University of SplitUniversity of SplitDanica Škara, PhDDanica Škara, PhD

e-mail: e-mail: dskara@ffst.hrdskara@ffst.hrOffice hours: Tuesday, 14:00-15:00hOffice hours: Tuesday, 14:00-15:00h

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF LANGUAGELANGUAGE

Week 1: Week 1:

INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION:

DESIGN FEATURES OF DESIGN FEATURES OF

HUMAN LANGUAGEHUMAN LANGUAGE

Language/realityLanguage/reality

Reality>experience>five Reality>experience>five senses>conceptualisation>linguistic senses>conceptualisation>linguistic categorizationcategorization

ImageryImagery

What are your five senses? What are your five senses?

Sight, Hearing, Touch, Sight, Hearing, Touch, Taste, and SmellTaste, and Smell

An image conveys a An image conveys a sense perception , i.e., a sense perception , i.e., a visual picture, a sound, a visual picture, a sound, a feeling of touch, a taste, feeling of touch, a taste, or an odoror an odor

What is Language?What is Language?

LanguageLanguage, the principal means used by , the principal means used by human beings to communicate with one human beings to communicate with one another. Language another. Language can be can be spokenspoken or written . or written .

“A language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”

Noam Chomsky (1957)

A A languagelanguage is a system for encoding is a system for encoding and decoding and decoding informationinformation. .

Chomsky: Language is a special Chomsky: Language is a special faculty apart from other higher faculty apart from other higher faculties, genetically faculties, genetically inheritedinherited (innate ability) as a special species-(innate ability) as a special species-specific endowement within the specific endowement within the species.species.

the term refers to the forms of the term refers to the forms of communicationcommunication considered peculiar to considered peculiar to humankind. humankind.

In linguistics the term is extended to In linguistics the term is extended to refer to the human cognitive facility refer to the human cognitive facility of creating and using language.of creating and using language.

Linguistic-related areasLinguistic-related areas Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study

of speech sounds. Within psycholinguistics, research of speech sounds. Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands focuses on how the brain processes and understands these sounds.these sounds.

Morphology is the study of word structures, especially Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as the relationships between related words (such as dogdog and and dogsdogs) and the formation of words based on rules ) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation).(such as plural formation).

Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form sentences.words are combined together to form sentences.

Semantics deals with the meaning of words and Semantics deals with the meaning of words and sentences. Where syntax is concerned with the formal sentences. Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of sentences.meaning of sentences.

Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of meaning.interpretation of meaning.

PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics or or psychology of psychology of languagelanguage is the study of the is the study of the psychologicalpsychological and and neurobiologicalneurobiological factors that enable factors that enable humanshumans to to acquire, use, comprehend and produceacquire, use, comprehend and produce languagelanguage. .

Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful grammatical and meaningful sentencesentence out of out of vocabularyvocabulary and and grammatical structuresgrammatical structures, as well , as well as the processes that make it possible to as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, understand utterances, words, texttext, etc. , etc. Developmental psycholinguistics studies Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn language. children's ability to learn language.

What is communication?What is communication? Any means by which two (or more) Any means by which two (or more)

individuals exchange informationindividuals exchange information Paralinguistic techniques - Paralinguistic techniques - hhand signals, and signals,

facial expressions, body language, nods, facial expressions, body language, nods, smiles, winks, etc.smiles, winks, etc.

Non-linguistic communication - that do Non-linguistic communication - that do involve vocalizationinvolve vocalization

Grunts, groans, snorts, sighs, whimpers, etc.Grunts, groans, snorts, sighs, whimpers, etc. Not all produced sounds are intended to Not all produced sounds are intended to

convey messages, so they aren’t convey messages, so they aren’t communicationcommunication

e.g., snoringe.g., snoring

CommunicationCommunication

Any natural human language is a Any natural human language is a complex sign system, designated to complex sign system, designated to ensure infinite expressive capacity.ensure infinite expressive capacity.

Each sign is a stable symbolic Each sign is a stable symbolic association between a meaning and association between a meaning and a form.a form.

The Linguistic SignThe Linguistic Sign

Language is made up of signs, which Language is made up of signs, which have little to do with the referent, have little to do with the referent, the actuasl objects in the world.the actuasl objects in the world.

The signs are composed of two The signs are composed of two parts: the signifier and the signified parts: the signifier and the signified (form/content)(form/content)

Ferdinand de SaussureFerdinand de Saussure

Ogden & Richards Ogden & Richards TriangleTriangle

Language as human Language as human knowledgeknowledge

When we study human language, we are When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the approaching what some might call the “human essence,” the distinctive qualities of “human essence,” the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique to mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man. man.

Norm Chomsky: Norm Chomsky: Language and MindLanguage and Mind

What does What does knowing a language knowing a language mean? mean? Sound and no sound; Sound and no sound; word and non-word; word and non-word; well-formed sentences and ill-formed sentenceswell-formed sentences and ill-formed sentences Sense and nonsenseSense and nonsense

Design Features of Human LanguageDesign Features of Human Language

1.1. ProductivityProductivity (creativity) (creativity) Ability to produce and understand a virtually Ability to produce and understand a virtually

infinite set of messages.infinite set of messages. In all other animal communication systems, the In all other animal communication systems, the

number of messages is fixed (i.e., is number of messages is fixed (i.e., is finitefinite).).

Design Features of Human Design Features of Human LanguageLanguage

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness No resemblance between the No resemblance between the

language signal and the thing that language signal and the thing that it representsit represents

“dog”

“cane”

“hund”

“pas”

Design Features of Human LanguageDesign Features of Human Language

MULTI-DIMENSIONALITYMULTI-DIMENSIONALITY -- Human language consists of several Human language consists of several levelslevels or or dimensionsdimensions of knowledge of knowledge (competences) (competences). . 1.1. PhonologicalPhonological knowledge knowledge, , 2.2. Lexical knowledgeLexical knowledge3.3. SyntacticSyntactic knowledge knowledge4.4. SemanticSemantic/conceptual knowledge/conceptual knowledge

PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics

PPsycholinguistics, the study of sycholinguistics, the study of psychological states and mental psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of activity associated with the use of language. language.

Traditional areas of research include Traditional areas of research include language language production, language production, language comprehension, language acquisition, comprehension, language acquisition, language disorders, language and language disorders, language and thought, and neurocognitionthought, and neurocognition. .

How does the human language How does the human language processor work?processor work?

How is it realized in the brain?How is it realized in the brain? How is linguistic knowledge How is linguistic knowledge

represented in the brain?represented in the brain? Where does our capacity for Where does our capacity for

language emerge from?language emerge from?

Design Features of Human Design Features of Human LanguageLanguage

UniversalityUniversality Wherever human exists, language exists.Wherever human exists, language exists. AAll languages are equally complex and equally ll languages are equally complex and equally

capable of expressing any idea in the universe. capable of expressing any idea in the universe. Similar grammatical categories are found in Similar grammatical categories are found in

all languages, nouns, verbs, gender, time, etc. all languages, nouns, verbs, gender, time, etc. Any normal child, born anywhere in the world, Any normal child, born anywhere in the world,

of any racial, geographical, social, or of any racial, geographical, social, or economic heritage, is capable of leaeconomic heritage, is capable of learrning any ning any language to which he or she is exposed. The language to which he or she is exposed. The differences we find among languages can’t be differences we find among languages can’t be due to biological reasons. due to biological reasons.

Universals & specificsUniversals & specifics If all cultures share certain features of If all cultures share certain features of

social organization and behaviour it will social organization and behaviour it will not be surprising that all languages have not be surprising that all languages have terms referring to kinships, posession, terms referring to kinships, posession, war, etc.>war, etc.>cultural universalscultural universals

Other universals may arise from Other universals may arise from technological transmission or from technological transmission or from common features of the common features of the natural natural environmentenvironment (biological, topographical (biological, topographical terms)>terms)>technological universals and the technological universals and the universals of natural environmentuniversals of natural environment

SpecificsSpecifics Language reflects cultural, social, political Language reflects cultural, social, political

attitudes.attitudes. The language of The language of different culturesdifferent cultures do not have the do not have the

same vocabulary referring to the same referent, same vocabulary referring to the same referent, reality, e.g. reality, e.g.

red winered wine > > crno vino, crno vino, brown breadbrown bread >crni kruh. >crni kruh.

Even within Even within one languageone language speakers have different speakers have different options to refer to the same reality:options to refer to the same reality:

One or many conceptual One or many conceptual systemssystems

The first question which arises is whether language is The first question which arises is whether language is a single conceptual system or whether there are as a single conceptual system or whether there are as many conceptual systems as there are languages? many conceptual systems as there are languages?

A universal conceptual framework which is common to A universal conceptual framework which is common to all human languagesall human languages

Languages differ in the way they classify experience. Languages differ in the way they classify experience. Languages have a tendency to impose structure upon Languages have a tendency to impose structure upon the real world by treating some distintions as crucial, the real world by treating some distintions as crucial, and ignoring others. Sometimes the motivation is and ignoring others. Sometimes the motivation is supplied by cultural norms, rather than by external supplied by cultural norms, rather than by external reality.reality.

The nature of human The nature of human languagelanguage

For centuries, scholars and thinkers For centuries, scholars and thinkers have tried to unravel the nature of have tried to unravel the nature of human language. Here are some human language. Here are some views:views:

Philosophers were the first to ponder the Philosophers were the first to ponder the roots of human language. roots of human language.

Jean-Jacques RousseauJean-Jacques Rousseau, says that use of , says that use of words for communication stems from a words for communication stems from a desire to express our desire to express our emotionsemotions. .

Also in the 1700s, J. Also in the 1700s, J. G. von HerderG. von Herder writes writes two essays arguing that two essays arguing that human human rationalityrationality is the basis for language. is the basis for language.

Pierre Paul Pierre Paul Broca,Broca, identifies Broca's Area identifies Broca's Area in the brain's left hemisphere, a region, he in the brain's left hemisphere, a region, he says, controls human grammar and speech. says, controls human grammar and speech. Damage to Broca's Area impairs the ability Damage to Broca's Area impairs the ability to use words and construct grammatically to use words and construct grammatically correct sentences. correct sentences.

Later, Karl Later, Karl Wernicke,Wernicke, a German doctor, a German doctor, discovers another area related to language discovers another area related to language in the in the left hemisphereleft hemisphere. Patients with . Patients with injuries to Wernicke's Area speak fluently injuries to Wernicke's Area speak fluently and grammatically, but make little or no and grammatically, but make little or no sense. sense.

In 1871, In 1871, Charles DarwinCharles Darwin, writes , writes about a human "instinct for language" about a human "instinct for language" in his book, in his book, Descent of ManDescent of Man. He . He suggests that language evolved from suggests that language evolved from more primal communication abilities more primal communication abilities in other animals. in other animals.

Noam Chomsky,Noam Chomsky, a linguist, says a linguist, says humans are born with an humans are born with an innate, or innate, or hardwired, knowledgehardwired, knowledge of a universal of a universal grammar. He observes that all languages grammar. He observes that all languages share certain rules. share certain rules.

Researchers continue to ask: Is language Researchers continue to ask: Is language a uniquely human skill? a uniquely human skill?

StevenSteven PinkerPinkerHe tries to combine the ideas of Noam He tries to combine the ideas of Noam Chomsky and Charles Darwin in his Chomsky and Charles Darwin in his book, book, The Language InstinctThe Language Instinct. He . He offers an explanation for how natural offers an explanation for how natural selection might have shaped the selection might have shaped the evolution of human's "innate evolution of human's "innate grammar."grammar."