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Unearthing the Moral Emotive Compass: Exploring the Paths to (Un)Ethical LeadershipSanders, Stacey

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Dutch Summary

Nederlandse Samenvatting

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188

De afgelopen jaren zijn in de media vele voorbeelden van onethisch

gedrag binnen organisaties de revue gepasseerd. Denk bijvoorbeeld aan het

Libor-schandaal, waarbij ook een Nederlandse bank betrokken was. Of aan

de onethische praktijken die uiteindelijk Enron, WorldCom en Parmalat ten

val brachten. Dergelijke schandalen maken duidelijk dat personen in

leiderschapsposities zich soms op een onethische of anderszins

twijfelachtige wijze gedragen en dat dit verstrekkende maatschappelijke

gevolgen kan hebben. Daarnaast hebben zulke schandalen ook bijgedragen

aan een groeiende (wetenschappelijke) belangstelling voor de oorzaken en

gevolgen van dergelijk gedrag. Uit onderzoek onder de Amerikaanse

bevolking komt naar voren dat 13.6% van de werknemers te maken heeft

met een leidinggevende die zich op een onbehoorlijke wijze opstelt jegens

medewerkers (i.e., een leidinggevende die medewerkers uitscheldt, in het

openbaar bekritiseert, kleineert, et cetera). In Nederland ligt dit percentage

rond de 11% (Hubert & van Veldhoven, 2001). De financiële kosten die

hieruit voortvloeien, bijvoorbeeld ten gevolge van ziekteverzuim en deviant

gedrag van werknemers, worden – alleen al voor de bedrijven die zijn

gevestigd in de Verenigde Staten – geschat op 23.8 (US) biljoen dollar

(Tepper, 2007).

Afgezien van het feit dat onbehoorlijk of onethisch gedrag van

leidinggevenden gepaard gaat met substantiële financiële kosten, is het ook

gerelateerd aan negatieve consequenties voor medewerkers. Medewerkers

die met dit soort leidinggevenden worden geconfronteerd hebben een lagere

werktevredenheid en een hogere mate van emotionele uitputting (Tepper,

2000). Ethisch of fatsoenlijk gedrag van leidinggevenden houdt juist

verband met positieve uitkomsten, zoals een hogere werktevredenheid en

betrokkenheid van medewerkers (Mayer, Kuenzi, Greenbaum, Bardes, &

Salvador, 2009; Schminke, Ambrose, & Neubaum, 2005). Daarnaast zijn

leidinggevenden vaak bepalend voor de (ethische) cultuur binnen een

organisatie en hebben zij een voorbeeldfunctie: de manier waarop

leidinggevenden zich gedragen kan zich dus als een olievlek binnen de

Nederlandse Samenvatting

189

organisatie uitbreiden. Gegeven de verstrekkende consequenties van het

onethische gedrag van leidinggevenden, is het van essentieel belang om te

weten welke factoren (on)ethisch gedrag in de hand werken of juist in toom

houden. Dit betekent dat het belangrijk is om de antecedenten van

(on)ethisch leiderschap in kaart te brengen en te achterhalen wanneer deze

antecedenten het meeste effect sorteren. Het proefschrift dat voor u ligt

beoogt dan ook te inventariseren welke factoren en condities

leidinggevenden kunnen aanzetten tot (on)ethisch gedrag. Daarnaast gaat

het in op nog niet nader onderzochte consequenties van (on)ethisch

leiderschap voor het gedrag van medewerkers.

Om ethische leiderschapsgedragingen (zoals het luisteren naar

medewerkers) dan wel onethische leiderschapsgedragingen (zoals het liegen

tegen medewerkers) te verklaren, werd aanvankelijk een

cognitieve/rationele benadering toegepast. De rol van emoties werd hierbij

genegeerd vanwege zijn geanticipeerde, verstorende invloed op het morele

denkproces. Echter, deze cognitieve factoren bleken niet altijd even

consistent (on)ethisch gedrag te voorspellen (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, &

Treviño, 2010). Dit leidde er toe dat sommige onderzoekers gingen

suggereren dat emoties weleens een belangrijkere rol zouden kunnen

innemen als voorspellers van (on)ethisch gedrag dan voorheen werd

aangenomen en dat emoties zelfs wel eens noodzakelijk zouden kunnen zijn

bij het nemen van morele beslissingen (Damasio, 1994).

Hoewel er sindsdien meer aandacht is gekomen voor de rol van

emoties in het verklaren van (on)ethisch gedrag, is er in de

leiderschapsliteratuur nog maar weinig empirisch onderzoek naar hoe

verschillende emoties invloed uitoefenen op (on)ethisch leiderschap. Dit

proefschrift heeft dan ook als doel om te onderzoeken welke emoties

(on)ethisch gedrag kunnen voorspellen. Specifiek kijken we daarbij naar

zogenaamde morele emoties; emoties die goed gedrag motiveren en

onethisch gedrag demotiveren (zoals schuldgevoelens en gevoelens van

Dutch Summary

190

authentieke trots). Behalve deze morele emoties wordt er in dit proefschrift

ook gekeken naar welke emoties onethisch gedrag stimuleren (zoals

gevoelens van minachting jegens anderen). De rol die emotionele factoren

spelen in het voorspelen van (on)ethisch gedrag op de werkvloer vormt de

kern van de vier empirische hoofdstukken in deze dissertatie. In het eerste

deel (Hoofdstukken 2, 3 en 4) wordt vooral ingegaan op emoties als

antecedenten van (on)ethisch leiderschap, terwijl in het tweede deel

(Hoofdstuk 5) wordt ingegaan op de gevolgen van (on)ethisch leiderschap

voor het gedrag dat wordt tentoongespreid door de medewerkers van de

leidinggevende.

In hoofdstuk 2 wordt besproken hoe gevoelens van authentieke trots

(authentic pride) en hoogmoedige trots (hubristic pride) gerelateerd zijn aan

ethisch leiderschapsgedrag. Authentieke trots wordt teweeggebracht door

oprecht, met hard werken behaalde prestaties, terwijl hoogmoedige trots

wordt aangewakkerd door het overmatig roemen van verantwoordelijkheid

voor positieve verdiensten. Uit de wetenschapsliteratuur komt naar voren

dat hoogmoedige trots gerelateerd is aan onethisch gedrag, terwijl

authentieke trots juist gerelateerd is aan pro-sociaal gedrag (e.g., Michie,

2009; Mishina, Dykes, Block, & Pollock, 2010). In hoofdstuk 2 voorspellen

we dat leidinggevenden die authentieke trots ervaren meer gemotiveerd zijn

om ethisch leiderschap te tonen dan leidinggevenden die hoogmoedige trots

ervaren, maar dat dit met name het geval is wanneer ethisch handelen een

belangrijk deel uitmaakt van het zelfbeeld (i.e., de morele identiteit hoog is).

Conform onze verwachtingen blijkt uit twee experimentele studies en één

veldstudie dat authentiek trotse leiders zich ethischer opstellen jegens hun

medewerkers dan hoogmoedig trotse leiders, met name wanneer hun

identiteit als moreel persoon (moral identity) sterk is.

In hoofdstuk 3 is verder ingegaan op de rol die morele identiteit

speelt in het reguleren van (on)ethisch leiderschapsgedrag. De invloed van

een bepaald zelfbeeld varieert in overeenstemming met de activatie ervan.

Nederlandse Samenvatting

191

Anders gezegd, men kan zich anders gedragen afhankelijk van de activatie

van een bepaald zelfbeeld. Bijvoorbeeld, wanneer de identiteit als ouder is

geactiveerd, vertoont een persoon ander gedrag dan wanneer deze identiteit

niet is geactiveerd en in plaats daarvan bijvoorbeeld de identiteit als

competitieve sporter is geactiveerd. Evenzo dient het zelfbeeld als moreel

persoon geactiveerd te zijn alvorens dit onethisch gedrag kan reduceren en

ethisch gedrag kan induceren. Factoren die de activatie van een morele

identiteit deactiveren kunnen derhalve de van de identiteit uitgaande

invloed op onethisch gedrag teniet doen. Daar gevoelens van minachting

gepaard gaan met gedragingen die tegenstrijdig zijn met hetgeen door een

geactiveerde morele identiteit wordt gedicteerd, beargumenteren wij dat

minachting de invloed van een morele identiteit deactiveert en

dientengevolge haar invloed op onethisch gedrag reduceert. Specifiek wordt

verwacht dat minachting de relatie tussen de morele identiteit van de

leidinggevende en het onethische gedrag van de leidinggevende modereert,

zodat het negatieve verband tussen morele identiteit en onethisch gedrag

zwakker wordt naarmate gevoelens van minachting sterker zijn. Alvorens

de bovengenoemde verwachting in drie verschillende studies te toetsen,

worden in hoofdstuk 3 eerst de convergente, de nomologische en de

discriminante validiteit van een zelfontwikkelde minachtingsschaal

gerapporteerd.

Hoofdstuk 4 borduurt voort op de negatieve gevolgen van gevoelens

van minachting. De inzichten van hoofdstuk 3, met betrekking tot de

positieve samenhang tussen minachting en onethisch leiderschapsgedrag,

worden in hoofdstuk 4 geïntegreerd met de literatuur over macht. Het

beschikken over een bepaalde mate van macht is inherent gebonden aan de

positie als leidinggevende. Leidinggevenden hebben meestal meer macht

dan hun medewerkers. Desalniettemin beschikt niet iedere leidinggevende

over evenveel macht; sommigen hebben veel macht, anderen weinig. Uit de

bestaande literatuur komt naar voren dat macht invloed heeft op hoe

mensen informatie verwerken, hoe zij zich voelen en hoe zij zich gedragen

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192

(Anderson & Berdahl, 2002). Daarnaast verhoogt het de aansluiting tussen

persoonlijkheid of andere predisposities en gedrag (e.g., DeCelles, DeRue,

Margolis, & Ceranic, 2012). Met andere woorden, macht kan ervoor zorgen

dat mensen zich meer conform hun predisposities en gedragstendenties

gedragen. Op grond hiervan verwachten wij dat leidinggevenden met een

tendens om anderen te minachten er met name in zouden falen om

onbaatzuchtig of ethisch gedrag jegens medewerkers te tonen wanneer zij

veel macht hebben. In hoofdstuk 4 demonstreren de resultaten van twee

studies inderdaad dat de gevoelens van minachting van leidinggevenden

negatief gerelateerd zijn aan hun mensgerichtheid en onbaatzuchtig gedrag

jegens medewerkers wanneer zij in grotere mate macht hebben.

In hoofdstuk 5 wordt de focus verlegd van antecedenten van

(on)ethisch leiderschap naar de rol van emoties in het verband tussen

(on)ethisch leiderschap en het gedrag van medewerkers. Leiderschap is een

dynamisch proces waarbij zowel leidinggevenden als medewerkers elkaar

wederzijds beïnvloeden. De manier waarop medewerkers leiding ontvangen

van hun leidinggevende is van invloed op hun eigen gedrag. Uit de

bestaande literatuur komt naar voren dat medewerkers deviant gedrag

vertonen in reactie op onethisch of onbehoorlijk gedrag dat door een

leidinggevende wordt getoond, terwijl medewerkers zich veelal onthouden

van deviant gedrag wanneer zij geleid worden door een ethische

leidinggevende (e.g., Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007). Hoofdstuk 5 rapporteert de

resultaten van drie studies die laten zien dat de ontvangen leiding (ethisch

vs. onbehoorlijk) causaal geplaatst kan worden als voorloper van deviant

gedrag van medewerkers (e.g., roddelen over de leidinggevende) en dat de

geanticipeerde schuldgevoelens van medewerkers een mediërende rol

uitoefenen in de relatie tussen leiderschapsstijl en deviant gedrag van

medewerkers. Specifiek blijkt dat medewerkers meer deviant gedrag

vertonen jegens een onbehoorlijke baas in vergelijking tot een ethische baas,

doordat medewerkers op basis van een lik-op-stuk-gedachte in mindere

mate anticiperen zich schuldig te voelen over hun deviante gedrag.

Nederlandse Samenvatting

193

Tezamen laten de resultaten van de verschillende empirische

hoofdstukken zien dat verscheidene discrete emoties invloed uitoefenen op

(on)ethisch leiderschap dan wel deviant gedrag van medewerkers. Zo

hebben gevoelens van authentieke trots een gunstig effect op ethisch

leiderschap (met name wanneer zij gepaard gaan met een sterke morele

identiteit), terwijl gevoelens van minachting (met name wanneer zij

gepaard gaan met veel macht) ethisch leiderschap in de weg staan en zelfs

onbehoorlijk gedrag aan de kant van leidinggevenden kunnen induceren. In

tegenstelling tot de lang gekoesterde overtuiging dat emoties een verstorend

effect hebben op moreel denken en handelen, laten de resultaten in dit

proefschrift zien dat sommige emoties ethisch handelen juist kunnen

stimuleren, terwijl andere emoties ethisch leiderschap inderdaad lijken

tegen te werken. Het huidige proefschrift draagt zodoende bij aan een meer

genuanceerde blik en een verdieping van ons begrip van de invloed van

discrete emoties op (on)ethisch leiderschap en laat tevens zien dat emoties

een rol spelen in de relatie tussen het gedrag van de leidinggevende en dat

van de medewerkers. We hopen dan ook dat dit proefschrift de weg baant

voor verder onderzoek naar de rol van emoties in het voorspellen van

(on)ethisch leiderschapsgedrag en onderzoek zal stimuleren naar de

randvoorwaarden waaronder de invloed van zogenaamde (im)morele

emoties tot uiting komt.

194

195

Acknowledgments

Dankwoord

Acknowledgments

196

Emoties spelen niet alleen een belangrijke rol op de werkvloer en in

het leiderschapsproces, ook bij het werken aan dit proefschrift waren deze

onmiskenbaar aanwezig. Een verscheidenheid aan positieve en negatieve

emoties is de revue gepasseerd tijdens het vier jaren durende proces om

gestalte te geven aan dit proefschrift. Ik prijs mijzelf gelukkig met het

gegeven dat ik deze emoties – zowel de positieve als de negatieve – heb

kunnen delen met mijn vrienden, mijn collega’s en niet in de laatste plaats mijn begeleiders.

Barbara, je bent voor mij hét toonbeeld van een mensgerichte,

ethische leidinggevende. Altijd stond jouw deur voor mij open. Op

moeilijkere momenten hielp je mij opnieuw moed en vertrouwen te geven,

wat mij motiveerde om door te gaan. Altijd wist jij iets negatiefs om te

toveren in iets positiefs. Naast je sterke inhoudelijke toevoegingen en

feedback heb je het schrijven van dit proefschrift ook vooral leuker gemaakt.

Nico, zonder jou was dit proefschrift nooit tot stand gekomen. Jij

hebt mij destijds bij de afronding van mijn eerste masterthese, die ik onder

jouw begeleiding schreef, geadviseerd en gemotiveerd om in te stromen in

de Research Master van waaruit ik vervolgens ben doorgestroomd naar

mijn PhD-plek. Je kritische noten en feedback hebben dit onderzoek

aangescherpt en op een hoger plan getild.

Diana, I wish you could have stayed longer here in Groningen. Your

brilliant insights have greatly helped to give my PhD project a clear

direction right from the start. I have learned a lot from you and you will

always be an influential role model to me.

De leden van de leescommissie, Prof. Dr. H. B. M. Molleman, Prof.

Dr. E. van Dijk en Prof. Dr. S. Otten, wil ik bedanken voor de beoordeling

van dit proefschrift.

Dankwoord

197

Throughout the years, many colleagues in the Social and

Organizational Psychology Department have helped me, consciously or

unconsciously, to learn and to grow. First of all, I want to express my

gratefulness to each and every one of you. In one way or another, you have

contributed not only to my work but also to my personal development as an

independent researcher. Special thanks – these are just some non-

exhaustive highlights in no particular order – go to Pontus, for teaching me

new approaches to designing studies and letting me play with MediaLab

and DirectRT. I truly enjoyed collaborating with you. Jana, Bibiana, and

more recently Darya, thank you for being great roommates. Jana, also

thanks for being a cheerful roommate during conferences. We had a lot of

fun together. Eric, you are always in for a joke and you are a great

photographer. I could not have won the Heymans poster prize without your

determination for making the right pictures of Barbara and me. Susanne,

thank you for sending useful papers and providing valuable feedback during

lab meetings. Hannes, thanks for showing how Mplus works, it sure helps a

great deal to understand this program. Kira, many thanks for

demonstrating how MTurk works. Melvyn, thank you for answering all

kinds of short questions, and providing feedback on one of my papers. Dick,

thank you for your feedback during lab meetings. José, thank you for all the

wise words. Monica, Ruud, Silke, Xavier, Ed, Nicole, and Judith thank you

for being such nice and supportive colleagues.

Dankwoorden zijn er niet alleen voor de personen die op enig

moment directe collega’s waren. Ook die personen die van conferenties altijd een gezellig werkuitje wisten te maken, wil ik bedanken voor de leuke en

aangename tijd: Dennis, Tim, Ramzi, Thom, Sanne, Bart, Marieke,

Nicoletta, Tim, Roy en Jessie, de Academy belevenis is niet hetzelfde zonder

jullie.

I am also truly indebted to the many voluntary research assistants

and students who have helped me with data entry, data collection, coding,

Acknowledgments

198

proofreading, etcetera. All of you have helped me a great deal to be more

productive and to pull off research designs that require a lot of work. Enric,

Moritz, Domokos, Joke, Daouia, Francesca, Philip, Miriam, Jorim, Sandra,

Mareike, Bodil, Jonas, Christiane, Marijn, Jule, Mina, and all the other

people who I might have forgotten to mention, I extend my gratitude to all

of you.

Veel dank ben ik verschuldigd aan mijn vrienden en familie, die mij

in mijn persoonlijk leven hebben bijgestaan. Allereerst wil ik mijn

paranimfen – Maxim en mijn zus, Chantal – bedanken voor de

uitzonderlijke inzet en hulp, zonder wie dit alles nooit tot stand had kunnen

komen.

Pap, je leerde mij van jongs af aan om ‘hard te werken en niet te mauwen’. Door jou heb ik een mooie dosis doorzettingsvermogen ontwikkeld die van pas is gekomen in deze baan, waar een 9-tot-5-mentaliteit niet aan

de orde is. Mam, bedankt voor alle goede zorgen en het samen met pap

zorgdragen voor Rianne. Oma, geen hotel kan tippen aan het verblijf bij jou.

Opa, samen met jou zijn is altijd fijn; van zo hard mogelijk door het bos

crossen tot een potje schaken onder het genot van een kop warme

chocolademelk en een punt zelfgemaakte appeltaart.

Mijn innige dank.

199

About the Author

About the Author

200

Stacey Sanders (1986,

Hoofddorp) grew up in a small

village in Drenthe, The

Netherlands. After finishing her

secondary education, she started

her bachelor studies in

Psychology at the University of

Groningen. In 2009, she received

her Master of Science degree in

Work, Organizational, and

Personnel

Psychology. In 2010, she successfully completed the Research Master

Behavioral and Social Sciences and started her PhD-project at the

department of Psychology under the supervision of Barbara Wisse, Nico

Van Yperen, and Diana Rus.

Her dissertation focuses on the role of ‘moral emotions in predicting (un)ethical leader behavior, as well as in predicting employee reactions to

(un)ethical leader behavior. Not surprisingly therefore, Stacey’s research interests revolve predominantly around emotions, emotional rewards,

leadership, power, moral identity, and ‘dark side’ traits. She has presented her work at various international conferences, and her work has been

honored with an Academy of Management Best Paper Proceeding, a spot as

a finalist in the Excellence in Ethics Dissertation Proposal Competition, and

an Academy of Management Conference Outstanding Reviewer OB Division

Award and MOC Division Award. Furthermore, she was a member of the

Committee that organized the 2012 WAOP Conference.

201

KLI Dissertation Series

KLI Dissertation Series

202

The “Kurt Lewin Institute Dissertation Series” started in 1997. Since 2013 the following dissertations have been published in this series:

2013-1 Annemarie Hiemstra: Fairness in Paper and Video Resume

Screening.

2013-2 Gert-Jan Lelieveld: Emotions in Negotiations: The Role of

Communicated Anger and Disappointment.

2013-3 Saar Mollen: Fitting in or Breaking Free? On Health Behavior,

Social Norms and Conformity.

2013-4 Karin Menninga: Exploring Learning Abstinence Theory: A new

Theoretical Perspective on Continued Abstinence in Smoking

Cessation.

2013-5 Jessie Koen: Prepare and Pursue: Routes to Suitable (Re-)

Employment.

2013-6 Marieke Roskes: Motivated Creativity: A Conservation of Energy

Approach.

2013-7 Claire Marie Zedelius: Investigating Consciousness in Reward

Pursuit.

2013-8 Anouk van der Weiden: When You Think You Know What You're

Doing: Experiencing Self-Agency Over Intended and Unintended

Outcomes.

2013-9 Gert Stulp: Sex, Stature and Status: Natural Selection on

Height in Contemporary Human Populations.

2013-10 Evert-Jan van Doorn: Emotion Affords Social Influence:

Responding to Others' Emotions in Context.

2013-11 Frank de Wit: The Paradox of Intragroup Conflict.

2013-12 Iris Schneider: The dynamics of Ambivalence: Cognitive,Affective

and Physical Consequences of Evaluative Conflict.

KLI Dissertation Series

203

2013-13 Jana Niemann: Feedback Is the Breakfast of Champions, but It

Can Be Hard to Digest: A Psychological Perspective on Feedback

Seeking and Receiving.

2013-14 Serena Does: At the Heart of Egalitarianism: How Morality

Framing Shapes Whites' Responses to Social Inequality.

2013-15 Romy van der Lee: Moral Motivation Within Groups.

2013-16 Melvyn Hamstra: Self-Regulation in a Social Environment.

2013-17 Chantal den Daas: In the Heat of the Moment: The effect of

Impulsive and Reflective States on Sexual Risk Decisions.

2013-18 Kelly Cobey: Female Physiology Meets Psychology: Menstrual

Cycle and Contraceptive Pill Effects.

2013-19 Ellen van der Werff: Growing Environmental Self-Identity

2013-20 Lise Jans: Reconciling Individuality with Social Solidarity:

Forming Social Identity from the Bottom Up.

2013-21 Ruth van Veelen: Integrating I and We: Cognitive Routes to

Social Identification.

2013-22 Lottie Bullens: Having Second Thoughts: Consequences of

Decision Reversibility.

2013-23 Daniel Sligte: The Functionality of Creativity.

2014-01 Marijn Stok: Eating by the Norm: The Influence of Social Norms

on Young People's Eating Behavior.

2014-02 Michèlle Bal: Making Sense of Injustice: Benign and Derogatory

Reactions to Innocent Victims.

2014-03 Nicoletta Dimitrova: Rethinking Errors: How Error-Handling

Strategy Affects our Thoughts and Others' Thoughts About Us.

2014-04 Namkje Koudenburg: Conversational Flow: The Emergence and

Regulation of Solidarity through Social Interaction.

2014-05 Thomas Sitser: Predicting Sales Performance: Strengthening the

Personality – Job Performance Linkage.

KLI Dissertation Series

204

2014-06 Goda Perlaviciute: Goal-driven Evaluations of Sustainable

Products.

2014-07 Said Shafa: In the Eyes of Others: The Role of Honor Concerns

in Explaining and Preventing Insult-Elicited Aggression.

2014-08 Felice van Nunspeet: Neural Correlates of the Motivation to be

Moral.

2014-09 Anne Fetsje Sluis: Towards a Virtuous Society: Virtues as

Potential Instruments to Enhance.

2014-10 Gerdien de Vries: Pitfalls in the Communication about CO2

Capture and Storage.

2014-11 Thecla Brakel: The Effects of Social Comparison Information on

Cancer Survivors’ Quality of Life: A Field-Experimental

Intervention Approach.

2014-12 Hans Marien: Understanding and Motivating Human Control:

Outcome and Reward Information in Action.

2014-13 Daniel Alink: Public Trust: Expectancies, Beliefs, and Behavior.

2014-14 Linda Daphne Muusses: How Internet Use May Affect our

Relationships: Characteristics of Internet Use and Personal and

Relational Wellbeing.

2014-15 Hillie Aaldering: Parochial and Universal Cooperation in

Intergroup Conflicts.

2014-16 Martijn Keizer: Do Norms Matter? The Role of Normative

Considerations as Predictors of Pro-Environmental Behavior.

2015-01 Maartje Elshout: Vengeance.

2015-02 Seval Gündemir: The Minority Glass Ceiling Hypothesis:

Exploring Reasons and Remedies for the Underrepresentation of

Racial-ethnic Minorities in Leadership Positions.

2015-03 Dagmar Beudeker: On Regulatory Focus and Performance in

Organizational Environments.

KLI Dissertation Series

205

2015-04 Charlotte Koot: Making Up Your Mind About a Complex

Technology: An Investigation into Factors that Help or Hinder

the Achievement of Cognitive Closure about CCS.

2015-05 Marco van Bommel: The Reputable Bystander: The Role of

Reputation in Activating or Deactivating Bystanders.

2015-06 Kira O. McCabe: The Role of Personality in the Pursuit of

Context-Specific Goals.

2015-07 Wiebren Jansen: Social Inclusion in Diverse Work Settings.

2015-08 Xiaoqian Li: As Time Goes By: Studies on the Subjective

Perception of the Speed by which Time Passes.

2015-09 Aukje Verhoeven: Facilitating Food-Related Planning. Applying

Metacognition, Cue-Monitoring, and Implementation Intentions.

2015-10 Jasper de Groot: Chemosignaling Emotions: What a Smell can

Tell.

2015-11 Hedy Greijdanus: Intragroup Communication in Intergroup

Conflict: Influences on Social Perception and Cognition.

2015-12 Bart de Vos: Communicating Anger and Contempt in Intergroup

Conflict: Exploring their Relational Functions.

2015-13 Gerdientje Danner: Psychological Availability. How work

Experiences Spill Over into Daily Family Interactions.

2015-14 Hannah Nohlen: Solving Ambivalence in Context. The

Experience and Resolution of Attitudinal Ambivalence.

2015-15 Stacey Sanders: Unearthing the Moral Emotive Compass:

Exploring the Paths to (Un)Ethical Leadership.