University of Larbi Ben Mhidi Module: ESP Department of

University of Larbi Ben Mhidi Module: ESP

Department of English Level: Master 01

Teacher: Dr. Azeroual Groups: 01& 02

Content:

Lecture 01: Approaches to ESP Course Design

ESP COURSE DESIGN: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH

Sitti Nurpahmi

Lecture 02: Needs Analysis

English for Specific Purposes (ESP): A Holistic Review

Momtazur Rahman

Needs Analysis: An Effective Way in Business English Curriculum Design

Juan Li

Lecture 03: Syllabus Types

SYLLABUS DESIGN FOR ENGLISH COURSES

Bambang Irfani

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LENTERA PENDIDIKAN, VOL. 19 NO. 2 DESEMBER 2016: 172-181 172


Sitti Nurpahmi Fakultas Tarbiyah dan Keguruan UIN Alauddin Makassar Kampus II: Jalan Sultan Alauddin Nomor 36 Samata-Gowa

Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: ESP course design has grown to become one of the most prominent areas of EFL

teaching since the early 1960's. It is a phenomenon that grew out of a number of

covering trends. Nowadays there are many courses are offered in ESP areas.

There has been several approaches in designing course but each of them has

weakness and strengthens. This article aims at finding new approaches in ESP

course design that integrate all the needs that the course. It integrates three com-

ponent of need analysis, PSA, TSA, and LSA, and integrated source of data-stake-

holder, learner, teacher, and expert. Each of the steps of integrated approach in-

tegrate all component needed.

ABSTRAK:

ESP disain telah menjadi salah satu bidang yang paling menjadi pusat perhatian

dalam pengajaran bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa asing sejak awal 1960. Isu ini

menjadi fenomena yang terus berkembang dan melahirkan berbagai kecenderu-

ngan. Dewasa ini ada banyak kursus yang ditawarkan dalam bidang ESP. Telah

banyak pendekatan yang digunakan untuk mendisain kursus ESP namun menu-

rut hemat penulis pendekatan-pendekatan tersebut memiliki kelemahan dan ke-

lebihan. Artikel ini bertujuan untuk mengintegrasikan berbagai pendekatan un-

tuk memenuhi semua kebutuhan dalam kursus ESP. Pendekatan ini akan meng-

ingtegrasikan tiga komponenan analisis kebutuhan PSA, TSA dan LSA. Pendeka-

tan ini juga akan mengintegrasikan sumber data yang dibutuhkan dalam meng-

analisis kebutuhan yakni dari stakeholders, pembelajar, guru, dan ahli. Setiap

langkah dalam disainnya akan mengintegrasikan setiap komponen yang dibu-

tuhkan.

Keywords:

English for Specific Purposes, course design, integrated approach

ENGLISH for Specific Purposes (ESP) course design has grown to become one of the

most prominent areas of EFL teaching since the early 1960's. Hutchinson and Water1

states that ESP is not a planned and coherent movement, but rather a phenomenon

that grew out of a number of covering tends.

Course design is a series activity to design course or learning activities. Hut-

chinson and Water2 define Course design is the process of interpreting the raw needs

analysis data to produce "an integrated series of learning experiences to lead learners

to a particular state of knowledge. While According to Munby,3 “ESP courses are de-

termined in all essentials by the prior analysis of the communication needs of the lear-

ners”.

Course design is a series process—need analysis, interpreting need analysis da-

ta, creating syllabus, material writing, classroom teaching, and evaluation. There are

ESP COURSE DESIGN (SITTI NURPAHMI) 173

some approaches in ESP course design. Each of them has weakness and strengt. This

article is to find out the new approach that integrate the positive point of each.

ESP CHARACTERISTICS

Strevens4 characterizes ESP course with absolute characteristics and variable

characteristics. The absolute characteristics of ESP are:

1. Language teaching is designed to meet specified needs of the learner;

2. It is related in content to particular disciplines, occupation and activities;

3. It is centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, dis-

course, semantics and so on, and analysis of the discourse

4. It is designed in contrast with General English.

Two variable characteristics of ESP are:

1. ESP may be restricted to the language skills to be learned, e.g. reading;

2. ESP may not be taught according to any pre-ordained methodology.

Robinson’s5 gives two criteria of ESP course as follows:

1. ESP is normally ‘goal-directed’, and 2. ESP courses develop from a needs analysis which aim to specify what exactly it is

that students have to do through the medium of English, and a number of charac-teristics which explain that ESP courses are generally constrained by a limited time period in which their objectives have to be achieved and are taught to adults in homogenous classes in terms of the work or specialist studies that the students are in-volved in.

Furthermore, Dudley-Evans and St John6 characterizes ESP course with absolute

and variable characteristic. The following are those characteristics: 1. Absolute characteristics:

a. ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the learner; b. ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the disciplines it

serves; and c. ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and

genres appropriate to these activities. 2. Variable characteristics:

a. ESP may be related or designed for specific disciplines; b. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that

of general English; c. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level instituti-

on or in a professional work situation; it could be used for learners at secondary school level;

d. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced learners; and e. Most ESP courses assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be

used with beginners.

Based on the above quotations, ESP is the use of English for specific purposes

based on the learners’ need. The information of the learners’ need got through the

need analysis.

Moreover, Dudley-Evans and St John7 suggest some parameter to be considered


in designing course as follows: 1. Should the course be intensive or extensive? 2. Should the learner's performance be assessed or non-assessed? 3. Should the course deal with immediate needs or with delayed needs? 4. Should the role of the teacher be that of the provide of knowledge and activities, or

of a facilitator of activities arising from learners' expressed wants? 5. Should the course have a broad or narrow focus? 6. Should the course be pre-study or pre-experience or non parallel with that study or

experience? 7. Should the material be common-core or specific to learners' study or work? 8. Should the group taking the course be homogeneous or heterogeneous? 9. Should the course design be worked out by the language teacher after consultation

with the learners and the institution, or should it be subject to a process of negotia-tion with the learners?

Robinson's8 states that the characteristics of ESP courses as follows:

1. First, ESP is goal directed - the learners are not learning the English language for

the sake of it, but because they need, or will need, to use English in their professio-

nal or academic lives. EAP learners are usually current higher education students

or members of staff or they are hoping to go on to higher education after their EAP

course. They need to learn English in order to succeed in their academic careers.

2. Second, ESP courses are based on an analysis of needs, which aims to specify as

closely as possible exactly what it is that the learners have to do through the medi-

um of English. This means taking into account the opinions of all the various stake-

holders. For an undergraduate student, this could mean the learner, his or her

parents, and sponsors, present and future lecturers, examiners, administrators,

materials writers etc. EAP, therefore, involves an attitude to learning and teaching

that believes that it is possible and useful to specify what language and practices

are required in a particular academic context and that it is worthwhile to focus tea-

ching on this. For that reason, one important feature of EAP courses is the close

attention that is paid to the learners’ aims and what they are working on, studying

or planning to study. The first stage in any EAP, and ESP, course, therefore, is to

find out exactly why the learners are learning English and what language and

practices they will need to pay attention to.

3. Often there is a very clearly specified period for the ESP course. Most EAP stu-

dents are undertaking fixed term courses in preparation for a particular task – such

as an essay, dissertation or conference presentation - or an academic course or they

are studying English for a short time every week along with their academic courses

or jobs. 4. ESP learners tend to be adults rather than children. Most EAP students are over 18

and they will either have made a difficult decision to study in an English medium university or, for example, researching, publishing or teaching in English may be a requirement.

5. Learners may need specialist language, but this is not necessarily so. It is the lingu-

istic tasks – including language and practices - that the students will need to en-


gage in that define the course. As with all ESP, an EAP lecturer would not take a

text and ask, "What can I do with this text?" The starting point is always, "What do

my learners have to do? What texts will they need to read? What will my students

need to do with this text and how can we help them to do it?" 6. In some cases, a very high level of proficiency is not necessarily required, as long

as the learners can succeed in their aims. Students, for example, need to be able to understand their lectures, fellow students and textbooks and obtain good marks for assignments and examinations. The role of the EAP lecturer is to find ways to enable them to do this - getting their present tenses correct may not be as impor-tant as understanding the overall structure of the report they have to write.

Based on the citation above it shows that Robinson’s criteria to ESP course is

goal oriented. According to him the learners are not learning the English language for

the sake of it, but because they need, or will need, to use English in their professional

or academic lives. EAP learners are usually current higher education students or

members of staff or they are hoping to go on to higher education after their EAP

course. They need to learn English in order to succeed in their academic careers.

While According Widdowson9 ESP course design must be process oriented. A

process oriented approach in designing ESP course based on the principle to satisfy

the cognitive need of the learners, guarantee the eventual attainment of desired termi-

nal behavior. A process oriented approach based on subject methodologies contains

because these needs converge in learning process itself.

FACTORS AFFECTING ESP COURSE DESIGN

In relation to the factors affecting course design Hutchinson and Water10 used

Kipling’s honest serving men to outline the basic questions that we need to know

before designing course, as follows: 1. Why does the students need to learn? 2. Who is going to be involved in the process? This will need to cover not just the stu-

dents, but all the people who may affect on the process: teachers, sponsors, ins-pectors, etc.

3. Where is the learning to take place? What potential does the place provide? What limitation does it impose?

4. When does the learning take place? How much time is available? How will it dis-tributed?

5. What does the student need to learn? What aspect of language will be needed and how will they be described? What level of proficiency must be achieved? What topic areas will need to be covered?

6. How will the learning be achieved? What learning theory will underlie the course? What kind of methodology will be employed?

Based on the question, Hutchinson and Water11 identified factors affecting to

ESP course design namely language description, theories of learning and need ana-

lysis, as can be seen in the following figure:


Figure 1 Factors affecting ESP Course Design

The above figure shows that there are three main points affecting ESP course

design. The first is language descriptions, the answer of question of what. Language

description shows the language knowledge needed by the learners that put at the syl-

labus. The second factor is how the learner learn a language, and the third factor is the

nature of particular target and learning situation.

Phillips (as citied in Wello and Dollah)12 considers factors contributing to the

success and failure of ESP course as follows:

1. The subject content embodied in the learners’ purposes;

2. The duration for ESP course

3. The weekly intensity of the course

4. The composition of the students group according to their mother tongues

5. Age, academic background, degree of competence in second language (if any)

6. The staff- students ratio

7. The staff teaching load

8. The organizational structure of educational institution

9. The budgetary provision for the course and

10. The availability of educational technology.

Furthermore, Wello and Dollah13 classified factors affecting the ESP course into

institutional – time allotted for learning English, classroom and learning condition,

and attitude of the head institution and staff--, the teachers factor—the competence of

the teacher, the confidence of the teachers in using English, teaching strategies, the

attitude of the teacher--, and the learner factor—internal and external factors.

APPROACHES IN ESP COURSE

An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of

language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of


the subject matter to be taught. 14 There are many different approaches to ESP course

design. Those approaches are explained as follows:

1. Language-centred course design

Hutchison and Waters15 states that Language-centred course design approachis

the simplest kind of course design process and one most familiar to English teachers.

It aims to draw as direct a connection as possible between the analysis of the target

situation and the content of the ESP course. It proceeds as follows:

Figure 2. A language centered approach to course design

The figure above shows that this approach starts at identifying learner’s target

situation and then select theoretical language to identify the linguistic features that

the learners need. Based on the identified data, syllabus created. The next step is

designing material based on the syllabus, then establishing evaluation to see the

successfulness of the course.

2. Skills-centred course design

Skills-centred course design is a reaction both to the idea of specific registers of

English as a basis for ESP and to the practical constraints on learning imposed by limi-

ted time and resources. Its aim is not to provide a specified corpus of linguistic know-

Identify learners’ target situation

Select theoretical of language

Identify linguistic features of target situation

Create a syllabus

Design material to exemplify syllabus items

Establish evaluation procedures to test acquisition of syllabus

items


ledge but to make the learners into better processors of information.16

The process of the approach as follows:

Figure 3. Skill centred approach

Skill centred approach starts at identifying target situation. Based on the data

from target situation analysis, it is determined theoretical views of language, skill re-

quired to cope target situation, and theoretical view of learning. Based on all data the

syllabus is created. Based on the syllabus, then material is developed and then con-

ducting evaluation. 3. Learner-centred approach

It is based on the principle that learning is totally determined by the learner

even though teachers can influence what is taught but what the learners learn is deter-

mined by the learner alone. Learning is seen as a process in which the learners what

knowledge or skill they have in order to make sense of the flow of new information.

Learning therefore, is an internal process, which is crucially dependent upon the

knowledge the learners already have and their ability and motivation to use it. The

following is the process in Learner centred model:17

Figure 4. A learner-centered approach to course design

Analyze students

Formulating goals and objectives

Content

Selecting teaching material

Planning the course

Evaluating the course


4. Learning-centred approach

The term learning-centred approach introduced by Hutchison and Waters.18 It is

seen as a process in which the learner use what knowledge or skills they have to make

sense of the flow of new information. It is an internal process, which is crucially de-

pendent upon the knowledge the learner already have and their ability and mo-

tivation to use it. It is a process of negotiation between individuals and the society. So-

ciety sets the target and the individuals must do their best to get as close to that target

as is possible.

This approach has two implications: a. Course design is a negotiated process. The ESP learning situation and the target

situation will both influence the nature of the syllabus, materials, methodology and evaluation procedures.

b. Course design is a dynamic process. It does not move in a linear fashion. Needs and resources vary with time. The course design, therefore, needs to have built-in feedback channels to enable the course to respond to developments.

If we took a learning-centred approach, we would need to ask further questions

and consider other factors, before determining the content and methodology of the

course: a. What skills are necessary to be taught? b. What are the implications for methodology of having a mono-skill focus? c. How will the students react to doing tasks involving other skills? d. Do the resources in the classroom allow the use of other skills? e. How will the learners react to discussing things in the mother tongue? f. How will the students’ attitudes vary through the course? Will they feel moti-

vated? g. How do students feel about reading as an activity?

The important point is that these questions must be asked and the results al-

lowed to influence the course design. The learning-centred course design process is

shown in this diagram:

Figure 5.Learning Centered approach


INTEGRATED APPROACH

Integrated Approach is an approach that integrate teacher centred learning,

learner centred leaning and learning centred approach. It is based on the principle

that learner in learning process must be guided by the teachers to learn optimally. Not

all the learning source comes from the learner, but the learning process can be pro-

cessed optimally if the all components of the learning process function well.

Figure 6. Integrated approach

Integrated approach in need analysis means integrate three component of need

analysis, PSA, TSA, and LSA, which are involved integrated source of data—

stakeholder, learner, teacher, and expert.

The next step is creating syllabus which integrate more than two kinds of syl-

labus.

The third step in course design is material development. In this step, course de-

signer integrate content material and functional language.

Teaching ESP must integrate students centred and teacher guided. In teaching

process the main factor determining the failure or successfulness are learners and tea-

chers. The teachers is nor the only source of the material, but teacher plays key role to

facilitate learners to learn.

Evaluation is a final part in course design. In order the information gathered

maximum so the method of collecting data for evaluation must also be integrated,

Identify learner Target Needs

DEVELOPING INTEGRATED MATERIAL

TEACHING

EVALUATION

Learner Centred Teacher guided

Need Analysis

Identify learner Present Situation

Identify learning Need

stakeholders

TARGET NEED LEARNING NEED

Learners Expert Teachers

CREATING INTEGRATED SYLLABUS


ENDNOTE

1. T. Hutchinson, and A. Waters, English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centred Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 6-8.

2. Ibid, p. 65

3. J. Munby, Communicative Syllabus Design, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 2.

4. P. Strevens, ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal, In M. Tickoo (Ed.), ESP: State of the art (1-13), SEAMEO Regional Language Centre, 1988.

5. P. Robinson, ESP (English for Specific Purposes), Pergamon, 1980.

6. T. Dudley-Evans, and M. J. St. John, Developments in English for Specific Purposes, Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

7. Ibid, p. 145

8. Robinson, loc.cit., p. 2-5.

9. H. G. Widdowsen, English for Specific Purposes: Criteria for course design for English for acade-mic and technical purposes, Newbury House, 1981, p. 102.

10. Huncthinson and Waters, loc.cit., p. 21-22.

11. Ibid., p. 24.

12. Well and Syarifuddin, An Introduction to English for Specific Purposes, UNM University Press, 2008, p. 34.

13. Ibid., p. 97

14. Jack C. Richard, Communicative Language Teaching Today, Cambridge University Press, 2006.

15. Huncthinson and Waters, loc.cit., p. 65-66.

16. Huncthinson and Waters, ibid., p. 65-66.

17. P. Sysoyev, Developing an English for Specific Purposes Course Using a Learner Centered Approach: A Russian Experience, The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No.3, March 2000 http://iteslj.org/, 2006.

18. Hutchinson and Waters, op.cit, p. 72.

REFERENCES

Dudley-Evans, T., and M. J. St. John, Developments in English for Specific Purposes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Hutchinson, T., and A. Waters, English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centred Approach, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.

Harmer, Jeremy, The Practice of English Language Teaching, London: Longman, 1991.

Munby, J., Communicative Syllabus Design, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.

Richard, Jack C., Communicative Language Teaching Today, Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Robinson, P., ESP (English for Specific Purposes), Pergamon, 1980.

Strevens, P., ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal, In M. Tickoo (Ed.), ESP: State of the art (1-13). SEAMEO Regional Language Centre, 1988.

Sysoyev, P., Developing an English for Specific Purposes Course Using a Learner Centered Approach: A Russian Experience, The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No.3, March 2000 http://iteslj.org/, 2000.

Widdowsen, H. G., English for Specific Purposes: Criteria for course design for English for academic and technical purposes, Newbury House, 1981.

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Universal Journal of Educational Research 3(1): 24-31, 2015 http://www.hrpub.org DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2015.030104

English for Specific Purposes (ESP): A Holistic Review

Momtazur Rahman

Department of Languages, IUBAT-International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh

Copyright © 2015 Horizon Research Publishing All rights reserved.

Abstract English for Specific Purposes, known as acronym-‘ESP’, has been a distinct activity in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT) since 1960s. The flowering period of ESP has been identified due to many incidents like the second world war in 1945, the rapid expansion in scientific, the growth of science and technology, the increased use of English as the international language of science, technology and business, the increased economic power of certain oil-rich countries and increased numbers of international students studying in English Speaking countries. Needs analysis is the key essence of ESP. The paper reviews the history and development of ESP, the notion of needs analysis in ESP setting and some important components of ESP needs analysis. Finally the paper critically reviews the ESP needs analysis models. TSA (Target Situation Analysis), PSA (Present Situation Analysis), LSA (Learning Situation Analysis), MA (Means Analysis) and Language Audit are the salient features of needs analysis in any ESP context. In the field of ESP, there are a number of models of needs analysis such as Munby (1978), McDonough (1984), Hutchinson & Waters (1987), Robinson (1991), West (1994), Jordan (1997) and Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998). These theoretical models are similar to a certain extent that they aim at identifying the English language needs of the learners. The paper provides the readers with a solid review on some ESP needs assessment models.

Keywords ESP (English for Specific Purposes), Needs Analysis in ESP, TSA, PSA, LSA, Models of ESP Needs Analysis

1. IntroductionEnglish for Specific Purposes (ESP) is not General

English (GE) teaching and learning, but it is specialized English. It has been growing as a distinct discipline since 1960s. ESP is focused-English learning and teaching situation in which teaching methods and learning environment are different from General English. The most

important difference between ESP and GE (General English) is that the learners and their purposes for learning English. ESP learners are usually adults who already have some acquaintance with English and learn the language so as to communicate a set of professional skills and to perform particular profession-related activities. An ESP course is therefore developed based on an assessment of purposes and needs and the activities for which English is needed. ESP centers more on language in context than on teaching grammar and language structures. It covers subjects varying from Business or Medical Sciences to Tourism and Hospitality Management. The ESP crucial point is that English is not taught as a subject separated from the learners’' real world (or wishes); instead, it is integrated into a subject matter area important to the learners. However, GE (General English) and ESP differ not only in the nature of the learners, but also in the aim of instruction. In fact, in General English teaching, all four-language skills; listening, reading, speaking, and writing, are stressed equally. However, in ESP it is a needs analysis that determines which language skills are most needed by the learners, and the syllabus is designed accordingly. For example, an ESP program might emphasize the development of writing skills in students who are preparing for graduate work in Business Administration. An ESP program might promote the development of spoken skills in students who are studying English in order to become tourist guides.

In fact, ESP researchers and practitioners need to know the definitions, history and development of ESP, the main features of ESP, the needs assessment process and so forth. They also need to know how an effective needs assessment can be carried out. They have to know these features to develop ESP programs and carry out researches. English used for business purposes may be different from English used in medical purposes. The basic conceptual knowledge on ESP fundamentals is so inevitable for ESP researchers or ESP practitioners or students. In this perspective, the paper discusses the development, history and concept of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). The paper also elucidates the notion of needs analysis, the components of needs analysis in ESP setting, some important theoretical models of needs assessment that are the significant and fundamental features in the field of ESP.

Universal Journal of Educational Research 3(1): 24-31, 2015 25

2. History and Development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

English for Specific Purposes or ESP has emerged as a single field in the 1960’s. The emergence of ESP has resulted from many occurrences like the second world war in 1945, the rapid expansion in scientific, the growth of science and technology, the increased use of English as the international language of science, technology and business, the increased economic power of certain oil-rich countries and increased numbers of international students studying in UK, USA, and Australia. Hutchinson and Waters [1] state that in ESP context, the outcomes of the historical occurrences resulted from a number of people across the globe who wanted to learn English language due to the key language for the fields of science, technology and commerce. The emergence of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching movement resulted from the English language needs of the learners for specific purposes in accordance with their professions or job description. Since the emergent years in the 1960s, ESP has become a vital and innovative activity within the Teaching of English as a Foreign or Second Language movement (TEFL/TESL) as described by Howatt [2]

Hutchinson and Waters [1] define that ESP is an approach to language learning and it is based on learners’ need. What they mean is that ESP does not involve a particular kind of language, teaching material or methodology”. They suggest that the foundation of ESP involves the learners, the language required and the learning contexts which are based on the primacy of need in ESP. Strevens [3] formulates a definition of ESP, which makes a distinction between four absolute characteristics and two variable characteristics .

Robinson [4] emphasizes the primacy of needs analysis in defining ESP. Her definition is based on two key defining criteria and a number of characteristics that are important aspects for ESP. Her key criteria are that “ESP is normally goal-directed’ and that ESP courses develop from a needs analysis, which aims to specify as closely as possible what exactly it is that students have to do through the medium of English” [4, p3]. Her characteristics are that ESP courses are generally constrained by a limited time period in which their objectives have to be achieved, and are taught to adults in ‘homogeneous classes’ in terms of the work or specialist studies that the students are involved in. Robinson [4] delineates that ESP as an enterprise, which involves education, training and practice, and drawing upon three major realms of knowledge: language, pedagogy and the students’ specialist areas of interest.

Dudley-Evans & St John [5] provide their definition of ESP. They also use absolute and variable characteristics of ESP as Strevens [3] centers on defining ESP.

Absolute characteristics: 1. ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the learner; 2. ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and

activities of the disciplines it serves; 3. ESP is centered on the language (grammar. Lexis,

register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to those activities.

Variable characteristics: 1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific

disciplines; 2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different

methodology from that of ‘General English’; 3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners; either at

a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be used for learners at secondary school level;

4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP courses assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners.

The definition that Dudley-Evans & St John [5] offer is clearly influenced by that of Strevens [3] and they have included more variable characteristics. Their division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very helpful in resolving arguments about what is and is not ESP.

ESP has traditionally been divided into two classified main branches such as English for Academic Purposes or EAP and English for Occupational Purposes or EOP [1-5]. EAP (English for Academic Purposes) refers to any English teaching that relates to academic study needs [4,5]. Dudley-Evans & St John [5] argue that in the area of EAP, English for Science and Technology (EST) has been identified as the focal area, but English for Medical Purposes (EMP) and English for Legal Purposes (ELP) have always gained their places. More recently, English for Management, Finance, and Economics (EMFE) has increasingly been important to Master of Business Administration (MBA) courses. According to Robinson [4, p21], “EOP (English for Occupational Purposes) involves work-related needs and training”. Dudley-Evans & St. John [5] elucidate that the term, EOP includes professional purposes in administration, medicine, law and business, and vocational purposes for non-professionals in work or pre-work situations. For example, English for Medical Purposes (EMP) is a course focusing on practicing doctors and English for Business Purposes (EBP) is developed for communicative functioning of English in business contexts. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1, p17], “EOP is also known as EVP (English for Vocational Purposes) and VESL (Vocational English as a Second Language)”.

3. Notion of Needs Analysis in ESP Setting

The term, “analysis of needs” first appeared in the 1920’s in the West Bengal, a province of India when Michael West introduced the concept of “needs” to cover what learners will be required to do with the foreign language in the target situation and how learners might best master the language during the period learning. After 1920’s the term, needs

26 English for Specific Purposes (ESP): A Holistic Review

analysis came to an end to exist until 1960 when the term, ‘English for Specific Purposes’ appeared at the Makerere Conference (Commonwealth Education Committee in 1961) as West [6] states.

The key stage in ESP is needs analysis. Needs analysis is the corner stone of ESP and leads to a focused course [5,6,7,8,9,10]. According to Robinson [4, p7], “needs analysis is generally regarded as critical to ESP, although ESP is by no means the only educational enterprise which makes use of it”. Strevens [3] suggests that needs analysis is a necessary first step for specific purposes language teaching; it is more concerned with the nature of scientific discourse. Hutchinson and Waters [1, p53] argue, “any language course should be based on needs analysis”. Hamp-Lyons [11] opines that needs analysis is fundamental component to an ESP/EAP approach in term of course design.

Dudley-Evans & St John [5] define as, “needs analysis is the process of establishing the what and how of a course”. They argue as, “needs analysis is neither unique to language teaching-needs assessment, for example, is the basis of training programs and aid-development programs-nor, within language training, is it unique to LSP (Language for Special Purposes) and thus to ESP”. They stress three aspects of needs analysis. Dudley-Evans & St John [5, p126)] state as:

“First, needs analysis aims to know learners as people, as language users and as language learners. Second, needs analysis study also aims to know how language learning and skills learning can be maximized for a given learner group. Third, needs analysis study aims to know the target situations and learning environment so that data can appropriately be interpreted”.

It is obvious that needs analysis is a very crucial first step prior to designing and developing a language course, producing materials for teaching and learning, and developing language test. West [6] states that language needs analysis is essentially a pragmatic activity focused on specific situations, although grounded in general theories, such as the nature of language and curriculum. Therefore, in the ESP/EAP context, needs analysis is crucial in determining the aspects of language that are crucial for a particular area of teaching [6]. Robinson [4] suggests, needs analysis is not only just for determining the “what and how of a language of teaching”. She also suggests that needs analysis should be repeated so that it can be built into the formative process. She also suggests that this would lead to a very informative database of learners, sponsors, subject-specialists and above all ESP practitioners’ view and opinions of English language [4].

ESP practitioners should undertake the needs analysis. The main sources for needs analysis are the learners, people working or studying in the field, ex-students, documents relevant to the field, clients, employers, colleagues and ESP research in the field [5]. The main instruments for executing

needs analysis study are questionnaire, analysis of authentic spoken and written texts, discussions, structured interviews, observations and assessments [1,4,5]. It is important for ESP practitioners to carry out needs analysis study prior to developing and designing an ESP syllabus, a course, selecting a teaching approach and other relevant processes that require needs analysis. Generally speaking, where there is no needs analysis, there is no ESP course.

In summary, a language needs analysis is a process that must be conducted prior to a language course and syllabus design, materials selection, teaching and learning methodology and evaluation. The ESP practitioners should be able to utilize the results of needs analysis research which he or she conducts to develop a language course or training program that is suitable, practical and successful for a particular context. The main instruments for executing language needs analysis study are questionnaire, structured interviews, observations, analysis of authentic spoken and written texts, discussions, and assessments.

4. Components of ESP Needs Analysis Different components of language needs analysis are

employed to investigate different focuses and issues in language planning, development, teaching and learning. Many ESP scholars suggest that TSA (Target Situation Analysis), LSA (Learning Situation Analysis), PSA (Present Situation Analysis) are the fundamental components for assessing language needs of learners.

4.1. Target Situation Analysis (TSA)

Target Situation Analysis (TSA) refers to form of needs analysis, which centers on identifying the learners’ language requirements in the occupational or academic setting [6]. “The earliest TSA procedures were designed to determine ‘how much English’ was used” [6]. Robinson [4, p8) argues, “a needs analysis, which focuses on students’ needs at the end of a language course, can be called a TSA (Target Situation Analysis)”. Chambers [9] introduced and discussed this term. Munby [12] formulates the best-known framework of TSA type of needs analysis. He presents a communicative needs processor, comprising a set of parameters within which information on the students’ target situation can be plotted. The model formulated by Munby has, widely, been studied and discussed. Comprehensive data banks are among its useful features. For example, micro-skills and attitudes can be used as checklists for the resultant syllabus. A helpful insight, codified by Munby, relates to target-level performance: for certain jobs students may require only a low level of accuracy. Therefore, TSA may pinpoint the stage at which ‘good enough’ competence for the job is reached as Munby [12] suggests.

Dudley-Evans & St. John [5, p124] define TSA as, “TSA refers to task and activities learners are/will be using English for target situation”. They state that TSA generally uses


questionnaire as the instrument. Dudley-Evans and St. John [5, p124] also explain as:

“TSA includes objective, perceived and product-oriented needs. The objective and perceived needs are derived by outsiders from facts, from what is known and can be verified. Therefore, ‘to be able to spell English words correctly’ is an objective/perceived need. Product-oriented needs are derived from the goal or target situation”.

4.2. Learning Situation Analysis (LSA)

Learning Situation Analysis (LSA) refers to subjective, felt and process-oriented needs [5]. LSA also directs what learners want to learn. Dudley-Evans and St. John [5] state that LSA means effective ways of learning the skills and language. According to them, LSA also refers to why do learners want to learn. They elucidate that subjective and felt needs are derived from insiders and correspond to cognitive and affective factors. Therefore, ‘to feel confident’ is a subjective/felt need [5]. They also explain that process-oriented needs originate from the learning situation.

4.3. Present Situation Analysis (PSA) Robinson [4] delineates that PSA (Present Situation

Analysis) seeks to ascertain what the students are akin to at the start of their language course, looking into their strengths and weaknesses. Dudley-Evans & St. John [5, p124) state that PSA estimates strengths and weaknesses in language, skills and learning experiences. Richterich and Chancerel [13] formulate the most extensive range of devices for establishing the PSA. They suggest that there are three basic sources of information: the students themselves, the language-teaching establishment, and the ‘user-institution’, for example the students’ place of work. For each of these, an ESP practitioner seeks information regarding their respective levels of ability; their resources; and their views on language teaching and learning. They also recommend that ESP practitioners might also study the surrounding society and culture: the attitude held towards English language and towards the learning and use of a foreign language [13]. Munby [12] argues that PSA represents constraints on the TSA. According to McDonough [14], PSA involves ‘fundamental variables’, which must clearly be considered before the TSA. In practice, one is likely to seek and find information relating to both TSA and PSA simultaneously. Thus, needs analysis may be seen as a combination of TSA and PSA.

Here are the following statements developed by Dudley-Evans & St John [5, p124] under the headings TSA (Target Situation Analysis), LSA (Learning Situation Analysis), PSA (Present Situation Analysis):

4.4. Means Analysis

Holliday and Cook [15] assert that means analysis can be considered as an adjunct to needs analysis to establish a workable course design. Dudley-Evans & St John [5] state that means analysis directs the environment in which a course will be run or the environment in which a project will take root, grow healthily and survive. Means analysis involves information of the local situation (e.g., the teachers, teaching methods, management, students facilities, etc) to see how a language course may be implemented [7,15]. Dudley-Evans & St John [5, p124] depict means analysis as:

“Means analysis is an acknowledgement that what works well in one situation may not work in another”. For example, while hotel staff around the world may share some similar language needs, how they learn the language, the conditions in which they are learning and where and how they apply the language are not the same”.

Mountford (1988) and Swales (1989), cited in [6], have developed the scope of means analysis further by suggesting other factors which need to be considered by curriculum specialist if they want to the courses to have the possibility to succeed in an ‘alien’ learning environment. Swales list five factors:

1. Classroom culture 2. EAP staff profiles

Pilot target-situation analysis Status of service operations Study of change agents

Swales (1989) argues that based on the data collected, means analysis can be carried out and decisions can be made of the approach and content to the specific programs [Swales, 1989 cited in 6]. He also reasons that means analysis aims to reduce the probability of providing/teaching something that is not directly related to students’ learning needs in ESP/EAP contexts [Swales, 1989 cited in 6].


4.5. Language Audits

Jordan [7, p28] states as “language audits are large-scale research in examining language needs”. He suggests that language audits are executed for companies, regions or countries. Pilbeam (1979) also suggests the similar views on language audits. He suggests that language audits are used to plot the role played by foreign language in a commercial or industrial enterprise [Pilbeam, 1979 cited in 4]. Language audits provide data about the current situation of language needs in the sector and to a certain extent; language audits do help lead the government to develop an integrated policy or strategy which would take months or years to implement [6]. However, language audits should not be of great concern to most ESP/EAP teachers. This is because ESP/EAP contexts are small or medium scales in nature, and there is no immediate concern to carry out the language audits [6].

5. Models of ESP Needs Analysis In ELT teaching, needs analysis survey is the basis of

training program and aid-development program .In ESP, the situation is also the same that needs analysis is conducted prior to every program that is to be developed. In the field of ESP, there are a number of proponents of needs analysis such

as Munby (1978), McDonough (1984), Hutchinson & Waters (1987), Robinson (1991), West (1994), Jordan (1997) and Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998). The models of ESP needs analysis that were suggested by these writers are similar to a certain extent that they tried to identify the English language needs of the learners. However, the writers have their own views on the focus of needs analysis, the data analysis and the development of the training program in the context of ESP. In this section, I attempt to critically review the models by these pioneers in the field of ESP.

The most common model for analyzing linguistic needs is Munby’s “Communicative Syllabus Design (1978), which is very early model of analyzing ESP needs. The model is illustrated in Figure 1.

The model suggested by Munby provides the participants’ needs, which are analyzed in terms of the “Purposive Domain” (ESP classification), “Setting”, “Interaction”, “Instrumentality” (medium, mode, and channel), “Dialect”, “Target Level”, “Communicative Event”(activities and subject matters), and “Communicative Key” (the manner in which communicative needs to be carried out. As for Munby, he concentrated more on communicative syllabus design where the end product is a profile of the students language needs after using his model, ‘Communication Needs Processor’. His ‘Communication Needs Processor’ (CNP) was a detailed profile of the students’ needs.

Source: Munby 1978

Figure 1. Communication Needs Processor


For its details and its influence on subsequent needs analysis, His model, ‘Communication Needs Processor’ (CNP) has its limitations. It only produces an unordered list of linguistics features, as Hutchinson and Waters [1] point out that the model does not consider the target needs from different standpoints (of teachers, learners, and sponsors). Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) pinpoint what Munby does not include is to prioritize the information and Munby does not also include effective factors which Dudley-Evans & St. John consider as important. West [6] opposes Munby’s works. He states that Munby’s attempt to being systematic and comprehensive makes his instrument inflexible, complex and time-consuming [6]. Jordan [7] criticizes Munby’s works on two aspects that his model is considered as practical constraint after the procedure has been worked. According to Jordan, practical constraints should be considered first. The second aspect is that the language items, chosen for practice in ESP/EAP, should reflect those used in real world (in context), because Munby’s classifications of language are derived from social English [7].

Another model, which is one of the early models of ESP needs analysis, is McDonough’s (1984) model resulted from Munby’s work.

Source: McDonough 1984

Figure 2. ESP Needs Analysis Model

McDonough (1984) provides the use of an integrated procedure for needs analysis, which is illustrated above. Firstly, the procedure suggests that students must be at the centre of system. Secondly, the “needs” are not seen as static, but developing and changing. The third aspect is that the system is complex that allows the needs analysis to be carried out from different perspective: learners, teaching institutions and the sponsoring bodies. The fourth aspect of the procedure is that this is great interdependence of decision-makers and decisions. Finally, the procedure also considers the degree of details and explicitness may vary with the requirements of different situations. This model is considered as effective model for ESP needs analysis. However, the model has also its limitations. The model does not concentrate on learning needs. It only concentrates on

target and present needs. It does not emphasize other aspects of needs analysis (such as lacks, wants and so forth).

Another model of ESP needs analysis, which was formulated by Hutchinson & Waters (1987). The model is illustrated in Figure 3.

OBJECTIVE

(i.e. as perceived by course designers)

SUBJECTIVE (i.e. as perceived by

learners)

NECESSITIES The English needed for

success in Agriculture or Veterinary Studies

To Reluctantly cope with a ‘second-best’

situation

LACKS

(Presumably) areas of English needed for

Agriculture or Veterinary Studies

Means of doing Medical Studies

WANTS To succeed in Agricultural or

Veterinary Studies

To undertake Medical Studies

Source: Hutchinson & Waters 1987 Figure 3. ESP Needs As Necessities, Lacks And Wants

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) explain necessities, lacks and wants as:

1. ‘Necessities’ are the type of needs that is determined by the demands of the target situation, and necessities are what learners need to know so as to function effectively in the target environment.

2. ‘Lacks’ are type of needs where the ESP practitioners need to investigate what the learners already know, so that the ESP practitioners can decide which necessities the learners lack.

3. ‘Wants’ are what the learners want to learn. A learner’s wants may not necessarily be the learner’s

real need to function effectively in the target situation. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) focus on target needs, present needs and learning needs, which are very important components of ESP needs analysis. Their model lacks some aspects of needs. The model suggested by Hutchinson and Waters (1987) does not consider means analysis, linguistic analysis, discourse analysis and genre analysis, which are prioritized by Dudley-Evans & St John (1998).

Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998) introduced one of the most recent needs analysis models. The model is described in deatals.

Source: Dudley-Evans and St John 1998

Figure 4. What needs analysis establishes


Figure 4 illustrates the model suggested by Dudley-Evans & St John (1998). This model can be viewed as the most comprehensive model for an investigation of ESP needs. This model, formulated by Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) focuses on (1) learners’ professional information, (2) learners’ personal information, (3) learners’ language information about the target situations, (4) learners’ lacks, (5) learners’ needs from course, (6) language learning needs, (7) communication information in the target situation, and (8) environmental information. These components of investigating ESP needs, which are defined by Dudley-Evans & St John (1998), are as follows: A. professional information about the students: the tasks

and activities students are/will be using English for-target situation analysis (TSA) and objectives needs

B. personal information about the students is concerned with learners’ general profile, previous language learning experiences.

C. English language information about the students: what their current skills and language use are- present situation analysis (PSA)-this could allow us to assess (D). PSA determines strengths and weakness in language skills.

D. the students’ lacks: the gap between (C) and (A)-lacks

E. language learning information: effective ways of learning skills and language in (D)-learning needs-Learning Situation Analysis (LSA)

F. knowledge of how language and skills are used in target situation-linguistic analysis, discourse analysis and genre analysis.

G. students’ needs from the course: what is wanted from the course?

H. environmental situation: information about the environment in which the course will be run-means analysis

This model, developed by Dudley-Evans & St John (1998) on language needs, is practical and pragmatic covering all aspects, such as, TSA (Target Situation Analysis), PSA (Present Situation Analysis), LSA (Learning Situation Analysis), MA (Means Analysis) and other important considerations. Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) prioritize the four essential components for ESP needs assessment: TSA (Target Situation Analysis), PSA (Present Situation Analysis) and LSA (Learning Situation Analysis) and MA (Means Analysis) in their model. They clearly define these components in their works, which are not prioritized in other models.

To sum up, needs analysis frameworks in ESP context should be flexible. Some considerations such as views of different people (learners, sponsors, subject-specialists, English language instructors and ESP practitioners) should also be taken into consideration in terms of comprehensive ESP needs investigation. Such considerations are highly necessary for conducting any needs analysis because they

would affect the implementation of research, the development of course and syllabus, methodology and training program as well. The current development in the areas of need analysis in the ESP context witnesses the emergence of refined and more flexible theoretical framework of needs analysis.

6. Conclusion In the field of ELT (English Language Teaching),

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is concerned with specific English language needs of the target learners and has been an innovative and distinct field since its inception in 1960s. This term refers to teaching a specific genre of English for students with specific goals. Over the years, it has gained in popularity. Based upon the discussion and analysis, it is perceived that ESP is goal oriented and focused English teaching and learning, designed for the specific learners according to learners’ academic and professional needs. The teaching environment, methods and contents used in ESP are not the same as in General English. Many ESP writers assert that needs analysis in ESP setting is so vital for identifying specific needs of the learners as per their academic and professional areas. The needs analysis models, discussed and highlighted in this paper, diverge from each other. However, they focus on the specific needs of the learners. The main components of language needs analysis such as TSA (Target Situation Analysis), LSA (Learning Situation Analysis), PSA (Present Situation Analysis), MA (Means Analysis) should be prioritized and applied in any ESP needs assessment.

The practitioners/researchers in the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) should gain a solid knowledge on some fundamental aspects of ESP and ESP theoretical models of needs assessment. Accordingly, the paper has attempted to discuss and review the development, history and notions of ESP, the main instrument, ‘needs analysis’, some important components and some pragmatic models of ESP needs analysis. To some extent, the researchers or students can benefit from the paper as it is based upon the salient features of English for Specific Purposes.

REFERENCES [1] Hutchinson T & Waters A. English for specific purposes.

New York: Cambridge University Press; 1987.

[2] Howatt A. P. R. A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1984.

[3] Strevens P. Teaching English as an international language. Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd; 1980.

[4] Robinson P. ESP today: A practitioner’s guide. New York: Prentice Hall; 1991.

[5] Dudley-Evans, T. & ST John M. J.. Developments in


English for specific purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1998.

[6] West R. Needs analysis in language teaching. Language Teaching. 1994; 27:1-19.

[7] Jordan R. R. English for academic purposes: A guide and resources book for teachers. London (UK): Cambridge University Press; 1997.

[8] Brown J. D. The elements of language curriculum: A systematic approach to program development. Boston: Heinle and Heinle; 1995.

[9] Chambers, F. (1980). Are-evaluation of needs analysis. ESP Journal. 1980; 1: 25-33.

[10] Ellis M. & Johnson C. Teaching business English. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1994.

[11] Hamp-Lyons. English for academic purposes. In R. Carter and D. Nunan, (Eds.). The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge; 2001.

[12] Munby J. Communicative syllabus design: A sociolinguistic model for defining the content of purpose-specific language programmes. London: Cambridge University Press; 1978.

[13] Richterich R.& Chancerel J. Identifying the needs of adults learning a foreign language. Oxford: Pergamon Press; 1980.

[14] McDonough J. ESP in perspective: A practical guide. London and Glasgow: Collins Educational; 1984.

[15] Holliday A. & T. Cooke. An ecological approach to ESP. In Issues in ESP. Lancaster Practical Papers in English Language Education 5, (pp. 123-43). Lancaster: Lancaster University; 1982. p. 123-43.

Needs Analysis: An Effective Way in Business

English Curriculum Design

Juan Li School of Foreign Language Studies, Shandong Jiaotong University, Jinan, China

Abstract—As one of the most important branches of ESP (English for Specific Purposes), Business English has

nearly sixty years' history in China. Needs analysis is the most important stage of ESP teaching and is a widely

used tool to study the validity and relevancy of all curriculum design activities in Business English teaching. It

assures a flexible curriculum responsive to the needs of various stakeholders of education. Under the guidance

of Needs Analysis Theory, this paper aims to discuss whether and how needs analysis can be implemented in

Business English curriculum design and the results may shed light on the improvement of the Business English

teaching.

Index Terms—need analysis, Business English, curriculum design

I. INTRODUCTION

China's growth is felt in nearly every corner of the globe. The prosperous of business have been a great driving force for the development of Business English and the demand for Business English grows dramatically. Even though

Business English teaching has become popular, for years the instruction has been limited to an approach which

fundamentally focuses on the drill of language skills and ignores the social needs and learners' personal interests. This

often leads to students' low motivation in Business English study and their poor performance of language use in their

future profession. However, due to the influence of traditional teaching opinions and limited knowledge of needs

analysis theories, course designers and language teachers in China either neglect needs analysis or cannot carry out it

effectively. As a result, Business English teaching in colleges and universities is facing many challenges including

optimizing course design, setting teaching goals, updating teaching concepts, training teachers and compiling textbooks.

Based on needs analysis theory, this assay discusses Business English, need analysis theory and the ways of how to

apply need analysis into the curriculum design of Business English courses.

II. NEED ANALYSIS AND ITS MODELS

A. Need Analysis

Needs analysis has existed in the world of language education for two or three decades. The role of needs analysis in

any ESP course is invaluable. It is considered as a prerequisite in any course design (Richterich and Chancerel, 1987).

"It is also considered as one of the key stages in ESP, the others being the syllabus design, selection and production of

materials, teaching and learning, and evaluation." (Dudley-Evans and St John, 1998, p 125). Johns (1991) also regards

needs analysis as the first step in curriculum design for it can provide validity and relevancy for all the follow-up curriculum design activities. Needs analysis refers to the activities involved in gathering information that will serve as

the basis for developing a curriculum that will meet the learning needs of a particular group of learners. Once identified,

needs can serve as the basis for designing tests, compiling materials, designing teaching activities, and evaluating

strategies, as well as for reevaluating the precision and accuracy of the original needs analysis. It is regarded as an

indivisible part of systematic curriculum design. (Brown, 2001). Nunan (1994, p 54) argues that "needs analysis is a set

of procedures for specifying the parameters of a course of study. Such parameters include the criteria and rationale for

grouping learners, the selection and sequencing of course content, methodology, course length, and intensity and

duration."

B. Models of Need Analysis

Scholars have put forward various models of needs analyses. However, the four models of needs analysis are gaining

much recognition by researchers, each model can identify language needs from different perspectives.

1. Target Situation Analysis (TSA)

Target situation is the situation in which the language learners will be using the language they are learning

(Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). Target Situation Analysis (TSA) is a kind of needs analysis which mainly focuses on

students' needs at the end of a language course (Robinson, 1991). The "target needs" are the "product" of a target

situation analysis. The identification of the target situation is a prerequisite for the Business English course designers.

Then a rigorous analysis of the linguistic features of the designated situation should be carried out. The identified features, accordingly, will form the syllabus of the Business English course. The information collected in the target

ISSN 1799-2591Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 4, No. 9, pp. 1869-1874, September 2014© 2014 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.doi:10.4304/tpls.4.9.1869-1874

© 2014 ACADEMY PUBLISHER

situation includes the language application information, communicative skills, and the cognition of the teaching

objectives of the learners, working institutions and societies.

It is commonly agreed by all ESP practitioners that Munby is the first specialist who have the systematic and

influential ideas about target situation analysis. He formulated the famous "Communication Needs Processor (CNP)",

which consists of a range of questions about key communication variables (topic, participants, medium, etc.) (Munby,

1978). These variables can be used to identify the target language needs of any group of learners (Hutchinson and

Waters, 1987). As Coleman (1988, p105) illustrates: "Probably the most influential of all needs analysis procedures

currently available is Munby's "communication needs processor". The most useful feature of Munby's model is its

comprehensive data banks, for example: the micro-skills and attitudes, which can be used as checklists for the resultant

syllabus. The instrument he proposed is supposed to enable the needs analyst to draw up an accurate profile of an

individual language learner. There are two stages involved in Munby's Model of Need Analysis: Communication Need Processor(CNP) and the

profile of needs which is derived from the CNP in terms of micro-skills and micro-functions. The CNP is set out under

eight variables, namely the purposive domain, setting, interaction, instrumentality, dialect, target level, communicative

event, and communicative key, which are organized as parameters and are dynamically related with each other. The

operation of CNP begins with the processing of its "inputs", the information regarding the identity and language of the

foreign language participants. Then the information of the eight variables are required. In the second stage of the model,

the user must take the activities with their communicative keys and decide which of three alternative ways of processing

them is appropriate. "The alternatives are: (i) specification of syllabus content by focusing on micro-skills. (ii)

specification by focusing on micro-functions (iii) specification by focusing on linguistic forms.Munby explored

thoroughly every aspect relating to learner’s needs"(Munby, 1978, p95). Munby thinks of the unthinkable and is very

thoughtful in his work. His work proves to be the most detailed ,complex and informative and is illustrated by Zhao(2005) as follows:

Figure 1 .John Munby's Model of Needs Analysis (Zhao, 2005)

2. Present Situation Analysis (PSA)

While Target Situation Analysis deals with the analysis of learner's targets, without which it is difficult to design a

syllabus to achieve them. Present Situation Analysis (PSA), on the other hand, analyses learner's present situation and

shows the gap between the present and the target. When emphasizing the learner's motivations in the process of

studying, the needs that the students'self-perception about learning cannot be neglected. PSA exlpores to find out the

language proficiency of the students when the language course begins and their strengths and weakness (Robinson,

1991). Three basic sources of information are suggested by Richterich and Chancerel in 1980: the information about the

students themselves, the language-teaching organizations and the user-institution. This is in accordance with Jordan's

(1997) opinion: the sources of information in the needs analysis are: the students themselves, the academic institution

and the prospective employer. Hutchinson & Waters (2002) gave some examples and states that no necessary

relationship are showed between what the learners want or feel they need and the necessities, which are perceived by

the sponsor or ESP teachers. Richard Mead's (as cited in Hutchinson & Waters, 1980) carried out a research about the motivation of students following ESP courses, he found that sometimes the needs perceived by the teacher may conflict

with the students' needs and thus produce a de-motivating effect.

Bloor (1984) maintained that a needs analysis may be "target-centered" or "learner-centered". A target-centered need

analysis focus the learners' future role in the target situation and seeks to specify the language skills and linguistic

knowledge the learner need to know. A leaner-centered need analysis, on the other hand, emphasis what the learner "can

do" at the beginning og the course and the problems the learner may encounter during the learning process. The

"target-centered analysis" and "the learner-centered analysis" named by Bloor are the counterparts of TSA and PSA.

Bloor further pointed out that in order to specify an adequate teaching syllabus, it is almost certainly desirable to

operate both "target-centered" and "learner-centered" needs analysis.

3. Hutchinson and Waters' Model

1870 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES


Hutchinson and Waters (1987) first put forward the learning-Centered Approach needs analysis model. In the model,

needs analysis consists of two parts: target situation needs and learning needs. Target needs include "necessities",

"lacks" and "wants". "Necessities" are determined by the demand of the target situation. They are the necessary needs

that enable the learner to use effectively in the target situation. "Lacks" are the gap between "necessities" and what the

learner already knows, that is the existing proficiency of the learners. "Wants" are learners' subjective needs, which has

no direct relationship between the objective needs perceived by the teachers and course designers. Learning needs, on

the other hand, are how learners learn the language.

Learning needs are about the learners' motivation of learning the language, the way they prefer to learn, the available

resources, the time and place the course will take place and the learners' personal information. Hutchinson and Waters

compare the Business English course to a journey (Figure 2). The starting point of the journey is the "lacks" and the

destination is the "necessities". Learning needs are how are the learners get from the starting point to the destination. Sometimes the "destination" may be deviated because the "necessities" perceived by the sponsors may be different from

what the learners want or feel they need.

Figure 2. Business English Course "Route" (Wang, 2007)

4. Dudley-Evans and St John's Model of Needs Analysis

Dudley-Evans & St John (1998) and Dudley-Evans (1998) established a model for Business English courses which

contain the following aspects illustrated in the figure:

Figure 3. Dudley-Evans & St John's Model of Needs Analysis

In the model, professional information are the tasks and activities in which learners are using or will be using English

for, this is the Target Situation Analysis and objective needs of the learners; while personal information concerns about

the factors that might affect the way when learners learn, such as their previous learning experiences, cultural

background, attitude to English, or even their reasons and expectations for taking the course, this can be called as the

learners' subjective needs, which includes learners' wants, means and strategies. The English language information

about the learners' is their current skills and language uses, this part belongs to the Present Situation Analysis and this is

the effective way to assess the learners' lack, which is the gap between "the English language information about the

learner's" and "professional information about the learners". The main concern of the Present Situation Analysis is the

current language proficiency of the learners. Learning needs Analysis seeks to find out the effective ways of learning

the language and skills of the lacks. Professional communication information concerns the how the language and skills are uses in the target situation.

With the progress of the course, the attitudes and approach of students may change accordingly. Need analysis,

therefore, is recommended to be conducted during the whole process of the course. (Richterich and Chancerel, 1987;

Robinson, 1991) Moreover, need analysis can be carried out at different stages during the curriculum design process and

the identification and analysis of needs should be a continuous process (Richterich and Chancerel, 1987; Knox, 1987).

This is helpful to both the course designers and teachers to make necessary changes. Moreover, need analysis can take

many forms, whatever the forms is, the basic purpose should be the to find the wants and needs of learners. If the

teaching approaches and teaching contents match the determined needs, the learners' motivation will be enhanced.

III. ESP & BUSINESS ENGLISH

The definitions of ESP (English for Specific Purposes) as conceptual term appeared in the literature only in the 1960s.

THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 1871


Halliday, Mcinfash and Strevens first put forward the definition of ESP: "English for civil servants; for policemen; for

officials of the law; for dispensers and nurses; for specialists in agriculture; for engineers and fitters." (1964) . Currently,

the most frequently cited ESP book may be Hutchinson and Waters' English for Specific Purposes, in which they hold

the opinion that "ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on

the learner's reason for learning."(Hutchinson and Waters, 1987, p.19). According to them, ESP is defined as an

"approach" rather than a product, and ESP does not involve a particular type of language, teaching materials or

methodology.

Business English had been discussed in the western world in the late 1960s and early 1970s, but in China, it is only

after the opening up to the outside world that Business English had aroused the attention of the domestic researchers.

Up to now, there exist three major perspectives to define Business English.

(1) Business is a variety of ESP. (2) Business English is a social functional variety of English.

(3) Business English is viewed as a major or discipline.

Chinese researchers and researchers abroad have reached a common view that Business English is a variety of ESP .

Owing to the increasing growth of international business and globalization, Business English has become a major

expansion of ESP. In China, Business English is viewed as a major or discipline, the best example may be the fact that

over 30 universities and colleges were approved by the Ministry of Education to set up Business English Major since

2007. Different from the practice in other countries where ESP(including Business English) are considered as teaching

systems or profession, Business English is seen as a major or discipline in China. Chinese researchers spend efforts on

the scientific research of the way how to cultivate the talents. So it is recognized in China that discipline, major become

the proper perspective to learn Business English. According to Hutchinson & Waters, what distinguishes the ESP

learners from the learners of General English is need analysis, which is the irreducible minimum of an ESP approach to course design. The study of Business English should follow the framework of ESP. This thesis will regard Business

English as a major by using the approaches of ESP.

IV. APPLICATION OF NEED ANALYSIS INTO BUSINESS ENGLISH CURRICULUM DESIGN

Need analysis must be reliable, efficient and usable. Need analysis can be conducted through three steps: plan,

information collection and information analysis. Plan is of great importance to effective need analysis. Before the

research, designers should make it clear the following questions:

(1) What kind of information is needed?

(2) Why the information is needed?

(3) How to acquire the information?

After answering the above three questions, the next step would be to design the research questions according to these

questions. When the plan is made and the questions are designed, the information can be collected. When applying the need analysis theory into the Business English curriculum design, course designers should study the needs of learners,

society and the school.

A. The Analysis of the Present Situation

As has mentioned above, the three basic sources of information is the students, and language-teaching establishment

and the user-institution. During this information collecting process, a lot of information should be collected: the

learners' learning background, their concept of teaching and learning and their preferred methodology and techniques, their wants, either objective or subject, and the resources available etc. For a Business English student who is studying

at a university, the courses are compulsory and their attitude toward the Business English courses varies. There are

relatively large number of professional teachers, whose knowledge of and attitude to the subject content varies a great

deal. The attitudes of the students and the teachers should be investigated and determined accordingly. The learning

materials are available and students can get aids from various sources. On the other hand, the course designers are

usually the Business English teachers, it is comparatively easier for them to collect information from the students and

the teaching institutions. When doing present situation analysis, learners' subjective need, objective needs, learning

needs, learning motivation and language proficiency should be considered. If the present situation is finished, all the

parties involved will benefit from a proper analysis of the present situation and this will pave the way for the final

accomplishment of curriculum design.

B. The Analysis of the Target Needs

Target needs are determined by the needs of the target situation. The target needs analysis is in fact a matter of asking

information about the target situation and the learners' attitudes of that situation. These questions are about the reason

why the language is used, the way the language is used, the content areas of the courses, the relationship between the

learners and the time and place where language will be used.

For Business English students, their motivation of learning English might be to work in a business-related institution.

It is advisable for the course designers to analysis the needs of the employer's anticipation and demand. The language learned by a Business English student might be to understand business emails, to talk via telephone, to communicate



effectively at an trade fair and so on. During the learning process, the corresponding language skills should be

highlighted. When doing this, questionnaires, interviews, observations, case studies can be used to inquire the target

need. If necessary, some other ways may be used to acquire the complete and accurate information.

What should be noted is, when the curriculum design is done, the curriculum designers should again solicit views

from foreign trade companies, joint ventures, foreign department of banks, foreign insurance companies and other

companies where the Business English students work to re-evaluate the curriculum and further better the curriculum.

C. The Analysis of Localized Features

The goal of the Business English teaching is to cultivate interdisciplinary talents. Owing to the different features of

different provinces, districts and schools, such as the regional economic development levels, the developing level of

disciplines in different schools, the guiding ideology for university management and the school-running characteristics,

the content of courses, teaching mode, training objective and standard, are not estimated to be the same. It is suggested

that needs analysis should be established not only on the basis of target needs and learning needs, the district features,

suggestion from experts, school-running orientation and features, guidelines for running universities, should be also be

considered. Examples like the main subjects in financial universities may be international finance or international

payment; while in marine universities, the courses such as international shipping, international logistics should be

emphasized. As is famous for large number of "student bosses'', Yiwu Industrial and Commercial College may set its main courses as "E-business or international logistics" based on Yiwu's local characteristics.

D. Procedures of Needs Analysis

When conducting need analysis, a variety of procedures can be used and the type of procedures selected determines

the information acquired. (Richards, 2002). Schutz and Derwing (1981), offered eight elaborative steps to conduct a

needs assessment. These steps are: to define purpose, to delimit target population, to delimit parameters of investigation,

to select information gather instrument, to collect data, to analyze results, to interpret results, and to critique the project. (1) Defining the purpose involves identifying the goals of the study precisely in order to achieve useful results.

(2) Delimiting the target population refers to defining the target population of the study in order to make practical

decisions about monetary, position and time considerations.

(3) Delimiting the parameters of investigation includes the planning of the limitations of the study in order to raise its

effectiveness.

(4) Selecting the information gathering instrument refers to choosing the appropriate data collection instruments.

Selecting the information gathering instruments depends on the conditions, scope and objectives of the study.

(5) The collection of the data is directly related to the data collection instruments that will be used in this process.

Different types of data gathering instruments, such as distributing questionnaires, conducting interviews, or doing

observations require different processes to follow up.

(6) Analyzing the results, the researcher may benefit either from computer-assisted analysis techniques or the observations and interpretations. Using computer-assisted analysis techniques to analyze data is more reasonable for the

sake of time and effort, compared with observations and interpretations that require extended contact with the target

situations and qualitative interpretations of the data.

(7) In the interpretation of the results section, the researcher explores what s/he had derived from the process of data

interpretation. There, the researcher attempts to draw implications about the learners' language needs by using the data

analysis results.

(8) Finally, the critique of the project section includes drawing out implications for further studies and explains the

limitations of the study.

V. CONCLUSION

Curriculum design is a process, during which the basic principle of a teaching plan is been conveyed, supervised and

put into practice. Needs analysis is the premise of the other phases. A well-established curriculum design should first

have a thorough investigation of the needs of learners, teaching organization and the society. As one of the most important branch of ESP, Business English is developing at an unprecedented speed. Over 1000 universities and

colleges have Business English courses to help English majors or Business English majors to meet the competition in

future career. In order to cultivate multi-discipline Business English talents and offer better Business English courses, it

is necessary to take need analysis theory as a guideline the put the needs of various stakeholders into consideration

when designing Business English curriculum. Need analysis is no doubt an effective way for the Business English

curriculum design.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work is supported by the Research Base of Humanities and Social Sciences of Shandong Province-International

Business Study Center, the Teaching Research Foundation of Shandong Jiaotong University: Curriculum Design for

Business English Students Based on Needs Analysis Theory-A Case Study of Shandong Jiaotong University (No.

JY201211), and the Scientific Research Foundation of Shandong Jiaotong University: "Cultural Capital"and Culture

THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 1873


Teaching-A Probe to the Culture Teaching in Teaching of Chinese as a Foreign Language Based on Pierre Bourdieu's

Cultural Theory.

REFERENCES

[1] Bloor, M. (1984). Identifying the components of a language syllabus: A problem for designers of courses in ESP or communication studies. In R. Williams, J. Swales, & J. Kirkman (Eds.), Common ground - shared interests in ESP and communication studies (ELT Documents 117, pp. 15-24). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

[2] Brown, J. D. (2001). Using surveys in language programs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[3] Coleman, H. (1988). Analysis language needs in large organization. English For Specific Purposes, vol. 7, 3, pp.155-169 [4] Dudley-Evans, T., & St. John, M.J. (1998). Developments in ESP: a multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press [5] Halliday, M.A.K., McIntosh, A. & Strevens, P. (1964). The linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. London: Longman. [6] Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [7] Johns, A. (1991). English for specific purposes: its history and contribution. In Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed). Teaching English as a

second or foreign language (pp.67-77). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. [8] Li, Juan. (2011). Curriculum Design for Business English Students Based on Needs Analysis Theory—A Case Study of

Shandong Jiaotong University. Unpublished master's thesis, Shandong Normal University, Jinan. [9] Munby, J. (1978). Communicative Syllabus Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [10] Nunan, D. (1994). The learner-centered curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [11] Richterich R. & Chancerel L. (1980). Identifying the needs of adults learning foreign language, Oxford: Pergamon Press for the

Council of Europe. [12] Richterich, R. & J.J. Chancerel. (1987). Identifying the needs of adults learning a foreign language. Oxford: Prentice Hall. [13] Robinson, P. (1991).ESP Today: A Practitioner's Guide. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall. [14] Schutz, N. W. & Derwing, B.L. (1981). The problems of needs assessment in English for specific purposes: Some theoretical

and practical considerations. In R. Mackay & J.D. Palmer (Eds.), Language for specific purposes program design and evaluation (pp.29-45). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

[15] Wang, X.X. (2007). An analysis of English Majors' needs in BE course design. Unpublished master's thesis, Northeast University, Changchun.

[16] Zhao, Z. C. (2005). Needs Analysis and Curriculum Design -A Tentative Research on the ESP Courses of Non-English Postgraduates. Unpublished master's thesis, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian.

Juan Li, born in Bayannaoer, China in 1980. She received her M.A in curriculum and pedagogy (English) in Shandong Normal

University. She is currently a lecturer in the School of Foreign Languages, Shandong Jiaotong University, Jinan, China. Her research interests include Business English teaching and cross-cultural communication.



22

SYLLABUS DESIGN FOR ENGLISH COURSES

Bambang Irfani

Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) Raden Intan Lampung

[email protected]

Abstract

The planning of courses including designing curriculum

and syllabus is often ignored in English language teaching

and teacher training. Harmer (2000) states that decisions

about course content are very often not taken by teachers,

but by some higher authority. Even many institutions

present the syllabus in terms of the main textbook to be

used - by a certain date, teachers are expected to have

covered a certain number of units in the book. At the

same time teachers are often provided with a list of

supplementary material and activities available. Yet, the

graduates of such programs as English teacher training are

often required to carry out course design task without

having received sufficient training to do so. As a matter of

fact, course design requires specialized expertise which

can be gained through learning and practice. Designing

courses is unlike preparing one's own teaching as it should

be understood by others who will use the design.

Therefore, it is very urgent to equip the English teachers

with the basic competence of course design.

Key words: syllabus design, English courses

A. Rationale

Curriculum and syllabus are two major documents necessarily prepared in

a course design task. Where a curriculum describes the broadest contexts in

which planning for language instruction takes place, a syllabus is a more

circumscribed document, usually one which has been prepared for a particular

group of learners (Dubin and Olshtain, 1986). In other words, a syllabus is more

specific and more concrete than a curriculum, and a curriculum may contain a

number of syllabi. A curriculum may specify only the goals – what the learners

will be able to do at the end of the instruction – while the syllabus specifies the

content of the lessons used to lead the learners to achieve the goals (Krahnke,

23

1987). Content or what is taught is the single aspect of syllabus design to be

considered. It includes behavioral or learning objectives for students,

specifications of how the content will be taught and how it will be evaluated.

The aspects of language teaching method which are closely related to

syllabus are the theory of language, theory of learning and the learner type. The

choice of syllabus should take those three aspects into consideration.

Furthermore, to design a syllabus is to decide what gets taught and in what order.

For this reason, the theory of language explicitly or implicitly underlying the

method will play a major role in determining what syllabus is adopted. In

addition, a theory of learning will also play an important part in determining the

syllabus choice. For example, a teacher may accept a structural theory of

language, but not accept that learners can acquire language materials according to

a strict grammatical sequence of presentation. While the basic view of language

may be structural, the syllabus, in that case, may be more situational or even

content-based. Learner type is another variable in the choice of syllabus of

syllabus. Learner types can be seen in practical and observable terms, such as

type of cognitive activity, life style, aspirations, employment, educational and

social backgrounds and so on ((Krahnke, 1987).

The choice of a syllabus is a major decision in language teaching, and it

should be made as consciously and with as much information as possible.

According to Krahnke (1987), there are six types of language teaching syllabus

including:

1. A structural (or formal) syllabus. It is one in which the content of

language teaching is a collection of the forms and structures, usually

grammatical, of the language being taught. Examples of structure include:

nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements, questions, complex sentences,

subordinate clauses, past tense, and so on, although formal syllabi may

include other aspects of language form such as pronunciation or

morphology.

2. A notional/functional syllabus. It is one in which the content of language

teaching is a collection of the functions that are performed when language

is used, or of the notions that language is used to express. Examples of

24

functions include: informing, agreeing, apologizing, requesting, promising,

and so on. Examples of notions include size, age, color, comparison, time,

and so on.

3. A situational syllabus. It is one in which the content of language teaching

is a collection of real or imaginary situations in which language occurs or

is used. A situation usually involves several participants who are engaged

in some activity in a specific setting. The language occurring in the

situation involves a number of functions, combined into a plausible

segment of discourse. The primary purpose of situational language

teaching syllabus is to teach the language that occurs in the situations.

Sometimes the situations are purposely relevant to the present or future

needs of the language learners, preparing them to use the new language in

the kinds of situations that make up the syllabus. Examples of situations

include: seeing then dentist, complaining to the landlord, buying a book at

the bookstore, meeting a new student, asking directions in a new town, and

so on.

4. A skill-based syllabus. It is one in which the content of language teaching

is a collection of specific abilities that may play a part in using language.

Skills are things that people must be able to do to be competent in a

language, relatively independently of the situation or setting in which the

language use can occur. While situational syllabi group functions together

into specific settings of language use, skill-based syllabi group linguistic

competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, sociolinguistic, and

discourse) together into generalized types of behavior, such as listening to

spoken language for the main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, giving

effective oral presentations, taking language tests, reading texts for main

ideas or supporting details, and so on. The primary purpose of skill-based

instruction is to learn a specific language skill. A possible secondary

purpose is to develop more general competence in the language, learning

only incidentally any information that may be available while applying the

language skills.

25

5. A task-based syllabus. It is similar to content-based syllabus in that both

the teaching is not organized around linguistic features of the language

being learned but according to some other organizing principle. In task-

based instruction the content of the teaching is a series of complex and

purposeful tasks that the students want or need to perform with the

language they are learning. The tasks are defined as activities with a

purpose other than language learning, but, as in a content-based syllabus,

the performance of the tasks is approached in a way that is intended to

develop second/foreign language ability. Language learning is

subordinated to task performance, and language teaching occurs only as

the need arises during the performance of a given task. Tasks integrate

language (and other) skills in specific settings of language use. They

differ from situations in that while situational teaching has the goal of

teaching the specific language content that occurs in the situation – a

predefined product – task-based teaching has the goal of teaching students

to draw on resources to complete some piece of work – a process. The

language students draw on a variety of language forms, functions, and

skills, often in an individual and unpredictable way, in completing the

tasks. Tasks that can be used for language learning are, generally, tasks

that the learners actually have to perform in any case. Examples are

applying for a job, talking with a social worker, getting housing

information over the telephone, completing bureaucratic forms, collecting

information about preschools to decide which to send a child to, preparing

a paper for another course, reading a textbook for another course, and so

on.

6. A content-based syllabus. It is not really a language teaching syllabus at

all. In content-based language teaching, the primary purpose of the

instruction is to teach some content or information using the language that

the students are also learning. The students are simultaneously language

students and students of whatever content is being taught. The subject

matter is primary, and language learning occurs incidentally to the content

learning. The content teaching is not organized around the language

26

teaching, but vice versa. Content-based language teaching is concerned

with information, while task-based language teaching is concerned with

communicative and cognitive processes. An example of content-based

language teaching is a science class taught in the language that the

students need or want to learn, possibly with linguistic adjustments to

make the science more comprehensible.

In practice, of course, these different types rarely occur independently of

each other. Almost all actual language teaching syllabi are combinations of two

or more of the types of syllabus described here.

B. Types of English Syllabus

1. The Structural Syllabus

The structural or grammatical syllabus is doubtless the most familiar of

syllabus types. It has a long history, and a major portion of language teaching has

been carried out using some form of it. The structural syllabus is based on a

theory of language that assumes that the grammatical or s t ructura l aspects

of language form are the most basic or useful. When functional

ability, or ability to use or communicate in the new language, is a goal of

instruction, the structural syllabus can be said to embrace a theory of

learning that holds that functional abil i ty arises from structural

knowledge or abil i ty.

The content of the s t ructural syllabus is language form,

primarily grammatical form, and the teaching is defined in terms of form.

Although the definit ion of language form and the most appropriate

"grammar" to use in pedagogy have long been disputed, most

existing structural syl labi use some form of tradit ional, Lat in -based,

descriptive/prescriptive grammatical classification and terminology. The

usual grammatical categor ies are the famil iar ones of noun, verb,

pronoun, adjective, singular, plural , present tense, past tense, and

so on. The domain of structural syllabi has tended to be limited to the

27

sentence. That is, the sentence is the largest unit of discourse that is

regularly t reated. A classification of sentence types usually

includes semant ica l ly defined types such as s t a tements or

declaratives, questions or interrogatives, exclamations, and conditionals, and

grammatically defined types such as simple, compound, and complex sentences.

A good deal of morphology can also be found in s t ruc tura l syllabi, such

as s in gu l a r and plural marking, the forms marking the tense system of the lan-

guage, and special morphology such as de t e rm iners and articles, prepositions

and postpositions, gender markers , and so on. Morphology also deals

with vocabular y, specifically formal aspects such as prefixes and suffixes.

A key feature of the structural syllabus is that it is "synthetic" (Wilkins,

1976; Yalden, 1983). Synthetic syllabi require analyses of the language (content),

such word frequency counts, g rammat ica l analysis, and d i s course ana l ys i s .

The s yl l abus designer uses the elements isolated as a result of the analyses to

make up the content of the syllabus. In most cases there are rules, p a t t e r ns and

g r am m at i ca l elements, u s u a l l y with guidelines for their combination and

use. Because o f their synthetic nature, structural syllabi assume a gene r a l theory

of learning tha t holds that l ea rners can synthesize the material being

taught in one of at least two ways. First, the analyzed information - the rules

and pa t t e rns -a re available as the learner a t t empts to use them in linguistic

communication. The l e a r n e r uses the information either to generate or produce

u t te rances or discourse, or to check the accuracy of production. Second,

ana l yzed information is transformed from analyzed, possibly conscious

knowledge, into the largely unconscious behavior t ha t makes up language use.

2. The Notional/Functional Syllabus

The notional/functional syllabus is the best known of contemporary

language teaching syllabus types. It is, however, also the object of a great

deal of misunderstanding. On the one hand, while notional/functionalism

has been referred to as an "approach" (Brumfit & Johnson, 1979:

Widdowson, 1979), it has never been described as anything other than a

type of content of language instruction that can be taught through a variety

28

of classroom techniques. On the other hand", notional/functionalism has

been closely associated with what has been called "communicative

language teaching" (Brumfit & Johnson, 1979; Richards & Rodgers, 1986;

Widdowson, 1979), a rather amorphous view of language teaching that has

been referred to as a method but is really a collection of different

approaches and procedures clustered around notional/functional content.

Because of its broad scope, its confusion with instructional method,

and its own lack of definition, notional/functionalism is d ifficult to

describe clearly. A narrow perspective is taken here, viewing the notion-

al/functional movement only in terms of a means for defining instructional

content. In this sense, notional/functional syllabi have much in common

with structural syllabi in that both are subject to a variety of interpretations

and can be associated with a variety of methodologies.

At its simplest, notional/functionalism is, in Richards and Rodgers'

(1986) terms, a theory of language. It holds that basic to language are the

uses to which it is put. If language is seen as a relationship between form

and function, notional/functionalism takes the function side of the equation

as primary and the form side as secondary. For example, rather than

regarding the future tense form (with w i l l) in English as basic and

discussing the uses to which it can be put (e.g., talking about the future,

making promises) as secondary, in a functional view of language, notions

such as future and functions such as promising are considered basic and

the future tense form is discussed as one way of realizing these notions and

functions. Other interpretations and applications have elaborated on

notional/functionalism, but the most basic point of the movement in language

teaching is that categories of language use rather than, categories of Language

form have been taken as the organizing principle for instruction.

3. Situational Syllabi

The situational syllabus has a long history in language teaching, but

situational content has mostly been used as an adjunct to instruction that is

primarily focused on language form and structure. Many "methods," from

29

grammar-translation to Berlitz to modern integrated textbooks, have used

examples of the language being learned in situations and settings. These range

from short dialogues to lengthy themes with casts of characters acting and

behaving in complex ways. Many collections of conversation or communication

activities are organized in terms of situations.

It is important to realize that there is not just one situational syllabus, but

many, differentiated by type of informational content and type of linguistic

content. Alexander (1976) has distinguished three types of situational syllabus,

differentiated by type of information: "limbo," concrete, 'and mythical. The limbo

situation is one in which the specific setting of the situation is of little or no

importance. Alexander gives the example of introductions at a party, where the

setting of the party is largely irrelevant, and what is important is the .particular

language focus involved. The concrete situation is one in which the situations are

enacted against specific settings`"(p. 98), and what is important is the setting and

the language associated with it. Ordering a meal in a restaurant and going through

customs are examples of concrete situations. The mythical situation is one that

depends on some sort of fictional story line, frequently with a fictional cast of

characters in a fict ional place.

Among the different linguistic focuses that can be found in s i tua t ions is

the grammatical focus, with which s i tuat ions are presented in such a way that

part icular s t ructures or sets of structures are emphasized. It. is possible to

imagine a pronunciation focus t h a t emphas izes part icular pronunciation

problems. Another is a lexical focus, whose emphasis is on some set of

vocabulary items. Situat ions may emphasize functions, such as introduction or

apology, or n o t i o n , such as time or color or comparison. Finally, situations may

be constructed to present various types o f discourse or interactional

phenomena.

A related way to distinguish situational syllabi is to consider whether

situations are presented to s tudents in the form of completed discourse, or the

students are expected to create or modify parts or all of it. Many s i tuat ions are

presented in full, and students are then asked to play out the same situation using

their own language and, possibly, settings. On the other hand, situations can be

30

presented as role plays, in which the students are expected to create, supply, or

fill in much of the language that occurs in the situation.

4. Skill-Based Syllabi

Much less is known about the skill -based, task-based, and

content-based syllabi than about the types already discussed. This is

especially true of the skill-based syllabus, a type that has not been

previously identified as a separate kind of instructional content in the

l i terature on language teaching. The term "skill" in language teaching

has generally been used to designate one of the four modes of

language: speaking, listening, reading, or writing (Chastain, 1976).

Here, however, the term is used to designate a specific way of

defining the content of language teaching.

A working definition of skill for this volume is a specific way

of using language that combines structural and functional ability but

exists independently of specific set t ings or situations. Examples are

reading skills such as skimming and scanning; writing skills such as

writing specific topic sentences and certain kinds of discourse (e.g.,

memos, research reports, work reports); speaking skills of' giving

instructions, delivering public talks, giving personal information for

bureaucratic purposes, asking for emergency help over the telephone;

and listening skills such as getting specific info rmation over the

telephone, listening to foreign radio broadcasts for news or military

information, taking orders in a restaurant, and so on. Another, and

more traditional, way of viewing skill-based instruction is what is

called competency-based instruct ion. Competencies are similar to

behavioral objectives in that they define what a learner is able to do as a result

of instruction. Extensive lists of competencies have been developed for

adult ESL (refugee and immigrant) programs in the United States.

Not all native speakers of a language are equally competent users of

language. Also, individuals have varying competence in the different skill areas.

For example, even though anyone reading this book may be considered a

31

speaker of English, including many native speakers, not all are reading with

the same degree of efficiency. Some are more "skilled" readers than others.

At the same time, one person may be a particularly skilled reader but perform

extremely poorly when required to carry on an emergency conversation on a

mobile radio. Or someone who is an inefficient reader may be adept at getting

people to buy waterbeds.

The ability to use language in specific ways (settings and registers) is

partially dependent on general language ability, but partly based on experience

and the need for specific skills. Language skills may, in fact, be limited to

specific settings. Many waiters and waitresses in restaurants, and other workers in

similar jobs, have learned only the English skills needed to carry out their

work in the restaurant. They have learned a specific second-language skill.

Preparing students to undertake higher education in a second language often

involves teaching them specific skills such as note-taking, writing formal papers,

and skimming and scanning while reading.

5. The Task-Based Syl labus

The task-based syllabus is relatively little-known. It is largely based on work

by Krahnke (1981, 1982), Candlin and Murphy (1986), and Johnson (1982). The

defining characteristic of task-based content is that it uses activities that the learners

have to do for noninstructional purposes outside of the classroom as opportunities

for language learning. Tasks are distinct from other activities to the degree that they

have a noninstructional purpose and a measurable outcome. Tasks are a way of

bringing the real world into the classroom.

Task-based learning is sometimes similar to situational learning, but the

content of the situations is provided by the students themselves. Tasks are also not

static; that is, they should involve a process of informational manipulation and

development. They should also involve informational content that the language

learners do not have at the beginning of the task. Another characteristic of tasks is

that they require the student to apply cognitive processes of evaluation, selection,

combination, modification, or supplementation (so-called "higher-order thinking

skills") to a combination of new and old information. In task-based instruction,

32

language is not taught per se, but is supplied as needed for the completion of the

task.

An example of a task is to have the students develop a guidebook to their

school or instructional program for actual use by other students. Immigrant

students might research the availability of health care in their community

and develop a guide to using health care facilities. In an academic setting,

students might work on a paper or report that is actually needed for a con-

tent-area class. Beginning students might tackle the process of applying

for a program or job, obtaining the forms and information necessary to

complete the process.

The intent of task-based learning is to use learners' real-life needs

and activities as learning experiences, providing motivation through

immediacy and relevancy. The focus on processing of new and old

information in an interactional manner stimulates transfer. Language form

is learned through language use.

Task-based learning is structurally geared toward language learning

or acquisition because the tasks are part of a language learning

environment or program are chosen in part for what they will contribute to

language development, and are implemented in a way that provides as

much experience and feedback as possible. The language needed to carry

out tasks is not provided or taught beforehand, but discovered by students

and provided by teachers and other resources as the task is carried out.

6. The Content-Based Syllabus

Content-based language teaching has been in existence for some

time, but has only recently been recognized as a viable way of teaching

language as an end in itself. In concept, content-based teaching is simple: It

is the teaching of content or information in the language being learned with

little r direct or explicit effort to teach the language itself separately from

the content being taught. In practice many programs using a content-based

approach have also included an instructional component specifically

33

focusing on the target language, but such specific language instruction is

not regarded as the primary contributor to target language acquisition.

Recent developments in content-based teaching are closely related to

the broader issue of attempts to provide effective instruction to LEP children in

public schools in the United States and Canada. One solution to the problem

of limited school language proficiency has been some sort of controlled

immersion in the language of the school or society. "Immersion" essentially

has meant that students are given content instruction in a language they may

not control well or at all; that is, they simply go to school in that language.

When under taken responsibly and informedly, immersion can maximize the

students' comprehension of both the target language and the content

material.

The potential for the success of immersion was established by

controlled research carried out in Canada (Lambert S. Tucker, 1972). In

this research program, students were placed in school subject classes,

starting at the kindergarten level, that were taught in languages other than

their first. The results of the research demonstrated that such students had

learned both the content being taught and the language in which it was

taught, and that cognitive development was not slowed by such an

experience.

This type of evidence, and the need to educate large numbers of

non-English-speaking children in the United States and Canada, gave

support to bilingual education programs in both countries as a solution to

t h e problem of educating children who do not speak the language of the

educational system. The goals of bilingual education programs have been

to keep non-dominant language speakers in school, to ensure that their

cognitive development continues at an acceptable rate, and to give them

ability in the community language that they did not have proficiency in,

leading, ideally, to bilingualism.

C. Choosing and Integrating Syllabi

34

The term syllabus, as used here, does not refer to a document

guiding the teaching of a specific language course, but to a more

theoretical notion of the types of content involved in language teaching

and the bases for the organization of language courses.

In the preceding chapters, six types of syllabus content were

defined and described as ideal or isolated types. In actual teaching

settings, of course, it is rare for one type of syllabus or content to be used

exclusively of other types. Syllabus or content types are usually

combined in more or less integrated ways, with one type as the organizing

basis around which the others are arranged and related. For example,

many foreign language courses are organized around a structural

syllabus, with each unit or chapter focusing on several grammatical

features. Accompanying the grammatical focus and organization,

however, are other types of content, usually situational (dialogues) and

functional (how to introduce yourself).

Basic syllabus design involves several questions. The first question

concerns the types of content to include or exclude. The second is whether

to combine various types of syllabus content or to rely on a single type.

The third, assuming that more than one type of content will be included, is

whether to use one type as basic and to organize others around it, or to

sequence each type more or less independently of the other. In discussing

syllabus choice and design, then, it should be kept in mind that the issue is

not which type to choose but which types . and how to relate them to each

other. Before this issue is discussed, three factors that affect the choice of

syllabus or content in language teaching—program, teacher, and

students—are examined.

Program Factors Affecting Syllabus Choice and Design

The major determinant in choosing a syllabus type for second

language teaching must be the goals and objectives of the overall

instructional program; that is, the type of knowledge or behavior desired as

an outcome of the instruction. This truism has not been consistently

35

recognized. For example, for a number of years it has been widely

accepted that ability to function communicatively in a second language is a

desirable outcome (among others) of foreign language instruction in sec-

ondary schools and at the college level. The emphasis in much of this

instruction, however, has remained on the structural and formal aspects of

language, presumably under the assumption that one kind of knowledge

(structural will lead to the other (ability to function). Yet ample evidence

has shown that more direct routes to functional ability are possible, using a

variety of types of instructional content such as situational, skill, and

notional/functional content. Thus the relationship of the goals of instruction

to the content of instruction has not always been direct.

Clearly, another factor that will affect the type of syllabus or syllabi that can

be chosen is the instructional re-sources available. Resources may include

elements such as time, textbooks and other materials, visuals (films, slides,

pictures), realia, and out-of-classroom resources such as other speakers of the

language, radio and television programs, films, field trips, and so on.

A final program factor affecting the choice of instructional

content may be the need to make the instruction accountable to

authorities or measurable by external measures—usually tests. The

influence of tests on the content of instruction is a well-known

phenomenon. Teachers and instructional programs often teach toward a

particular kind of knowledge if it is going to be tested, even though the

knowledge may not be what the students really need.

Teacher Factors Affecting Syllabus Choice and Design

Along with the more general program factors, teachers play a role in

determining what the content of language instruction will be. A truism of teaching

is that teachers tend to teach what they know. A teacher who is not familiar with

the formal aspects of a language will not be likely to try to teach a grammar les-

son, but might, for example, focus on the social uses (functions) of language or

how it is used in various situations. On the other hand, the science teacher with one

student who does not speak the language of the classroom may go ahead and teach

36

science in the best way possible (content instruction) rather than try to give the

student a special language lesson.

Some research in teacher practice suggests that language teachers do not

accurately describe their own practice (Long & Sato, 1983), have contradictory

and inconsistent beliefs about language teaching (Krahnke & Knowles, 1984) and

tend to repeat their own experiences as students when they become teachers. As a

result, teachers can have a powerful influence on the actual syllabus of a classroom

even if the official or overt syllabus of the program is entirely different.

Student Factors Affecting Syllabus Choice and Design

Facts about students also affect what instructional content can be

used in an instructional program. The major concerns here are the goals of

the students, their experience, expectations, and prior knowledge, their

social and personality types, and the number of students in a given class.

Ideally, the goals the students themselves have for language study

will match the goals of the program. When this is so, the question of goals

is easy to settle. Sometimes, however, programs and students have dif -

ferent goals. For example, one instructional program was designed to

teach the English of the broadcasting profession at a vocational school.

The program administrators assumed that the students' language learning

goals were tied to the professional training they were receiving. Many

students, however, were more interested in attaining general English

proficiency to pre-pare them for even better positions than they were being

trained for. One way to meet both sets of goals would be to increase the

amount of general functional, situational, and skill content provided along

with the specialized skill and structural content that was being taught.

D. Combining and Integrating Syllabus Types

Throughout this monograph, syllabus types have been discussed

more or less ideally and independently, treating each as if it were the sole

type being used in instruction. In practice, however, few instructional

programs rely on only one type but combine types in various ways.

37

A distinction exists between combination and integration,

although it is not absolute. Combination is the inclusion of more than one

type of syllabus with little at-tempt to relate the content types to each

other. For example, a lesson on the function of disagreeing (func tional)

could be followed by one on listening for topic shifts (skill) in which the

function of disagreeing has no significant occurrence. Such combination

frequently occurs in language teaching when various communicative or

"fluency" activities (i.e., skills, tasks) are added on to a structural,

functional, or situational syllabus. Little or no attempt is made to relate

the content of the two types of instruction.

Integration is when some attempt is made to interrelate content

items. For example, if, after a structural lesson on the subjunctive,

students were asked to pre-pare stories on the theme, "What I would do if

I were rich," the two types of instruction would be integrated.

Integration is obviously more difficult and complex to undertake

than combination. Integration may seem to be the preferred way to use

different syllabus or content types, and in some ways this perception is

accurate. Instruction that reinforces and relates various syl labus and

content types is probably more effective than instruction that is divided

into discrete compartments. On the other hand, again, when specific

knowledge and behavioral outcomes are desired, discrete combinations may

be preferable to fully integrated syllab i . F o r example, if it is true

that instruction in form is directly usable by learners mostly for

Monitoring (Krashen,1982), then it may be that structural or formal syllabi

should make up, as Krashen suggests, a limited but separate part of the

overall curriculum, with the objective of enabling students to use the

structural knowledge in test-taking and editing settings, and not of enabling

them to gain active control over the use of the structures in discourse.

Another argument in favor of combination stems from the finding

that much of early second language behavior is a combination of formulaic

language use (use of memorized chunks of language for particular func-

tions) and more creative and synthesized applications of rules (Ellis, 1986).

38

It may be that some situational or Functional content can be included with

the objective of providing the learners with the formulas and routines they

need for immediate and specific communication, and other types of

instruction can be used to foster their overall language acquisition.

E. A Practical Guide to Syllabus Choice and Design

The resources available for actual language teaching syllabi have been

described in this monograph, along with some of the constraints on choosing

and combining them. By now it is clear that no single type of content is

appropriate for all teaching settings, and the needs and conditions of each

setting are so idiosyncratic that specific recommendations for combination are

not possible. In addition, the process of designing and implementing an actual

syllabus warrants a separate volume.

Ten steps in preparing a practical language teaching syllabus:

1) Determine, to the extent possible, what out-comes are desired for

the students in the instructional program. That is, as exactly and

realistically as .possible, define what the students should be able to

do as a result of the instruction.

2) Rank the syllabus types presented here as to their likelihood of

leading to the outcomes desired. Several rankings may be

necessary if outcomes are complex.

3) Evaluate available resources in expertise (for teaching, needs

analysis, materials choice and production, etc.), in materials, and

in training for teachers.

4) Rank the syllabi relative to available resources. That is, determine

what syllabus types would be the easiest to implement given

available resources.

5) Compare the lists made under Nos. 2 and 4. Making as few

adjustments to the earlier list as possible, produce a new ranking

based on the resources constraints.

6) Repeat the process, taking into account the constraints contributed

39

by teacher and student factors described earlier.

7) Determine a final ranking, taking into account all the information

produced by the earlier steps.

8) Designated one or two syllabus types as dominant and one or two

as secondary

9) Review the question of combination or integration of syllabus type and

determine how combination will be achieved and in what proportion.

10) Translate decisions into actual teaching units.

This guide is intended as a general procedure to follow in making

syllabus decisions for specific instructional programs. It is expected that quite

different designs will emerge for each application, and this is as it should be.

What is important in making practical decisions about syllabus design is that all

possible factors that might affect the teachability of the syllabus be taken into

account. This can be done only at the program level.

40

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