used as a vegetable which is inexpensive so majority of consumers can


afford. It also has copious medicinal qualities enumerated as beneficial to human health

when it is highly patronised (Bhasker & Ramesh Kumar, 2015, Cassidy et al, 2013,

Concellòn et al, 2004, Krisban, 2013, Kwon et al, 2008, Mutsubara et al, 2005, Noda et al,

2000, Sharma et al, 2013, Tweneboah, 1998, Putra, 2011,).

Eggplant is captioned as an iron chelator highly recommended especially for

expectant mothers, lactating mothers, teenagers especially girls and also for all

humankind. The presence of iron in eggplant is able to deal with premenstrual

syndrome, amenorrhea and antenatal anaemia.

It reduces the risk of cancer because the fibres have the predisposition of soaking

injurious chemical substances and toxins that results in the growth and development

of cancerous cells.

As eggplant is highly patronized, it is responsible for normalizing and controlling

iron levels because the nasunin present has the ability to eradicate iron build-up

within our bodies effortlessly. In addition, nasunin (anthocyanin) protects man

against lipid peroxidation.

It also aids in the decrease of cardiovascular diseases (stroke, cardiac arrest, heart

diseases) by cleaning up damaging free radicals, unwinding blood vessels within

the heart and finally strengthens blood circulation. Eggplant which is rich in fibre,

potassium, Vitamin B6, flavonoids lowers the risk of the mentioned diseases.

Variety of eggplants consumed works as a cholesterol lowering agent. Chlorogenic

acid act as a dominant antioxidant mediator, whilst the high fibre content present

sees to the absorption of blood cholesterol by the liver to produce bile.

There is control of blood pressure when eggplant is consumed because potassium

maintains electrolyte balance and aids in the neutralization effect of sodium liable

for blood pressure control.

Eggplant enables weight loss in thatfibres produce the bulk of food which takes up

room in the belly as the sluggish nature keeps an individual satisfied for a long time.

There is promotion of better skin tone as well as healthy hair and nails. In this

context, high water content, vitamins, minerals and healthy fat present in eggplant

enhances the quality of hair, nail and skin as well as general functioning of the body

including skin cancer.

Type 2 diabetes is managed as eggplant own higher alpha-glycosidase and

angiotensin that absorbs the body glucose and extensively controls it together with

other fighting nutrients. Also, phenolic-enriched extracts are able to holdback

enzymes and glucose assimilation needed to control diabetes. Then also, eggplant

has low carbohydrate and the fibre present helps in the control of blood sugar.

Eggplant is good for the brain, therefore massive consumption prevents the damage

of brain cells. It also contains phytonutrients which boost memory function and

protect cell membranes.

There is promotion of bone health since eggplants contains powerful minerals

required by man such as magnesium, manganese, potassium and copper.

It induces healthy digestion by the fibre acting as a push away of waste materials,

chemical substances, harmful toxins and contaminants and eventually help avoid

colon and stomach cancer.

It keeps the mind healthy by safeguarding the brain cell and protecting it against

the destruction of free radical cells, whilst the anti-oxidants has the ability to avoid

brain tumor.


Chlorogenic acid and phenolic substance present in eggplants assist the supply of

mild-antibodies by working as an antiviral, antimutagenic and anti-microbial

substance for the control of healthy living.

The fibre present in eggplants help to speed up bowel motion responsible for the

removal of faecal matter, thoroughly clean harmful toxins and saves mankind from

constipation especially those who uninterruptedly fight with long term bowel.

Source: (Bhasker & Ramesh Kumar, 2015, Cassidy et al, 2013, Chong, 2005,

Concellòn et al, 2004, Krisban, 2013, Kwon et al, 2008, Mutsubara et al, 2005, Noda

et al, 2000, Putra, 2011, Sharma, Sharma & Rana, 2005, Tweneboah, 1998,).

1.6 Uses of eggplant

In both traditional and modern countries, eggplants are used as food, curer of several

diseases, fuel, religious rituals and for ornament (Bhasker & Ramesh Kumar, 2015,

Matsubara et al, 2005, Putra, 2011, Small, 2009, Sḛkara et al, 2007,). In the preparation of

food it is the fruit that is used and the broad leaves of some eggplants are used as well

(Sḛkara et al, 2007). The raw food theory according to (Adachi, 2008), focuses on the

advantages of eating non-processed food for healthy living. However, for medicinal

purpose, both fresh and mature fruits are utilized. More so, the fruit stalk, leaves, roots and

skin are pharmaceutically used for medicine (Asiedu-Addo, 2014, Bhasker & Ramesh

Kumar, 2015, Sḛkara et al, 2007, Sharma et al, 2013,). Conversely, the dietetic theory lays

emphasis on ensuring a proper diet and their positive impact on growth and development

of humankind (Macera, 2010). Similarly, the fruit part of eggplant is used for rituals and

for decoration whilst the leaves, shoot and stalk are dried for fuel (Bhasker & Ramesh

Kumar, 2015, Sharma et al, 2013).

Eggplant is consumed as food both in the raw and cooked states in many countries (Asiedu-

Addo, 2014, Bhasker & Ramesh Kumar, 2015,). These authors affirm that, due to the

versatile nature of eggplant, it can be boiled, grilled, roasted, stewed, baked, dried, braised,

pickled, pureed or breaded, microwaved, sauté, mashed and fried. The leaves are used for

green vegetable dishes just as spinach (Sḛkara et al, 2007, Macha, 2005,).

Furthermore, eggplants are said to possess ayurvedic medicinal properties and also called

the father of modern medicine (Sḛkara et al, 2007, Small, 2009,). The fruit is used to cure

diabetes, bronchitis, asthma. Dysuria, dysentery, high blood pressure, osteoporosis,

arthritis, Alzheimer’s, some types of cancer (skin, colon, stomach), heart disease and stroke

(Matsubara et al, 2005, Sḛkara et al, 2007, Seneff et al, 2011, Shriver, 2011,). Additionally,

the mature fruits are used to cure stomach pains, poultice for abscesses and cracked nipples

(Murray, 2004, Small, 2009,). The fruit stalk is also used to cure fistula and piles (Small,

2009) whilst the fruit juice (sometimes with pounded leaves) are used for the treatment of

syphilitic eruptions of the hands (Murray, 2004). The leaves and roots are juiced and boiled

for tonic and then used to cure skin diseases, rheumatism, inflammation, intestinal

hemorrhages, foot pain, cough, otitis, anorexia, tooth ache, burns, general stimulant, piles,

throat and stomach troubles (Mak, 2013, Murray, 2004, Sḛkara et al, 2007,).

Eggplantsespecially cherry eggplant, turkey berry, pea eggplant and Thai eggplant are

recommended for people with low iron content in their body especially anemic patients as

well as expectant and nursing mothers. It is also needed for all human development as

natural food supplements (Asiedu-Addo, 2014, Putra, 2011,). As fresh eggplants are used

to kill germs, control diabetes, strengthen bones, cure paralysis, prevent gas trouble and


prevent teeth related diseases, dry eggplants are used to cure stomach bloating, treat

piles,relieve stomach gas and gout elated problems (Cassidy et al, 2013, Krisban, 2013,).

Still on the usefulness of the roots, they are boiled, blended with sour milk and grain

porridge for syphilis treatment. Roots are decocted and used to cure asthma, skin diseases,

and hemorrhages and as a general stimulant (Mak, 2013, Murray, 2004,). More so, the skin

of eggplant called nasunin is used to protect the brain cell from damage. An electrolyte

leakage from the pulp of eggplant is used to measure the membrane damage of a person

(Concellòn et al, 2005,).

The fruits are used for the control of series of microbial activities. It has been discovered

by (Akobundu and Agyakwa, 1998) that, in India, the leaves which contain glycoalkaloids

solasodine is used to manufacture steroidal sex hormones for oral contraceptives. Still in

India, then in Central America and Gabon, the leaves are applied on cuts and wounds. As

eggplant fruit is used for cough medicine for children in Sierra Leone, the people of Senegal

use it to treat sore throat and stomach ache (Sharma et al, 2013,). In most villages around

the globe, as the plant of eggplants (leaves and stalk) are dried for fuel (Bhasker & Ramesh

Kumar, 2015,), the shoots are also dried and used as fuel (Small, 2009). The leaves, stalk

and shoots are sundried so that they become free from moist. These are easily lighted and

used as fuel for the preparation of food, medicinal concoctions and for incense (Bhasker &

Ramesh Kumar, 2015).

Two authors (Bhasker & Ramesh Kumar, 2015, Caguiat and Hautea 2014,) aver that some

eggplant are used for rituals in both India and Ghana. In India, wild eggplant, turkey

berry/pea eggplant/pea aubergine is used by Muttu Gulla in the Udupi district of Karnataka,

Bangalore, India. Also, this type has been cultivated for at least 500 years solely to be used

for rituals at the Sode matha temple as offering to their main deity (Bhasker & Ramesh

Kumar, 2015). In Ghana however, turkey berry/devil fig is also used for rituals among

certain cultures (Bliss and Elstein, 2004,). Again, it is used in Haitian voodoo rituals where

the fruits scent is used in incense burned for ritual purposes (Claiborne, 2012).

Additionally, some types such as black and bittersweet nightshade/scarlet berry used as a

ritual ointment, are also used for offering (Lawless, 2010).

The Chinese round mauve eggplant, scarlet plus all other purple dark shades of eggplant

are used for decoration because it is highly ornamental and beautiful. It has an outstanding

possessions of being denoted to as a love portion amongst some people in India and the

Medieval Europe (Lawless, 2010, Sḛkara et al, 2007,). Similarly, in America too, they were

described as apples of love. In China, the high society ladies used the dark specie of

eggplant to colour their teeth as a cosmetic for fashion. More so, the purple ones are used

for adornment dubbed as purple wedding. During Christmas, they are used for Christmas

tree decoration (Bhasker & Ramesh Kumar, 2015 22, Hirst, 2014, Sḛkara et al, 2007,).

Some Europeans for centuries still make use of eggplant as a decorative garden plant.

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