University of Groningen The Process of Death Jones, Olivia

University of Groningen

The Process of DeathJones Olivia

DOI1033612diss108355327

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Publication date2019

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Citation for published version (APA)Jones O (2019) The Process of Death a bioarchaeological approach to Mycenaean mortuary traditions inAchaia httpsdoiorg1033612diss108355327

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Bioarchaeology of the Mycenaean world

CHAPTER 6

Bioarchaeology of the Mycenaean world engaging with past assumptions and new opportunities

Publication data

Status to be submitted Authors Olivia A Jones1 Jason King2 Jane E Buikstra3

1 Groningen Institute of Archaeology University of Groningen 2 Center for American Archaeology 3 School of Human Evolution and Social Change Arizona State University

Abstract

Scholarship of Mycenaean mortuary practices has primarily focused on social status and hierarchy while actual age-at-death and biological sex of the deceased have received relatively little attention When considered traditional interpretations in Mycenaean mortuary studies equate certain grave goods and architecture with age-at-death or biological sex Previous research has thus suggested that Mycenaean society placed an emphasis on adult men with women and children of lesser importance Nevertheless this has not been evaluated with bioarchaeological evidence and statistical rigor Fortunately an increase in bioarchaeological research has produced a large amount of biological data However these studies are site-based and no scholarship has included all published Mycenaean bioarchaeological data within a synthetic study This study brings together all available bioarchaeological data of Mycenaean human remains in order to examine patterns of age and sex within the burial record Limitations within the data include small and uneven sample sizes certain sites and regions are over or under-represented uneven recording of bioarchaeological data and lack of archaeological context in bioarchaeological reports This was mitigated by using complete data sets with systematic contextual data The age and sex data were partitioned within the following categories intramuralextra-mural regional tomb type and time period The sex results challenge past assumptions while the low numbers of infants aligns with previous reports An over-representation of males in simple graves and during the Early Mycenaean period suggests an imbalance based on biological sex however female interments rise over time and across space with most samples possessing equal proportions of males and females Low numbers of infants and children in extramural burials such as chamber and tholos tombs and high numbers in intramural graves suggests that young individuals were more likely to be given intramural burial (though regional variation exists) The results suggest that age-at-death influenced burial inclusion throughout the Mycenaean period while inclusion based on biological sex varied across time and space but also across social categories

Keywords

Mycenaean mortuary practices bioarchaeology paleodemography infant burials chamber tombs

61 The Demography of Mycenaean Burials94

611 Mycenaean Mortuary Practices Homogeneity and Diversity Burial traditions in the Mycenaean world (Figure 1) generally exhibit homogeneity during the Palatial Period During this height of the Mycenaean period (LH IIIA-B) burial customs typically included multiple inhumations in chamber tombs accom-panied by a fairly standardized set of grave goods (eg ceramic containers often stirrup jars jewelry bronze toolsweapons despite the differences in wealth) (see Cavanagh and Mee 1998 for an overview) Despite this homogeneous tradition burial practices change through time and vary across space during the roughly 500 years of Mycenaean cultural influence Early in the Mycenaean period (MH III-LH I see Table 1 for time period) people were experimenting with novel forms and practices as the single pitcist graves of the previous Middle Helladic period gave way to larger built tombs intermediate types such as the shaft graves and built tombs and mostly chamber and tholos tombs characteristic of Myce-naean culture Likewise during the end of Mycenaean period during the Post-Palatial period the archaeological record is characterized by mortuary variation and experi-mentation including the reuse of old tombs cremation of the body cessation of monumental tombs and decline in wealth In addition regional variation in mortuary practices has been noted throughout the Mycenaean period For example rock-hewn chamber tombs have been found (albeit in varying proportions) across Mycenaean Greece however beehive-shaped stone- 94 The authors are sincerely grateful to Anastasia Papathanasiou for providing unpublished data and to Sofia Voutsaki for providing thorough and constructive feedback on drafts of this paper

built tholos tombs (pl tholoi) were more common in regions such as Messenia and the Argolid than in Boeotia and are virtually absent in the Dodecanese (Cavanagh and Mee 1998) Such variations can cause diffi-culty for the study of Mycenaean mortuary practices if they are not contextualized in time and space Another characteristic feature of Mycenaean burial practices is the reuse of graves and tombs Primary burials are often placed on the floor or within sub-floor pits and earlier burials are moved and redeposited at the tomb edges or in pits Many Mycenaean tombs exhibit evidence of postmortem manipulation of human remains indicative of multi-stage mortuary practices This practice created commingled assemblages of human remains that are often difficult to disentangle date and interpret In addition the burials display great variation eg both primary and secondary burials are found in pits cists or scatteredlaid on the tomb floor The postmortem manipulation charac-teristic of Mycenaean mortuary practices has been the topic of recent studies (Boyd 2014 Boyd 2015 Gallou 2005 Jones 2018a Moutafi 2015 Moutafi and Voutsaki 2016) Despite the continued interest on Mycenae-an mortuary practices the basic demogra-phic structure of the Mycenaean mortuary record has never been systematically eva-luated with statistical rigor and a systematic control of biases within the data Therefore in this study I will examine anew the pat-terns in the sex ratios and age-at-death in all published Mycenaean bioarchaeological data

612 Past Assumptions The long history of archaeological research on Mycenaean mortuary practices has pro-duced various interpretations of the sex

140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNWindd 134140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNWindd 134 03-12-19 134003-12-19 1340

CHAPTER 6

Publication data

Abstract

Keywords

gender95 and age-at-death for the people interred in these prehistoric tombs and graves Studies of Mycenaean age and sex have drawn conclusions from various sources including grave goods but also from iconography and the scanty information contained in the Linear B archives While iconography and Linear B research may provide useful contextual information for interpreting gender and age norms (see Hitchcock and Nikolaidou 2013 for over-

95 This study recognizes that ldquogenderrdquo is a social construct and that only biological sex can be interpreted from skeletal remains Biological sex may be used as a proxy for gender when discussing identity

view) grave goods have dominated interpretations of demographic structure of Mycenaean burials In addition synthetic studies which include demographic data from multiple sites and regions are few in number Grave goods have provided considerable information for archaeologists attempting to reconstruct the social roles and identities of men and women Past research has often focused on interpreting social status through studies of burial wealth with little attention paid to age and sexgender iden-tities The interpretation of the decedentrsquos status often led to certain grave goods (or lack thereof) being used to infer sex of the

Figure 1 Map of Greece indicating the sites included in this study (see Table)

Region Site with Map Number

Achaia 1 Mydalia Hill Petroto Tholos Achaia Klauss

2 Chalandritsa 3 Voudeni 4 Spaliareika 5 Kallithea 6 Portes

Argolid amp Corinthia

7 Mycenae Sites Tomb 222 Grave Circle A Grave Circle B

8 Barnavos 9 Dendra 10 Deiras 11 Corinthia tholos 12 Lerna 13 Asine

Attica 14 Athens Sites Kerameikos Athenian Agora

15 Markopoulos 16 Glyka Nera 17 Thorikos

Central Greece

18 East Lokris Sites Modi Kokla Tragana Atalanti

19 Profitias Ilias Kampotades 20 Antrona Tumuli 21 Lefkandi

Crete amp Islands 22 Khania 23 Tourloti Sitiea 24 Mochlos Limenaria 25 Psara

Elis 26 Agia Triada

Laconia 27 Ayios Vasilios (21) 28 Kouphovouno (16) 29 Sykia (3) 30 Ayios Stephanos (66)

Messenia

31 Nichoria Sites Tholos Little Circle

Area I amp II

32 Pylos Sites Grave Circle Tholos III Tholos IV Kondou Tsakalis Kokkevis

Thessaly 33 Spathes 34 Valestino Magnesia 35 Kazanaki 36 Dhimini

Central Greece

Elis 26 Agia Triada

Messenia

Area I amp II

Table 1 Chronology of Middle and Late Bronze Age (Middle and Late Helladic) for Mainland Greece (modified following Shelmerdine 1997 Figure 1 Voutsaki et al 2013 fig 1)

Time Period Abbreviation Approximate Dates (BC) Mycenaean Period

Middle Helladic III MH III 1800-1700 Early Mycenaean

Period Late Helladic I LH I 1700-1580 Late Helladic II LH II 1580-1390

Late Helladic IIIA LH IIIA 1390-1300 Palatial Period

Late Helladic IIIB LH IIIB 1300-1190 Late Helladic IIIC LH IIIC 1190-1065 Post-Palatial Period

Also known as the Pre-Palatial Period

interred body (Cavanagh and Mee 1998) Undoubtedly the most persistent of these speculations has been equating specific grave goods with biological sex Weapons such as swords knives greaves and hel-mets are often attributed to the quintes-sential ldquomale warriorrdquo while spindle whorls and cosmetic equipment identify womenrsquos burials Blegenrsquos 1930 publication of the Prosymna cemetery reported that all jewelry belonged to women and children while weapons and metal tools were buried with men (1937 253ndash54) In some cases of course the association is not valid such as the males in Grave Circle B who had been buried with ornaments and tweezers (Mylo-nas 1973) Nonetheless over 60 years later this association is still tacitly accepted with-out having been systematically tested across a larger sample of data Similarly grave goods have also been used as primary evidence for identifying the presence of infants and children in Myce-naean tombs and graves Like with other archaeological research the study of age identities in Mycenaean contexts has only recently included children (Rutter 2003 Gallou 2004 Voutsaki 2004 Lebegyev 2009a Pomadere 2010 Gallou-Minopetrou 2015) Grave goods commonly thought to be

associated with child burials are feeding bottles and perhaps figurines (Gallou 2004 Smith and Dabney 2012) Infant graves are often identified based on the size of the grave and type of grave goods frequently without any observable or observed bones (eg Smith and Dabney 2012) Recent work by Gallou (2004 Gallou-Minopetrou 2015) has emphasized the lack of Mycenaean infant studies critiquing statements such as ldquochild burials count for only 13 of the entire burials at Peratirdquo far fewer than might be expected in a cemetery for which no bioarchaeological analysis has been carried out (2015 57) Likewise Lebegyev includes both anthropological and non-anthropol-ogical data in her search for age phases within Mycenaean child burials (Lebegyev 2009b) To summarize Mycenaean researchers have either relied on grave goods for estimating the age and sex of burials or have not addressed the question but continued to repeat past assumptions In turn this has prompted scholars to conclude that adult males had disproportionate access to burial forms while women and children were more likely to be denied access to formal burial (Cavanagh and Mee 1998 56 127ndash28 Cavanagh 2008 336) Rather than being

tested against bioarchaeological data the use of grave goods and architectural forms to estimate age-at-death and sexgender has not been questioned Discussions of age and gender in Mycenaean research has almost exclusively relied on Linear B icono-graphy or grave goods rarely has the actual demographic composition been discussed Despite the asymmetry of age and gender in iconography and Linear B males and fe-males may be equally present in Mycenaean burials However without rigorous testing against biological data inferences about identity and social status remain weak and under-developed Mycenaean bodies (hu-man remains) have and continue to be an under-appreciated source of information

613 New Opportunities An Anthropological Revolution in Greece A crucial turning point in the study of age and sex in Mycenaean archaeology was the work of physical anthropologist J Lawrence Angel Angel was a true pioneer in physical anthropology and forensic anthropology with an important focus upon social biology as the study of contextualized life in the past (Buikstra 1990 Lagia Papathanasiou and Triantaphyllou 2014 Buikstra and Preve-dorou 2012) Angelrsquos interests in paleo-demography included concerns about popu-lation growth age-related risk of anemias and rigorous approaches to paleodemo-graphy (Angel 1964 1966 1969) Angelrsquos social biology of ancient Greek peoples approached the past through the study of human remains thus integrating human remains with the study of material culture and monuments (eg Angel 1971 Bisel and Angel 1985) However Angelrsquos bioarchaeo-logical data were often relegated to the ap-pendix of site or excavation reports (eg Mylonas 1973) and rarely entered the dis-cussion of mortuary practices In many ways Angelrsquos skeletal analyses represent a missed opportunity by archaeologists (until

recently) for the reconstruction of Myce-naean mortuary practices J Lawrence Angel engaged in other archae-ological and forensic work and therefore was only intermittently active in Greece There were no direct successors of his Greek research legacy leaving a chronolo-gical gap between Angel and the current generations of bioarchaeologists Regard-less Angelrsquos revolutionary research ushered in a new era of anthropological study in Greece Bioarchaeological research here defined as a problem-oriented contextually informed study of the past frequently combining methods drawn from human osteology and archaeology (Buikstra and Beck 2006) has increased markedly in Greek (including Mycenaean) research over the last 15 years Although bioarchae-ological research in Greece does not have a long history (Buikstra and Lagia 2009 Lagia Papathanasiou and Triantaphyllou 2014) there has now been a significant in-crease in published bioarchaeological re-ports of Mycenaean contexts Few studies have focused on the Mycenaean population structure and no study attempted a regional synthesis let alone a supra-regional study96 Aldenrsquos reconstruction of the Mycenaean population of the Argolid is the most inclusive study to date of burial data however this study focused upon large scale fluctuations rather than small scale at-tributes such as ratios of males and females or adults and children based on inaccurate and uneven data (Alden 1981) Previous estimates of the sex ratio in Myce-naean tombs have suggested that males are more common making up 63 while females are less represented comprising

96 Two noteworthy exceptions are the Middle Helladic Argolid Project under the direction of Sofia Voutsaki and currently being published and the recent publication of Achaian bioarchaeological data (Jones 2018)

37 of the skeletal sample (Cavanagh and Mee 1998 127) This conclusion is based on a small sample of skeletal material analyzed by an anthropologist in the mid-1990s It is not only an out of date ratio but is also biased according to the sample which was primarily chamber tombs and elite tombs in the Argolid and Messenia97 (Cavanagh and Mee 1998 127) However recent Myce-naean bioarchaeological site-based studies have produced varied sex ratios At Ayios Vasilios in Laconia a sample of two graves revealed an equal number of male and females (1313) (Voutsaki and Moutafi 2016 Table 3) while at Kallithea in Achaia a greater number of females has been reported (1015) (Graff 2011) The Shaft Graves at Mycenae include mostly males (Angel 1973 Dickinson et al 2012) as do the burials from Lerna and Asine (Angel 1971) However more broadly based bioarchaeological studies of the Pylos area have shown near equal numbers of male and females (Schepartz Miller-Antonio and Murphy 2009) These data show that the ratio of males to females may differ based on the sample however a synthesis of sex data may highlight important variations In contrast to the sex data there is a general consensus among bioarchaeologists and archaeologists that subadults especially in-fants are under-represented in Mycenaean burials All of the published Mycenaean cemeteries have much lower ratios of sub-adults than adults a finding that is in con-trast to the high infant mortality found in pre-industrial burial samples (eg Weiss 1973) This has prompted some researchers to suggest that the low numbers of children in Mycenaean burials may be due to diffe-

97 More specifically Cavanagh and Mee (1998 127) state their percentages are based on the following sites Argos Asine Athens Dendra Lerna the Pylos tholoi and the Grave Circles at Mycenae

rential burial practices (Papathanasiou et al2012) In contrast Angel has suggested that the lack of children in Greek skeletal assemblages is often a result of their more fragile remains or the lack of anthropo-logists present during excavations (Angel 1969 Angel 1971)

614 Complications Biases and Limitations The general nature of Mycenaean burial re-search presents two major challenges for demographic reconstructions The first is that Mycenaean burial programs exhibit considerable variation that belies their apparent homogeneity across the 500-year long history as the Mycenaean culture spread from Crete in the south to Thes-salyOlympos in the Central Greece At the same time this variation is possibly ob-scured by the very nature of Mycenaean data With its relatively abundant archae-ological record much attention has been given to the (relatively) homogeneous koine of the Palatial Period (IIIA-B) Research focuses rarely on the transitional Early Mycenaean period and the process of Mycenaeanization or to the Post-Palatial period which is characterized by regional differences and uneven data Thus discus-sions of Mycenaean mortuary practices most often refer to the Palatial Period by default Secondly post-mortem manipul-ation is characteristic of Mycenaean mor-tuary practices This can create assemblages of human remains that are commingled and therefore cannot easily be associated with a dateable artifact Also some sites are used over long periods of time but the publications do not clarify which tombs graves or burials belong to particular time periods In addition there are few radio-carbon dated Mycenaean tombs but a re-cent study (Jones et al 2018) has shown the value in radiocarbon dating multiple levels in a reused tholos tomb These challenges make reconstructing change through time difficult Therefore when possible as in the

case of Petroto and also from a chamber tomb in the Athenian Agora (Smith 1998) more precise divisions of dated burials have been incorporated into this chronology Another issue is varying data quality ie changing methodologies over time For ex-ample Angel used methods such as parturi-tion pits on the pubic symphysis to estimate the number of births for females (Angel 1969) which are today regarded as inherently flawed Additionally in past skeletal studies it was customary to estimate sex for sub-adults However we now know that sub-adult remains do not possess the full sexual dimorphism of adults so these data have been omitted from the current study Fortunately since the publication of ldquoStandardsrdquo in 1994 (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) data have been collected with comparable methods the older studies represent a minority among those included here Mycenaean bioarchaeological data also vary in detail The vast majority of bio-archaeological research in Greece has been site-based studies wherein data are placed in short appendices of excavation reports or only preliminarily published in Greek Authors of these short reports often simply state total numbers of adults juveniles or subadults without detailed age information or detailing the methods used for biological sex and age estimation Excavation reports of a single site sometimes include a chapter on the study of the human remains but comparative interpretations of bioarchae-ological data are lacking In addition not all regions tomb types or periods are repre-sented equally in the data The history of Mycenaean research favors the Argolid and Messenia As a consequence this study in-cludes data from sites spanning the full My-cenaean period (MH III-LH IIIC approxi-mately 1750-1100 BC) and from all over the Mycenaean world (see Figure 1 and Table 3) All sites with bioarchaeological data

were included in order to produce a com-prehensive and contemporary demography of Mycenaean mortuary practices A final problem is that archaeological con-text are often published separately from bioarchaeological data Some reports in-clude detailed archaeological information such as the dating of each burial while others have only dated the whole tomb or site This does not encourage bioarchae-ologists who wish to draw upon published data for more inclusive comparative studies These problematic reports are a reminder that bioarchaeological research is still an unrealized opportunity within much of Greek archaeology For this study only well-described data were selected for com-parative purposes By focusing on several attributes such as intramural or extramural location tomb type region and time period patterns within the data are contextualized properly Thus current studies have not fully engaged with bioarchaeological data in studies of Mycenaean age and sex Widely accepted ldquotruthsrdquo about the overrepresentation of males and lack of infants and children in Mycenaean graves should be evaluated against the bioarchaeological evidence In addition site-based data are even more powerful when subjected to regional syn-theses (Jones 2018b) To illustrate the power of comparative bioarchaeological study this article presents a reconstruction of Mycen-aean burial demography The overall aim of this article is to present a general picture of bioarchaeological data in order to reconstruct patterns of age and sex in Mycenaean mortuary practices across diachronic changes tomb types and re-gions More specifically statistical analyses of samples of bioarchaeological data are employed to evaluate proportions of infants children adolescents adults and males or females against variables such as tomb type

burial location (intramural vs extramural) region and time period

62 Materials The Sample Data

The sample of sites presented in Table 3 was collected from 34 articles reports book chapters theses etc and some data were generously given to the author prior to their publication98 The sample selected for study contains 274 extramural tombs and roughly 242 intramural graves included in this study (Table 4) In addition the sample is divided by tomb type (Table 5) ten tholoi (of an estimated 128 or 8) (Dirlik 2012) approximately 265 chamber tombs (of an estimated 3000 or 9) (Cavanagh and Mee 1998 Cavanagh 2008 327) and approxima-tely 250 simple graves (of an estimated 1200 or 20) (Lewartowski 2000) Since many of the tombs included in the estimated totals were excavated at a time when retaining human remains was not a priority these totals do not accurately represent the number of tombs with human remains data available for study Simple graves are a rare research topic (apart from the Shaft Graves) due to their often complex intramural stratigraphy problematic dating and poor quality of grave goods (if any) (Lewar-towski 2000) Despite these caveats the sample used here represents roughly 12 of the total number of known Mycenaean tombs and graves In addition to tomb type the data are also separated by location (intramural versus extramural) region and time period Also the data are separated by region as shown in Figure 1 For a better overview of age and sex within the Mycenaean world it is more accurate to analyze the core regions (Argolid Attica Central Greece Corinthia Laconia Messenia and Crete) separate from the so-called lsquoperipheralrsquo regions (Achaia 98 Dr Anastasia Papathanasiou kindly provided unpublished data for the Antrona tumuli

Elis and Thessaly) The data have been se-parated into the regional units based primarily on Galaty and Parkinsonrsquos map (2007 Figure 1) of the Mycenaean ldquohypo-thetical state boundariesrdquo Some adaptions include combining the Argolid with Corin-thia since only one tholos from Corinthia had available data for the region and combining the sites within Central Greece (including Lefkandi99) again due to a small sample Separating the sample into ldquocorerdquo and ldquoperipheryrdquo will allow for a wider look at differences between these core and peripheral units100 Finally the data are separated by time pe-riod as shown in Table 6 Evaluating chan-ges of the biological sex and ages will high-light patterns of burial exclusion through time However it should be noted that due to the difficulty of dating individual burials in a multiple tomb the time period sample is much smaller than the location tomb type and regional samples In addition although the sample is essen-tially random the effects of excavation re-search bias and regional Mycenaean patt-erns are important For example although Achaia is a Mycenaean periphery with a more recent excavation history it is emer-ging as a major research area due to the willingness of excavators to release skeletal material for study by bioarchaeologists Similarly the long excavation history in particular regions such as the Argolid and Messenia have created a large dataset com-pared to more seldom investigated regions such as Elis or Thessaly Some regions in the 99 See Lemos 2006 who states that Lefkandi was under the control of Thebes in the Mycenaean period 100 The authors are aware that the concepts of core and periphery in the Mycenaean period have recently come under scrutiny (eg Nakassis forthcoming) however they are used here for synthesizing supraregional data and assessing broad patterns

Mycenaean world possess different archae-ological patterns The region of Messenia has a tradition of tholoi being more common and sometimes smaller and in other regions tholoi are rare or absent (see Cavanagh and Mee 1998 for an overview of tomb types among regions) These biases and ensuing variation affect the sample and should be considered when interpreting Mycenaean mortuary data Despite the caveats the data are diverse and representative The sample reflects the general number of Mycenaean tombs since chamber tombs are the most common tomb type with the simple graves being less common and tholoi are the rarest (Cava-nagh and Mee 1998) In addition the data span the entire Mycenaean period from MH III-LH IIIC comprise of human remains from all tomb types (tholoi chamber tombs and simple graves) and come from contexts all over the Mycenaean world

63 Methods

631 Data Consolidation The consolidation of bioarchaeological data is the primary goal of this article therefore I focused on including published data Since

much Mycenaean bioarchaeological re-search has been recent data recording has been somewhat standardized The Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) is a standard estimation in all bioarchaeological research and involves estimating the number of individuals in a skeletal assemblage (Buik-stra and Ubelaker 1994) Estimations of age and sex in the literature were primarily conducted using established methods (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) Biological sex was estimated using morphological traits of the cranial and pelvic bones and scored on a five-point scale ranging from male probable male ambiguous probably female and female (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) Estimation of subadult age also ad-heres to internationally accepted methods that are based on epiphyseal fusion and dental eruption (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) Lastly demographic studies typically sort age data into ranges as such infants under 1 year children aged 1-4 years and then incremental ranges every five years (5-9 10-14 and so on) (Weiss 1973 9) Less than perfect bioarchaeological data for the Mycenaean period meant that a few preliminary publications did not include detailed age categories In addition the goal

Table 2 The expected demographic ranges and the reference populations In addition the u-shaped curve in the background shows how a demographically normal population exhibits high infant mortality rates low rates for children and adolescents and high rates for adults

Range Infants Children Adolescents Adults Reference Population

Low 20 12 21 47 Classical Athens (MNI 737)

Middle 25 14 26 35 Macedonia Neolithic and Ccedilatalhuumlyuumlk (MNI 2142)

High 40 17 16 27 Pecos Pueblo (MNI 2754)

Based on Angel 1969 adapted from Table A43 in Weiss 1973 106 Based on Angel 1969 adapted from Table A23 and A24 in Weiss 1973 96 Based on Kidder 1958 adapted from Table A42 in Weiss 1973 105

63 Methods

was to explore general patterns within the data and therefore maximizing data from every site was a priority Therefore general categories of age-at-death and sex (per Weiss 1973 69) were recorded in order to provide an overall picture of Mycenaean burial practices Therefore the data was smoothed to mitigate the effect of varying methods and contextual information Probable biological sex categories were combined to form the binary male or female categories The age-at-death categories used here are Infant (0-2) Child (3-6) Adolescent (6-20) and adult (20+) These categories were chosen for two reasons First subdividing subadult age into defined ranges is possible since juvenile growth is biologically more easily assessedthan that of adults (Bocquet-Appel and Masset 1982 324) and secondly the classification will aid in reconstructing Mycenaean age categories as hypothesized in a recent study of Mycenaean childhood (Lebegyev 2009b) Lastly the manner in which intramural (within the settlement) burials should be defined is a debated issue (Milka 2010 Sarri 2016) Although graves have been found in many Mycenaean settlements their strati-graphy and dating are often unclear At some sites the line separating intramural from extramural contexts is blurred Some of the graves may have been placed in disused isolated portions of the settlement as at the edges of the settled area at Mycenae (Pakenham-Walsh and Wace 1955 Alden 2000) Likewise some graves may have been originally external to the settlement but became incorporated as at Grave Circle A at Mycenae Thus a grave that was classified as intramural may in

fact be in a portion of the settlement that was disused at the time of burial In this article for the sake of simplicity and in order to view the data from a macroscopic perspective any burial originally placed within a settlement was categorized as intramural

632 Demographic Expectations In order to evaluate if Mycenaean demogra-phy exhibits normal or skewed ratios of adults subadults and infants and males and females demographic expectations must first be outlined in normal popu-lations As demonstrated by Weiss (1973) Morris (1987) and more recently by Guy Masset and Baud (1997 Table 2) high infant mortality should produce cemeteries composed of approximately 20-50 infants Subadults (children and adolescents) typically have the lowest mortality rate and should make up the least represented group at approximately 10-25 of the total (Weiss 1973) Lastly adults should com-prise approximately 15-40 of the mor-tality total (Weiss 1973) Thus ages at death tend to follow a U-shape when plotted on a graph with high infant numbers low sub-adult numbers and high numbers again for the adult category (Wood et al 2002 137) Although accurate these demographic ranges of infants sub-adults and adults are wide and imprecise Therefore in order to compare observed versus expected age frequencies across these ranges this study uses three ranges of expected demographic values in order to test which group best matches the Mycenaean data The ranges and their associated values used to construct them are outlined in Table 2

Table 3 The site and corresponding references used in this study

Site Reference Achaia Klauss Paschalidis and McGeorge 2009a Agia Triada Elis Petroutsa et al 2002 Ayia Sotira Smith et al 2017 Antrona Unpublished data from Papathanasiou Archontiki Agelarakis 1987 Asine Angel 1982 Atalanti Iezzi 2005 Athenian Agora Smith 1998 Ayios Stephanos Duhig 2008 Ayios Vasilios Moutafi and Voutsaki 2016 Nichoria Bisel 1992 Barnavos Wright et al 2008 Chalandritsa Jones 2017 Jones 2018ab Corinthia tholos Kassimi 2015 Dendra Gejvall 1977 Deiras Argos Charles 1963 Philippa-Touchais and Papadimitriou 2015 Dhimini Unpublished data from Papathanasiou Glyka Nera Papathanasiou et al in press Grave Circle A Papazoglou-Manioudaki et al 2010 Grave Circle B Angel 1973 Kallithea Graff 2011 Kazanaki Papathanasiou 2009 Kerameikos Angel 1945 Khania Crete Hallager and McGeorge 1992 Kokla Iezzi 2005 Kouphovouno Lagia and Cavanagh 2010 Lefkandi Musgrave and Popham 1991 Lerna Angel 1971 Markopoulos Angel 1945) Mochlos Limenaria Triantaphyllou 2011 Modi Iezzi 2005 Mycenae Chamber Tomb 222 Angel 1945 Mycenae Prehistoric Cemetery Angel 1971 Nichoria Area I amp II Bisel 1992 Nichoria Little Circle Bisel 1992 Petroto Jones 2018ab Portes Jones 2018ab Profitias Ilias Kampotades Karantzali and McGeorge 2013 Pylos Tsakalis Schepartz Miller-Antonio and Murphy 2009 Pylos Kondou Schepartz Miller-Antonio and Murphy 2009 Pylos Kokkevis Schepartz Miller-Antonio and Murphy 2009 Pylos Grace Circle (Tholos V) Schepartz Miller-Antonio and Murphy 2009 Pylos Tholos IV Schepartz Miller-Antonio and Murphy 2009 Pylos tholos III Schepartz Miller-Antonio and Murphy 2009 Spaliareika Papathanasiou 2005 Spathes Triantaphyllou 2001 Sykia Laconia Papathanasiou 2002 Thorikos Angel 1945 Tragana Iezzi 2005 Tourloti Sitiea Paschalidis and McGeorge 2009b Valestino Magnesia Papathanasiou et al 2012 Voudeni Petroutsa et al 2009

Table 4 The sample of sites divided by intramural and extramural Intramural

Ayios Stephanos (66) Lerna (136) Asine (3)

Mycenae Prehistoric Cemetery (16) Lefkandi Euboea (20)

Extramural

Petroto Mygdalia Kazanaki Nichoria Nichoria Little Circle Corinthia Chalandritsa (9) Spaliareika (4) Kallithea (5) Mycenae Chamber Tomb 222 (1) Profitias Ilias Kampotades (1) Mochlos Limenaria (20) Kokla East Lokris (9) Barnavos Argolid (1) Kondou Pylos (1) Tourloti Sitiea (1) Athenian Agora (28) Markopoulos Attica (2) Dieras Argos () Antrona tumuli (2) Kerameikos (18) Grave Circle B (15) Grave Circle A (4) Spathes Thessaly (27)

Pylos III Pylos IV Pylos Grave Circle Dhimini Thorikos Portes (3) Achaia Klauss (5) Voudeni (55) Agia Triada Ilia (50) Tragana East Lokris (7) Atalanti East Lokris (8) Modi East Lokris (3) Tsakalis Pylos (5) Kokkevis Pylos (1) Valestino Magnesia (5) Khania Crete (13) Dendra (2) Glyka Nera Attica (12) Sykia Laconia (3) Ayios Vasilios (21) Athenian Agora (9) Archontiki Psara (1)

Turning to sex ratios101 a model in evol-utionary biology dubbed Fisherrsquos Principle hypothesizes that biological mechanisms attempt to maintain equilibrium of sex ratios at roughly a 11 ratio (Fisher 1930) Despite this there is evidence for a slight over-representation of males to females at birth that is roughly 1051 (Weiss 1973 76 Lazarus 2002 288-289) additionally there is evidence for a higher survival rate into adulthood of males in pre-industrial societies (Weiss 1973 74) Fortunately a slight male bias in the sex ratio is negligible in large datasets (Weiss 1973 73) Thus this study uses a human population sex 101 For a detailed discussion of human sex ratios see Lazarus 2002

ratio that is equal males to females or roughly 50 males and 50 females When populations or cultures deviate significantly from either age of sex demographic expect-ations then they are considered to be skew-ed possibly due to cultural practices (eg female infanticide or male warriors killed in battle and buried elsewhere) rather than biological factors or in burial populations social strategies of exclusion In addition non-cultural factors such as the limitations of our age and sex estimation methods102 preservation and excavation sampling likely play an important role in the age and sex ratios of a burial sample 102 See Wood et al 1992 for a more thorough discussion

Table 5 The sample of sites divided by tombgrave type The number of tombs is included in parentheses for the chamber tombs and simple graves The tholoi sample has only one tomb from each site Tholoi

Petroto Mygdalia Kazanaki Nichoria Nichoria Little Circle Corinthia

Pylos III Pylos IV Dhimini Thorikos Pylos Grave Circle (Tholos V)

Chamber Tomb Sites

Chalandritsa (9) Spaliareika (4) Kallithea (5) Mycenae Chamber Tomb 222 (1) Profitias Ilias Kampotades (1) Mochlos Limenaria (20) Kokla East Lokris (9) Valestino Magnesia (5) Khania Crete (13)

Achaia Klauss (5) Voudeni (55) Agia Triada Ilia (50) Tragana East Lokris (7) Atalanti East Lokris (8) Modi East Lokris (3) Tsakalis Pylos (5) Kokkevis Pylos (1) Barnavos Argolid (1)

Kondou Pylos (1) Tourloti Sitiea (1) Athenian Agora (28) Markopoulos Attica () Dieras Argos () Portes (3) Dendra (2) Glyka Nera Attica (12) Sykia Laconia (3)

Simple Grave Sites Pits Pithoi Shaft Graves and Cists

Asine (3) Grave Circle A (4) Nichoria Area I amp II (3) Lerna (136) Lefkandi Euboea (20) Kouphovouno Laconia (16) Kerameikos (18) Ayios Stephanos (66)

Ayios Vasilios (21) Grave Circle B (15) Mycenae Prehistoric Cemetery (16) Archontiki Psara (1) Spathes Thessaly (27) Khania Crete (1) Athenian Agora (9)

The Grave Circle at Pylos was originally named Tholos V for a discussion of the tomb architecture see Davis et al 1997 420 and Bennet 1999 11

633 Statistical Analysis Synthesizing a large dataset requires combi-ning different forms of variation including burial location (intramural versus extra-mural) tomb type region and time period Such nominal data are first presented in descriptive statistics in the form of percen-tages in order to provide an overall picture of the age ratios of adults adolescents children and infants and sex ratios of males and females These data are then discussed in regards to possible biases such as exca-vation bias and over-representation of certain evidence within the sample In addition the use of statistical analyses will be used to rigorously address two ques-tions First are the age and sex data depen-

dent on the selected variables (location tomb type region and time period) out-lined Second do the observed demo-graphic ratios deviate significantly from the expected demographic ratios To answer the first question the individual age and sex data are analyzed using the chi-squared test for homogeneity This analysis is used to evaluate if one variable within a dataset may be dependent on the other The null hypothesis is that the distributions of age or sex are similar between variables statistical significance suggests that the null hypothe-sis should be rejected (ie the distributions of age and sex are disproportionate among the variables possibly due to cultural prac-tices) Secondly the observed frequencies of

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Table 6 The sample of sites divided by time periods Early Mycenaean Period (MH III-LH II) 198 tombs and simple graves

Petroto Mygdalia (1) Ayios Stephanos (22) Grave Circle A (4) Grave Circle B (15) Kouphovouno Laconia (16)

Pylos Grave Circle (1) Pylos IV (1) Thorikos (1) Lerna (136) Athenian Agora Tomb VII (lower burial level) (1)

Palatial Period (LH IIIA-B) 52 tombs and simple graves

Petroto Mygdalia (1) Ayios Stephanos (34) Markopoulos Attica (2) Athenian Agora (27)

Glyka Nera Attica (12) Dendra (2) Dhimini (1)

Post-Palatial Period (LH IIIC) 57 tombs and simple graves

Chalandritsa (9) Portes (3) Achaia Klauss (5) Petroto Mygdalia (1)

Athenian Agora Tomb VII (upper burial level) (1) Kerameikos (18) Ayios Stephanos (2) Lefkandi (18)

Two burial levels were placed in the Early Mycenaean Period dataset middle burial levels were placed in the Palatial Period dataset and the final burial level was placed in the Post-Palatial Period dataset For a detailed discussion of the dating of the burial levels from the Petroto tholos see Jones et al 2018

Table 7 Descriptive statistic results from each region

Achaia 623 92 4 2 2 46 54 Argolid amp Corinthia 253 55 5 7 32 63 37 Attica 243 79 11 9 1 54 46 Central Greece 214 76 11 9 4 53 47 Crete 61 74 7 10 9 49 51 Elis 453 90 10 57 43 Laconia 182 53 6 7 34 42 58 Messenia 170 80 13 4 3 52 48 Thessaly 52 70 4 18 8 35 65

age and sex are tested against the expected frequencies (as outlined above in the demographic expectations section) with chi-square goodness of fit tests in order to evaluate if significant deviation occurs in the samples103 The null hypothesis is that the expectations closely match the obser-vations statistical significance suggests that the null hypothesis be rejected (ie the burial population likely does not match expectataions based on living populations suggesting that burial exclusion based on age or sex occurred) All analyses were con-ducted in the statistical software program SPSS and significance set at the 05 level

64 Results Bioarchaeological Data of the Mycenaean World

The dataset for this study includes previously published data of MNI age and sex The total MNI for this sample is 2380 indivi-duals This sample is comprised of mainly adults (80) with much smaller numbers of

103 For a discussion and examples of chi-square tests see Sirkin 2006 397- 439

subadults104 infants make up 8 children 6 and adolescents 6 (Figure 2) First the chi-squared test for homogeneity showed that the demographic distributions were dependent on the selected variables (intramural versus extramural tomb type region and time period) results are discussed in the following sections Secondly the chi-square goodness of fit test also showed statistically significance differences when tested against the demographic expectations For the whole sample the data shows statistically signi-ficance results (p-value= lt 0001) when tested against the low middle and high demographic ranges Thus adults are over-represented while sub-adults are under-represented in the whole sample Of the adults sex had been estimated for 1015 individuals and the proportion was nearly equally divided between the sexes (Figure 3) with no significance (p-value=0073696) 104 Approximately 189 individuals were not included in the age categories because they were published only as ldquosubadultsrdquo If these data were included then the number of adults would be 1732 (74) to 614 (26) subadults

Figure 2 Age estimations of the total sample separated by MNI (left) and percentages (right)

when tested against the expected sex ratio In the following sections the data are analyzed according to the variables in order to reconstruct the nuances of the Mycenae-an burial sample

641 Intramural versus Extramural Descriptive statistics The intramural sample has an MNI of 251 while the extramural sample has an MNI of

Figure 3 Sex estimations of the total sample separated by MNI (left) and percentages (right)

Figure 4 Sex estimations between intramural and extramural sites separated by MNI (left) and percentages (right)

Intramural Extramural

Male Female

Figure 5 Age estimations between intramural and extramural sites separated by MNI (left) and percentages (right)

Adult Adolescent Child Infant

Figure 6 Sex estimations among tomb types separated by MNI (left) and percentages (right)

Male Female

1940 The total sex estimate for the intra-mural sample contains more males (60) rather than females (Figure 4) while the extra-mural sample is more evenly distributed (Figure 4) The intramural sample is comprised of two main age groups infants (53) and adults (32) Children make up 11 and adolescents make up 4 of the intramural sample In sharp contrast the extramural sample is comprised almost exclusively of adults (86) with other age groups only marginally represented (Figure 5) Inferential statistics The chi-squared test for homogeneity showed that the distribution of sex was similar (p value=02764) between burial locations (intramural vs extramural) while the age distribution between burial loca-tions was significantly different (p value= lt 22x10-16) When tested against the demo-

graphic expectations for sex the actual intramural was not significant (p value= 0078) and the extramural data was not significant (p value= 0044) This may seem contradictory to the aforementioned per-centages for this data however the sex data for the intramural graves is a small sample (MNI=63) whereas the extramural sample size is large (MNI=952) In addition the chi-square goodness of fit test showed a significant difference (p value= lt 0001) when both intramural and extramural age data were compared to the low middle and high categories of demographic expecta-tions Despite this it is noteworthy that the intramural age data is one of the few sam-ples that exhibit the characteristic U-shaped demographic curve with high infant mortality rates low subadult (children and adolescent) mortality rates and high adult mortality rates

Figure 7 Age estimations among tomb types separated by MNI (left) and percentages (right)

642 Tomb Type105 Descriptive statistics The tholos sample has an MNI of 195 The sex of individuals buried in tholoi is nearly equally divided between males and females (Figure 6) The tholoi primarily contain adults but children and adolescents are also present (Figure 7) Infants although often thought to be omitted from this tomb type are present albeit in low numbers The chamber tomb sample is noticeably large because this tomb type is the most common throughout the Mycenaean world The chamber tomb sample contains an MNI of 1745 The sex data in the chamber tombs are nearly equally divided between males and females (Figure 6) In the chamber tombs adults represent nearly the entire sample at 89 However infants children and adolescents are also present (Figure 7) The simple grave sample consists of an MNI of 440 The sex data show that these graves included slightly more males (58) than fe-males (Figure 6) The age data for these graves is strikingly different from the other tombs types Infants comprise 34 of the individuals placed in simple graves (mostly in pitscists not shaft graves) (Figure 7) Children and adolescents also make up no-table percentages at 10 and 7 respecti-vely (Figure 7) In sharp contrast to the other tomb types adults make up only 49 of the sample Inferential statistics The chi-squared test for homogeneity showed that the distribution of sex was 105 It must be noted that the majority of tholoi in this study are smaller and derive from peripheral regions rather than large monumental tholoi from Mycenaean centers The lack of bioarchaeological data from large tholoi is likely due to the looting or the tholoi were excavated a time in which human remains were not a priority and thus were not retained for future research

similar among tomb types (p-value = 03777) while the distribution of age was different among tomb types (p value=lt 22x10-16) The chi-square goodness of fit test showed no significant difference for sex in tholos (p-value= 0693) and chamber tombs (p-value= 014) but there was a significant difference in the simple graves (p-value= 0025) The age-at-death data for the tholos chamber tombs and simple graves was significantly different (value=plt 0001) when tested against the low middle and high categories of demographic expectations However similar to the intramural data the age-at-death data for the simple graves shows the characteristic u-shaped demographic curve with high percentages of infants low percentages of children and adolescents and high percen-tages of adults

643 Regional Differences The results for each region are shown in Table 7 Some patterns within the data are immediately noticed such as the high percentages of infants (and correspondingly low rates of adults) in the Argolid amp Corinthia (likely caused by the MH IIILHI Lerna and Asine assemblages) and Laconia (likely caused by the Ayios Stephanos assemblage) Also the percentages of males and females are strikingly different in regions such as Thessaly and the Argolid amp Corinthia but this is likely due to varying sample sizes The MNI data in Table 7 is purposefully included in the dataset as a reminder that each region possesses different sample sizes that reflect excava-tion and research biases or the reach of Mycenaean influence Descriptive statistics The sex percentages of five regions out of nine are fairly equal (between 46-57 for males and between 43-54 for females) (Table 3) In contrast four regions possess percentages that suggest a less equal ratio

The sex percentages of the Argolid Corinthia and Laconia all possess an over-representation of males as high as 65 males to 35 females in the Argolid and Corinthia The sex data does exhibit some differences between regions The periphery exhibits nearly equal percentages of males

and females while the core regions possess slightly more males than females (Figure 8) The age data demonstrate that adults are over-represented in both core and periphe-ral regions Adults comprise more than 80 of the buried individuals but there may be slightly more subadults buried in core

Figure 8 Sex estimates from the Core and Periphery separated by MNI (left) and percentages (right)

Figure 9 Age estimates from the Core and Periphery separated by MNI (left) and percentages (right)

regions than in the periphery The age percentages in the core regions are nearly equal between infants (10) children (8) and adolescents (10) whereas the peripheral regions have greater differences among infants (1) children (2) and adolescents (7) (Figure 9) The data sug-gest regional variation regarding the age-at-death of interments and even though adults are abundant in every region infants children and adolescents are present in both core and periphery burials Inferential statistics The chi-squared test for homogeneity showed that the distribution of sex was similar between and core and peripheral regions (p-value= 01924) while the distri-bution of age between core and peripheral regions was different (p-value= lt 22e-16) The chi-square goodness of fit test for the sex data showed that the core regions had a significant difference (p-value= 0006) but not the peripheral regions (p-value=0329) when compared to the demographic expec-tations The goodness of fit test for the age data showed significant difference (p value= lt 0001) of the core and peripheral regions

when tested against the low middle and high expected demographic ranges

644 Changes Through Time Descriptive statistics The Early Mycenaean period sample has an MNI of 408 The sex data of the sample favor males (Figure 10) and has a relatively large percentage of infants children and adoles-cents (Figure 11) It is noteworthy that the Early Mycenaean results are comprised of 54 intramural data and are likely skewed by sites large sample sizes such as Lerna and Ayios Stephanos If the intramural data are omitted from the Early Mycenaean Period results then the percentage of infants significantly drops to 4 for the chamber tombs and tholoi during this period The Palatial Period sample has an MNI of 314 A major shift occurred in the sex ratios as females slightly outnumber males which is an increase of 12 (Figure 10) Also during the Palatial Period slight changes occurred in the percentage of infants (decrease by 15) and children (slight decrease by 2) while the percentage of adolescents slightly increases (by 3)

Figure 10 Sex estimates through time separated by MNI (left) and percentages (right)

(Figure 11) For the Palatial Period the results are comprised of 67 of the data from the region of Attica with Achaia Laconia and the Argolid amp Corinthia also represented In addition the Palatial Period results are made up of only 9 intramural burials (exclusively from Ayios Stephanos) and 13 tholoi while chamber tombs comprise the majority (78) of the results The chamber tombs from Attica comprise of an MNI of 210 from three sites In this specific sample the sex data is 47 males and 53 females with an age division that comprises 79 adults 10 adolescent 9 child and 2 infant best represents the chamber tombs from Attica during the Palatial Period The Post-Palatial Period sample has an MNI of 167 Sex percentages show a slight 2 increase in females (Figure 10) from the previous Palatial Period sample In the Post-Palatial Period adults are more represented (9 increase) and adolescents increase (5) but a sharp decrease occurred in infant (10 lower) and child burials (4 lower) compared to the previous period (Figure 11)

Inferential statistics The chi-square test for homogeneity showed statistically significant differences in the distribution of sex among time periods (p-value = 003024) and was still significant (p-value = 0004141) even when Early Mycenaean intramural data was removed from the analysis in order to evaluate if that data skewed the results Similarly the distribution of age showed statistically significant difference in the distribution of age among time periods (p-value = 1396e-13) The chi-square good-ness of fit test showed that sex was statistically significantly different (p-value is 0005) in the Early Mycenaean sample but not in the Palatial (p-value is 0572) or Post-Palatial sample (p-value is 0485) when compared to the demographic sex expectations The chi-square goodness of fit test showed a statistically significant diff-erence (p value= lt 0001) for the Early Mycenaean Period Palatial Period and Post-Palatial Period when compared to the low middle and high ranges of demo-graphic expectations Thus all time periods

Figure 11 Age estimates through time separated by MNI (left) and percentages (right)

do not conform to demographic expecta-tions However it is noteworthy that the Early Mycenaean demographic data displays the characteristic u-shaped demographic curve that may indicate that it is a more demographically true burial sample

65 Discussion Age and Sex in Mycenaean Burials

For the preceding Middle Helladic period bioarchaeological studies of the demogra-phic composition of burials focus heavily on well-published sites such as Lerna and suggest a possible preference for males but with a nearly equal proportion of adults to subadults (Angel 1971 Ruppenstein 2010 Voutsaki 2004) In particular Angel noted that the Middle Helladic Lerna sample was 50 infants (Angel 1971) a normal proportion according to some demographic estimates (Guy Masset and Baud 1997 Table 2 Morris 1987 Weiss 1973 26-27) This is corroborated by the samples from Asine Ayios Stephanos and other smaller samples On the contrary the Mycenaean period with its more elaborate burial customs has been hypothesized to value adult males over sub-adults or females However the results presented here offer a more nuanced perspective supported by bioarchaeological data and statistical ana-lyses The subsequent sections discuss the bioarchaeological results and relevant bias-es within the data in relation to the past interpretations of for Mycenaean age and sex data

651 Sex in Mycenaean Burials Despite previous research suggesting an overrepresentation of males in Mycenaean burials the results demonstrate that sex was only equal in the intramural and extra-mural sample The sex distribution in the simple graves core regions and the Early Mycenaean samples showed a significant difference when compared to the demogra-phic expectations However two different

assemblages may cause this pattern Lerna and Grave Circle B both of which contain early Mycenaean elite shaft graves The tomb type data shows that males and females are equally interred within cham-ber tombs and tholoi but in simple graves there is a statistically significant difference between the demographic expectations and the observed proportions simple graves contain more males than females This suggests that females and males had equal access to burial in chamber and tholos tombs but simple graves may have been a preferential space for male burial especially at sites such as Mycenae and Lerna which comprise much of the simple grave data The regional analyses show that the core and peripheral regions have a homogeneous distribution of males and females but when tested against the demographic expecta-tions the distribution of sex in core regions showed a statistically significant difference This may suggest that burial inclusion for males and females varied among regions However these results may be affected by biases within the data Some regions are represented by only a single site producing data that is heavily biased towards certain tomb types or time periods The Thessaly data is a very small sample of only 36 sexed individuals from four sites with tholoi chamber tombs and shaft graves from the Early Mycenaean and Palatial Period Like-wise the data from the region of Elis is from a single site so although the dataset is a good size (50 tombs with an MNI of 453) the results are entirely site-based and do not represent the entire region Despite these caveats the data does produce interpretations that are more definitive albeit site or region specific For example the data from region of Achaia is nearly all chamber tombs (except the single tholos at Petroto) from the Palatial and Post-Palatial period Therefore although it does not represent every aspect of Mycenaean burial

in this region the large sample suggests that chamber tomb burial was equally available to males and females in Achaia during the later Mycenaean period Alternatively the data can be adapted to be more representative For example the sex data from the Argolid amp Corinthia is heavily biased towards the Early Mycenaean Period at sites such as Lerna (primarily intramural graves) and Mycenae (primarily the Shaft Graves) which combined make up more than 75 of the regional results However if these data are removed then the Argolid and Corinthia are nearly equal in males and females (53 to 47 respectively) but this sample is small (based on only 30 sexed individuals) In summary the analyses suggest that sex in the core regions but not the periphery may have been an exclusionary burial factor However these data are constrained by excavation and publication biases and need to be weighed against other factors such as status distinctions The time period analyses suggest a possible increase in equality of the sexes included in Mycenaean burials through time In the Early Mycenaean sample the statistical analyses show a difference in the distribu-tion of the sexes and a difference between the observed and expected proportions of males and females Therefore during the Early Mycenaean Period there is evidence for burial exclusion on the basis of sex especially in MH Lerna and in the Shaft Graves at Mycenae On the contrary during the Palatial Period the percentages of males and females become nearly equal and by the Post-Palatial Period the data show that females are slightly more represented than males However these conclusions are tentative and warrant caution since the time period samples are small due to the uneven publication record and the difficulties of dating reused Mycenaean tombs

The traditional assumption that Mycenaean burials possess an over-representation of males must be re-evaluated The data do not support a widespread exclusion of females from formal burial however the analyses suggests that during the Early Mycenaean Period there may have been a preference for males to be interred within simple graves more often than females In addition female burials increase overall through time and even outnumber male burials in some regions

652 Age-at-death in Mycenaean Burials Previous research has claimed that infants and children were rarely included in Myce-naean burials or that they are not recover-ed during excavation due to the poor pre-servation of infant remains The age results clearly demonstrate that adults outnumber all subadult categories More specifically infants should make up a large portion of a normal population since infant mortality for pre-industrial societies is high (ranging from 25-50) (Weiss 1973) In contrast juveniles (children and adolescents) have the lowest mortality rates and should be the least represented age category in all ceme-tery populations (Weiss 1973) Overall subadults (infants children and adoles-cents) comprise only 20 of the entire sample Indeed age showed a statistically significant difference in all samples when compared to the low middle and high expected demographic ranges Despite this overall finding subtle differences can be observed in the proportion of the subadults especially in the intramural simple graves in certain regions (and sites) and during the Early Mycenaean Period In addition these are the only datasets that have the U-shaped demographic curve observed in normal populations The high numbers of infants and children (making up two-thirds of the sample) found in intramural burials compared to the low rates in extramural tombs suggests a strong

preference for Mycenaean infants and children to be buried within the settlement The statistical analyses confirmed this pat-tern in the homogeneity analysis Also when tested against the expected demogra-phic ranges the intramural sample was significantly different However the intra-mural data did exhibit the characteristic U-shaped demographic curve that suggests that the intramural data may be a more demographically complete sample but intramural and extramural data should be combined when possible to obtain the most complete demographic sample Further this pattern is likely influenced by regional variation since the excavation reports show that intramural burial at Ayios Stephanos continues through the Palatial and Post-Palatial Period (Taylour and Janko 2008) while these burials seem to disappear by the end of the Palatial Period in other regions such as the Argolid (Lebegyev 2009a) The tomb type data suggest that the higher rates of infants and children in simple graves compared to the rates in chamber tombs and tholoi suggests a preference of tomb type (and intramural location) for young Mycenaeans In addition the age data for the simple graves has the characteristic U-shaped demographic curve with high percentages of infants low percentages of children and adolescents and high percen-tages of adults More than 50 of the simple graves data are from settlement sites (eg Ayios Stephanos Lerna and Asine) al-though this may be linked to regional traditions such as in the Argolid during LH IIIA where few intramural graves have been found and at Ayios Stephanos in Laconia where the intramural burial tradition conti-nues into LH IIIC (Taylour and Janko 2008) The intramural burial sample derives from only five sites and two regions (Attica and Laconia) thus the data may not represent a Mycenaean-wide trend Additionally the intramural data is dated primarily (98) to the Early Mycenaean and Palatial Periods

with very little data for the Post-Palatial Period This over-representation obscures the fact that intramural burials resurface again in the Post-palatial Period Even the excavators at the well-published settlement site of Ayios Stephanos in Laconia note a drastic decrease of adult intramural burials and a concurrent rise in infant and young child burials in LH especially in IIIA-B (Taylour and Janko 2008 143) This pattern may suggest a decline in intramural burial in general however it is likely also affected by excavation bias since the intramural data is extremely site and region specific Although the analyses suggest that infants were preferentially buried in intramural simple graves it should be noted that infants and children were also found in chamber tombs and tholoi (albeit in much smaller numbers) which calls into question the hypothesis that tholoi may have been restricted for infant burial (Lebegyev 2009a) The regional data show a range in the pro-portion of ages but adults are the majority (ranging from 53-92) in all regions (Table 3) Likewise the statistical analyses showed that adults adolescents children and in-fants were unevenly distributed between core and peripheral regions and were signi-ficantly different from the expected demo-graphic ranges Despite this the percenta-ges of infants children and adolescents although varying between regions also attest to their presence in the burial record The percentages of children and adolescents in every region are somewhat consistent in their low percentages Two interesting exceptions to be explored in future analyses are the 13 adolescents in Messenia and 18 children in Thessaly Also although the infant percentages of the Argolid and Corin-thia (32) and of Laconia (34) are rela-tively high they are likely the result of the excavation and publication history rather than archaeological patterns For example the Argolid amp Corinthia and Laconia are the

only regions with data that exhibit the U-shaped demographic curve of high infant low subadults (children and juvenile) and high adult percentages (Table 7) However this percentage is deceiving since 40 of the Laconia data derives from the intramural infant burials at Ayios Stephanos Not every region has such a large amount of intramural data If this data is removed Laconia has only 10 infant burials which is a similar percentage compared to the other regions Likewise the Argolid and Corinthia data is composed of sites such as Asine Lerna and the graves surrounding the settlement at Mycenae all of which chiefly contain intramural graves In contrast regions such as Achaia106 and Attica have no bioarchaeological data for intramural infant burials Therefore their infant percentages are extremely low Thus only regions with a good history of settlement excavation possess high num-bers of infant burials which also suggests that intramural burial in the Mycenaean period (especially during the Palatial and Post-Palatial periods) was reserved more often for infants The most striking aspect of the diachronic age data is the drastic decrease of infant burials from 26 in the Early Mycenaean period to 1 in the Post-Palatial period There was also a slight decrease of child burials from 9 to 3 while adolescent burials steadily increase through time from 6 to 14 In the Early Mycenaean period sample the majority of the infants were from intramural simple graves suggesting that tholoi and chamber tombs were possibly more restricted for infant burials in

106 Lena Papazoglou-Manioudaki Costas Paschalidis and I are currently publishing preliminary data for the intramural infants of the Mycenaean settlement at Mygdalia (Papazoglou-Manioudaki Paschalidis and Jones forthcoming)

this time period However as previously noted this may be influenced by excavation patterns rather than socio-cultural trends In addition the Post-Palatial data comprises 98 chamber tombs (1 intramural graves and 1 from a single tholos level) and 77 of the sites included are from the region of Achaia Based on the results presented here the traditional reasons (burial exclusion and poor preservation) for the lack of children and infants need to be reviewed First the nature of infant skeletal data must be considered as a valid research bias It is without dispute that the smaller more porous skeletal remains of subadults espe-cially infants and children are less likely to preserve compared to the larger dense bones of adults (Angel 1969 434 Angel 1971 71 Bello and Andrews 2006 Guy Masset and Baud 1997) Another probable cause of their low numbers is that the lack of bioarchaeologists on site during excavation may lead to infant and child bones being overlooked (Saunders 1992 2) or misidentified as animal remains (Angel 1971) This is especially true in contexts with postmortem manipulation of human remains such as in Mycenaean mortuary practices ie it is much easier to identify and excavate infant human remains in de-marcated cists or pits rather than in large commingled burials in often dark difficult to excavate chamber tombs and tholoi Thus the issue of poor preservation and low recovery of subadult remains especially infants are valid concerns when recon-structing Mycenaean mortuary practices However these reasons should not be blindly invoked at every opportunity The presence of infants and children in the sample here demonstrates that even fragile infant remains can be preserved in all Mycenaean burial contexts including com-mingled disarticulated assemblages Also their high numbers in intramural graves and lower number in extramural contexts

indicates that their small fragile remains can be well-preserved and recovered in large numbers In order to overcome the challenges of poor preservation future researchers should incorporate intramural burials when reconstructing Mycenaean mortuary practices In addition excavation directors should incorporate bioarchaeolo-gists on site and bioarchaeological research needs to pursue in-depth studies regarding the preservation of human remains in Mycenaean contexts Secondly many researchers have attributed the lack of infants to exclusion from formal burial (especially in chamber tombs and tholoi) (Cavanagh 2008 336) However this past interpretation is not supported by the bioarchaeological results presented here Although the percentages are lower than normal demographic expectations infants children and adolescents are found in all Mycenaean tomb types regions and time periods suggesting that a young age-at-death was not a factor for total burial exclusion The results show that infants and children were interred though rarely in extramural chamber tombs and tholoi This finding raises a question for future study which is why only some infants and children were included in tholoi and chamber tombs while others were placed in intramural burials In addition the intramural results suggest that the practice of intramural burial in simple graves common in the preceding Middle Helladic period carries on in the Mycenaean periods but is reserved more often for infants and children though this pattern is likely influenced by excavation biases These data suggest infants were more likely to be given differential burial treatment (as recently hypothesized by Papathanasiou et al 2012) in intramural graves rather than being systematically omitted from Mycenaean burial practices In addition diachronic changes suggest that criteria for inclusion into Mycenaean burial may have changed

through the time The Early Mycenaean period had the greatest proportion of subadults This remained the same in the Palatial Period but then decreased by 10 in the LH IIIC High numbers of infants and children in the Early Mycenaean period contrast drastically with the lower numbers in the Post-Palatial period Overall adults grossly outnumber subadults in all datasets except in the intramural sample The low infant rates especially in extramural graves and tombs and corresponding high rates of adults suggest burial exclusion and a strong preference for infants to be buried in simple intramural graves In short the dominance of adults in the data reinforces the past assumption and recent bioarchaeological research that adults are strongly represented in Mycenae-an formal (extramural) burial

66 Conclusions

Previously broad evaluations of the demo-graphic structure of Mycenaean mortuary practices have been hindered by the lack of synthetic studies coupled with past assumptions of the over-representation of men and adults and mostly by omission of age and gender in discussions of mortuary practices Traditional untested hypotheses based primarily on site-level analyses have been tested with a synthesis of bioarchaeological data presented here While the data exhibit nuances and variations across tomb types region and time period the results show a general over-representation of adults and an overall equality of males and females in most samples The most striking pattern is that adults outnumber subadults in nearly every context except the intramural grave sample This results not only suggests that intramural burial was reserved primarily for subadult burial but it also makes burials that do not conform especially the Shaft Graves at Mycenae appear even more exceptional demographically than previous-

66 Conclusions

ly thought The observations here are tentative due to the few well-investigated Mycenaean settlements especially fully excavated and published LH IIIB domestic layers however more publications of settlement sites in the near future will likely confirm this pattern Changes through time suggest a possible decrease in infant and child burials and a rise in adolescents In addition burial of females steadily increases through time Regional differences suggest that males may be more likely to be given burial in the Mycenaean lsquocorersquo regions rather than females and subadults are less likely to obtain a formal burial in the lsquoperipheralrsquo regions These results allow for a more nuanced discussion of Mycenaean mortuary practices in light of the biological data here which suggests that age and sex do influence burial treatment The rigorous application of statistical analyses shows that bioarchaeological data can be used to test

old and new hypotheses regarding burial exclusion according to biological sex or age-at-death The data used here have been affected by various circumstances including past re-search foci methodological developments and publication strategies These have im-parted biases in the data however this article is merely the first not the last attempt to synthesize Mycenaean bio-archaeological data Rather these patterns should be constantly reviewed challenged and expanded upon with new data In-progress bioarchaeological analyses will surely add to and amend the patterns In addition the plethora of excavated material in storerooms and the increasing presence of bioarchaeologists on site during excava-tion offer ideal opportunities to build upon the results presented here

References

Agelarakis A 1987 ldquoReport on the Mycenaean Human Skeletal Remains at Archontiki Psarardquo Ossa 13 3ndash11

Alden MJ 1981 Bronze Age Population Fluctuations in the Argolid from the Evidence of Mycenaean Tombs Goumlteborg Paul Aringstroumlms Foumlrlag

Angel JL 1945 ldquoSkeletal Material from Atticardquo Hesperia The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens 14 279ndash363

mdashmdashmdash 1964 ldquoOsteoporosis Thalessemiardquo American Journal of Physical Anthropology 22 369ndash74

mdashmdashmdash 1966 ldquoPorotic Hyperostosis Anemias Malarias and Marshes in the Prehistoric Eastern Mediterraneanrdquo Science 153 760ndash63

mdashmdashmdash 1969 ldquoThe Bases of Paleodemographyrdquo American Journal of Physical Anthropology 30 427ndash38

mdashmdashmdash 1971 The People of Lerna Analysis of a Prehistoric Aegean Population Washington Smithsonian Institute Press

mdashmdashmdash 1973 ldquoHuman Skeletons from Grave Circles at Mycenaerdquo In Ο Ταφικός Κύκλoς Β Τών Μυκηνών edited by George E Mylonas 379ndash97 Athens Athens Archaeological Society

mdashmdashmdash 1982 ldquoAncient Skeletons from Asinerdquo In Asine II Results of the Excavations East of the Acropolis 1970-1974 edited by S Dietz 105ndash38 Stockholm Paul Astroumlms Foumlrlag

Bello S and P Andrews 2006 ldquoThe Intrinsic Pattern of Preservation of Human Skeletons and Its Influence on the Interpretation of Funerary Behavioursrdquo In Social Archaeology of Funerary Remains Studies in Funerary Archaeology edited by R Gowland and CJ Knuumlsel 1ndash13

Bennet J 1999 ldquoPylos The Expansion of a Mycenaean Palatial Centerrdquo In Rethinking Mycenaean Palaces New Interpretations of an Old Idea edited by Michael L Galaty and William A Parkinson 9ndash18 Los Angeles Cotsen Institute of Archaeology

Bisel S and JL Angel 1985 ldquoHealth and Nutrition in Mycenaean Greece A Study in Human Skeletal Remainsrdquo In Contributions to Aegean Archaeology Studies in Honor of William A McDonald edited by NC Wilkie and WDE Coulson 197-209 Minneapolis Center for Ancient Studies University of Minnesota

Bisel S 1992 ldquoThe Human Skeletal Remainsrdquo In Excavations at Nichoria in Southwest Greece Volume II The Bronze Age Occupation edited by William A McDonald and Nancy C Wilkie 345ndash58 Minneapolis University of Minnesota Press

Blegen CW 1937 Prosymna The Helladic Settlement Preceding the Argive Heraeum Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Bocquet-Appel JP and C Masset 1982 ldquoFarewell to Paleodemographyrdquo Journal of Human Evolution 11 321ndash33 doi0047-248482040321

Boyd MJ 2014 ldquoThe Materiality of Performance in Mycenaean Funerary Practicesrdquo World Archaeology 0 (0) 1ndash14 doi101080004382432013879045

mdashmdashmdash 2016 ldquoBecoming Mycenaean The Living the Dead and the Ancestors in the Transformation of Society in Second Millennium BC Southern Greecerdquo In Death Rituals Social Order and the Archaeology of Immortality in the Ancient World ldquoDeath Shall Have No Dominionrdquo edited by C Renfrew MJ Boyd and I Morley 200ndash220 Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Buikstra JE (ed) 1990 A Life in Science Papers in Honor of J Lawrence Angel Biological Anthropology Unit of the American Anthropological Association Scientific Papers No 6 Kampsville Center for American Archaeology

Buikstra JE and LA Beck 2006 ldquoPrefacerdquo In Bioarchaeology The Contextual Analysis of Human Remains edited by JE Buikstra and LA Beck xvii New York Elsevier

References

Buikstra JE and A Lagia 2009 ldquoBioarchaeological Approaches to Aegean Archaeologyrdquo In New Directions in the Skeletal Biology of Greece edited by LA Schepartz SC Fox and C Bourbou 7-30 Athens American School of Classical Studies at Athens doi101111j1548-1433201001294x

Buikstra JE and E Prevodorou 2012 John Lawrence Angel (1915-1986) In The Global history of paleopathology Pioneers and Prospects edited by J E Buikstra and C A Roberts 13-33 Oxford Oxford University Press

Buikstra JE and DH Ubelaker 1994 Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains Fayetteville Arkansas Archaeological Survey

Cavanagh W 2008 Death and the Mycenaeans In The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age edited by CW Shelmerdine 327ndash41 Cambridge Cambridge University Press doi101017CCOL9780521814447

Cavanagh W and C Mee 1998 A Private Place Death in Prehistoric Greece Studies in Jonsered Paul Astroumlms Foumlrlag

Chamberlain AT 2006 Demography in Archaeology Cambridge Chambridge University Press

Charles RP 1963 Etude Anthropologique Des Neacutecropoles drsquoArgos Contribution Agrave Lrsquoeacutetude Des Populations de La Gregravece Antique Paris

Davis JL SA Alcock J Bennet YG Yolos and CW Shelmerdine 1997 ldquoThe Pylos Regional Archaeological Project Part 1 Overview and the Archaeological Surveyrdquo Hesperia 66 391ndash494

Dickinson OTPK L Papazoglou-Manioudaki Argyro Nafplioti and AJNW Prag 2012 Mycenae Revisited Part 4 Assessing the New Data Annual of the British School at Athens 1ndash28 doi101017S0068245412000056

Dirlik N 2012 The Tholos Tombs of Mycenaean Greece MA Thesis Uppsala University

Duhig C 2008 The Human Remains In Ayios Stephanos Excavations at a Bronze Age and Medieval Settlement in Southern

Laconia Supplement Athens British School at Athens

Fisher Ronal A 1930 The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection Oxford Clarendon Press

Galaty ML and WA Parkinson 2007 Introduction Mycenaean Palaces Rethought Rethinking Mycenaean Palaces II Revised and Expanded Cotsen Institute Monograph 60 1ndash17 Los Angeles Cotsen Institute of Archaeology

Gallou-Minopetrou C 2015 lsquoWhat Would the World Be to Us If Children Were No Morersquo The Archaeology of Children and Death in LH IIIC Greece In Aegis Essays in Medietrranean Archaeology Presented to Matti Egon by the Scholars of the Greek Archaeological Committee UK edited by Z Theodoropoulou Polychroniadis and D Evely 57ndash67 Oxford Archaeopress

Gallou C 2004 More than Little Perishers Child Burials and the Living Society in Mycenaean Greece Ethnograhisch-Archaumlologische Zeitschrift 45 365ndash75

mdashmdashmdash 2005 The Mycenaean Cult of the Dead Oxford Oxbow

Gejvall NG 1977 Appendix II The Human Remains In The Cuirass Tomb and Other Finds at Dendra Part I The Chamber Tombs edited by P Aringstroumlms 136ndash45 Goumlteborg Paul Aringstroumlms Foumlrlag

Graff E 2011 Mycenaean Occupants of Ancient Kallithea Understanding a Populationrsquos Health Culture and Lifestyle Through Bioarchaeological Analysis MA thesis University of Waterloo

Guy H C Masset and CA Baud 1997 Infant Taphonomy International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 7 221ndash29

Hallager BP and PJP McGeorge 1992 Late Minoan III Burials Khania The Tomb Finds and Deceased in Odos Palama Goumlteborg Paul Aringstroumlms Foumlrlag

Hitchcock L and M Nikolaidou 2013 Gender in Greek and Aegean Prehistory in A Companion to Gender in Prehistory edited by D Bolger 502ndash524Chichester Wiley-Blackwell

Iezzi CA 2005 Regional Differences in the Health Status of Late Bronze Age

Myceneaen Populations from East Lokis Greece PhD Thesis State University of New York at Buffalo

Jones O A 2018a Mycenaean Secondary Burial Revisited legacy data taphonomy and the process of burial in Mycenaean Achaia Greece Bioarchaeology International 2 (4) 217-239

mdashmdashmdash 2018b Burial Exclusion or Inclusion The Demography of Mycenaean Mortuary Practices in Achaia Greece Journal of Greek Archaeology 3 75-93

Jones Olivia A Johannes van der Plicht Lena Papazoglou-Manioudaki and Michalis Petropoulos 2018 Timing Is Everything Radiocarbon Dating Multiple Levels in the Mycenaean Tholos Tomb of Petroto STAR Science and Technology of Archaeological Research DOI 1010802054892320181428408

Karantzali E and T McGeorge 2013 Η Διαχρονική Χρήση Του Νεκροταφείου Στον Προφήτη Ηλία Στις Κομποτάδες Φθιώτιδας Μια Πρώτη Προσέγγιση Με Βάση Τα Ευρήματα Του Τάφου ΙV In Πρακτικά 5ου Συνεδρίου Φθιωτικής Ιστορίας 51ndash94 Lamia Πνευματικό Κέντρο Σταυρού ΝΠΔΔ Δήμου Λαμιέων

Kassimi P 2015 The Mycenaean Cemeteries of North-Eastern Corinthia and the Early Tholos Tomb at Ancient Corinth In Mycenaeans up to Date The Archaeology of the North-Eastern Peloponnese- Current Concepts and New Directions 503ndash14

Konigsberg LW and JE Buikstra 1995 ldquoRegional Approaches to the Investigation of Past Human Biocultural Structurerdquo In Regional Approaches to Mortuary Analysis edited by Lane Beck Plenum Press New York pp 191-219

Lagia A and W Cavanagh 2010 Burials from Kouphovouno Sparta Lakonia In Mesohelladika The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age edited by AJ Philippa-Touchais G Touchais G S Voutsaki and J Wright 333ndash46 Athens

Lagia A A Papathanasiou and S Triantaphyllou 2014 The State of Approaches to Archaeological Human

Remains in Greece In Archaeological Human Remains Global Perspectives edited by B OrsquoDonnabhain and MC Lozada Cerna 105ndash26 New York Springer

Lazarus John 2002 Human sex ratios adaptations and mechanisms problems and prospects in Ian CW Hardyrsquos Sex Ratios Concepts and Research Methods 287-311 Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Lebegyev J 2009a Child Burials in Mycenaean Greece The Archaeology of Childhood in the Early Mycenaean Period Unpublished PhD Dissertation Budapest Eoumltvoumls Loraacutend University

mdashmdashmdash 2009b Phases of Childhood in Early Mycenaean Greece Childhood in the Past 2 (September) 15ndash32

Lemos I S 2006 Athens and Lefkandi A Tale of Two Sites In Ancient Greece From the Mycenaean Palaces to the Age of Homer edited by S Deger-Jalkotzy and IS Lemos 505ndash30 Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press

Mee C 1998 Gender Bias in Mycenaean Mortuary Practices In Cemetery and Society in the Aegean Bronze Age edited by K Branigan 166ndash70 Sheffield Sheffield Academic Press

Milka E 2010 Burials Upon the Ruins of Abandoned Houses in the Middle Helladic Argolid In Mesohelladika The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age edited by Anna Philippa-Touchais Gilles Touchais Sofia Voutsaki and James C Wright 433ndash443 Athens Ecole Francaise drsquoAthenes

Morris I 1987 Burial and Ancient Society The Rise of the Greek City-State Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Moutafi I 2015 Towards a Social Bioarchaeology of the Mycenaean Period A Multi-Disciplinary Analysis of Funerary Remains from the Late Helladic Chamber Tomb Cemetery of Voudeni Achaea Greece Unpublished PhD Dissertation Sheffield University of Sheffield

Moutafi I and S Voutsaki 2016 Commingled Burials and Shifting Notions of the Self at the Onset of the Mycenaean Era (1700-1500 BC) The Case of the

Ayios Vasilios North Cemetery Laconia Journal of Archaeological Science Reports 10 780ndash90

Musgrave Jonathan H and MR Popham 1991 The Late Helladic IIIC Intramural Burials at Leftkandi Euboea The Annual of the British School at Athens 86 273ndash96

Mylonas George E 1973 Ο Ταφικός Κύκλος Β Των Μυκηνών Athens The Archaeological Society of Athens

Nakassis D forthcoming άγνωστος λησμονημένος απrsquoόλους Why the ldquoperipheryrdquo should be central to Mycenaean studies The Periphery of the Mycenaean World 3rd International Interdisciplinary Colloquium Lamia

Pakenham-Walsh M and AJB Wace 1955 Part II The Prehistoric Cemetery Graves Below The House of the Warrior Vase The Annual of the British School at Athens 50 190-193

Papathanasiou A 2002 A Study of the Human Skeletal Remains of the Mycenaean Tombs from Bronze Age Sykia Lakonia Greece American Journal of Physical Anthropology 117 (Supplement 34) 122ndash23 doi101002ajpa20013

mdashmdashmdash 2005 Μια Βιοαρχαιολογική Προσέγγιση Στο Ανθρωπολογικό Υλικό Από Το Μυκηναϊκό Νεκροταφείο Στα Σπαλιαρέϊκα Λουσικών Αχαΐας Αρχαιολογικά Ανάλεκτα Εξ Αθηνών 35ndash38 Athens Ταμείο Αρχαιολογικών Πόρων και Απαλλοτριώσεων 195ndash98

mdashmdashmdash 2009 Το Ανθρωπολογικο Οστεολογικο Υλικο Απο Τον Μυκηναϊκο Θολωτο Ταφο Στη Θεση Καζανακι Βολου In Αρχαιολογικό Έργο Θεσσαλίας Και Στερεάς Ελλάδας 2 151ndash61 Volos Εργαστήριο Αρχαιολογίας Πανεπιστημίου Θεσσαλίας amp Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού

Papathanasiou A A Lagia A Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou and P Arachoviti 2012 Βιοαρχαιολογικα Δεδομενα Απο Το Μυκηναϊκο Νεκροταφειο Στο Βελεστινο Μαγνησιας (Bioarchaeological Data from the Mycenaean Cemetery at Velestino Magnesia) In Αρχαιολογικό Έργο Θεσσαλίας Και Στερεάς Ελλάδας 3 2213ndash

27 Volos Εργαστήριο Αρχαιολογίας Πανεπιστημίου Θεσσαλίας amp Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού

Papazoglou-Manioudaki L A Nafplioti JH Musgrave and AJNW Prag 2010 Mycenae Revisited Part 3 The Human Remains from Grave Circle A at Mycenae Behind the Masks A Study of the Bones of Shaft Graves IndashV The Annual of the British School at Athens 105 157ndash224 doi101017S0068245400000393

Papazoglou-Manioudaki L C Pascahalidis and OA Jones 2019 Community and Memory in the Periphery of the Mycenaean World Incidents in the Life of the Mygdalia Settlement near Patras in Achaea MnemePast and Memory in the Aegean Bronze Age edited by E Borgna I Caloi F Carincia and R Laffineur17th International Aegean Conference Venice Italy

Paschalidis C and PJP McGeorge 2009a Life and Death in the Periphery of the Mycenaean World at the End of the Late Bronze Age The Case of the Achaea Klauss Cemetery In From the Aegean to the Adriatic Social Organisations Modes of Exchange and Interactions in Postpalatial Times (12th - 11th BC) edited by E Borgna and PC Guida 79ndash113 Rome Quasar

mdashmdashmdash 2009b The LMIII Cemetery at Tourloti Siteia The ldquoXanthoudidis Masterrdquo and the Octopus Style in East Crete BAR Intern Oxford Oxbow

Petroutsa E G Foudoulakis O Vikatou and SK Manolis 2002 Bioarchaeological Study of the Late Bronze Age Cemetery of Agia Triada Ilida (W Peloponnese) In Proceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the Hellenic Society for Biological Sciences Eretria Euboea Island May 23-26 2002 240

Petroutsa E Michael P Richards L Kolonas and S K Manolis 2009 Isotope Paleodietary Analysis of Human and Fauna from the Late Bronze Age Site of Voudeni In New Directions in the Skeletal Biology of Greece edited by LA Schepartz SC Fox and C Bourbou 43237ndash43 Princeton doi101111j1548-1433201001294x

Philippa-Touchais A and N Papadimitriou 2015 Deiras Argos The Mycenaean Cemetery Revisited in the Light of Unpublished Finds from W Vollgraffs Excavations In Mycenaeans up to Date The Archaeology of the North-Eastern Peloponnese- Current Concepts and New Directions edited by AL Schallin and I Tournavitou 449ndash67 Stockholm

Pomadere Maia 2010 De lindifferenciation a la discrimination spatiale des sepultures Variete des comportements a legard des enfants morts pendant lHM-HR I In Mesohelladika The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age edited by Anna Philippa-Touchais Gilles Touchais Sofia Voutsaki and James C Wright 417ndash29 Athens Ecole Francaise drsquoAthenes

Ruppenstein F 2010 Gender and Regional Differences in Middle Helladic Burial Customs In Mesohelladika The Greek Mainland in the Middle Bronze Age edited by Anna Philippa-Touchais Gilles Touchais Sofia Voutsaki and James C Wright 431ndash39 Athens Ecole Francaise drsquoAthenes

Rutter JB 2003 Children in Aegean Prehistory In Coming of Age in Ancient Greece Images of Childhood from the Classical Past edited by J Neils and JH Oakley 30ndash57 New Haven Yale University Press

Sarri K 2016 Intra Extra Inferus and Supra Mural Burials of the Middle Helladic Period Spatial Diversity in Practice In Staging Death Funerary Performance Architecture and Landscape in the Aegean edited by A Dakouri-Hild and MJ Boyd 117ndash138 Berlin De Gruyter

Saunders SR 1992 Subadult Skeletons and Growth Related Studies In Skeletal Biology of Past Peoples Research Methods edited by SR Saunders and MA Katzenberg 1ndash20 New York Wiley-Liss

Schepartz LA S Miller-Antonio and JMA Murphy 2009 Differential Health Among the Mycenaeans of Messenia Status Sex and Dental Health at Pylos In New Directions in the Skeletal Biology of Greece edited by LA Schepartz SC Fox

and C Bourbou 155ndash74 Athens American School of Classical Studies at Athens doi101111j1548-1433201001294x

Shelmerdine CW 1997 Review of Aegean Prehistory VI The Palatial Bronze Age of the Southern and Central Greek Mainland American Journal of Archaeology 101 (3) 537ndash85

Sirkin RM 2006 Statistics for the Social Sciences Third Edition Thousand Oaks California Sage

Smith RAK and MK Dabney 2012 Children and Adornment in Mycenaean Funerary Ritual at Ayia Sotira Nemea In Kosmos Jewellery Adornment and Textiles in the Aegean Bronze Age Proceedings of the 13th International Aegean Conference edited by ML Nosch and R Laffineur 441ndash46 Leuven Peeters

Smith RAK MK Dabney E Pappi S Triantiphyllou and J C Wright Ayia Sotira A Mycenaean chamber tomb cemetery in the Nemea Valley Greece Philadelphia INSTAP Press

Smith SK 1998 A Biocultural Analysis of Social Status in Mycenaean (Late Bronze Age) Athens Greece Unpublished PhD Dissertation Indiana University

Taylour WD and R Janko 2008 Ayios Stephanos Excavations at a Bronze Age and Medieval Settlement in Southern Laconia Supplement Athens British Archaeological Reports

Triantaphyllou S 2001 A Bioarchaeological Approach to Prehistoric Cemetery Populations from Central and Western Greek Macedonia BAR Series Oxford Archaeopress

mdashmdashmdash 2011 The Human Remains In Mochlos IIC Period IVThe Mycenaean Settlement and Cemetery The Human Remains and Other Finds edited by JS Soles and C Davaras Philadelphia INSTAP Academic Press

Voutsaki S 2004 Age and Gender in the Southern Greek Mainland 2000-1500 BC Ethnograhisch-Archaumlologische Zeitschrift 45 339ndash63

Voutsaki S E Milka S Triantaphyllou and C Zerner 2013 Middle Helladic Lerna Diet Ecomony and Society In Diet Economy and Society in the Ancient Greek World Towards a Better Integration of Archaeology and Science edited by S Voutsaki and S Valamoti Pharos Sup 133ndash47 Leuven Peeters

Weiss K 1973 Demographic Models for Anthropology Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology 27 1ndash186 doi10230725146719

James W Wood Darryl J Holman Kathleen A OrsquoConnor and Rebecca J Ferrel 2002 Mortality models for Paleodemography In RD Hoppa and JW Vaupel Paleodemography Age Distributions from Skeletal Samples Cambridge Studies in

Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology 31 Cambridge University Press Cambridge Pp-129-168

Wright JC 1995 From Chief to King in Mycenaean Society in The Role of the Ruler in the Prehistoric Aegean edited by P Rehak pp 63ndash75 Lieacutege Universiteacute de Lieacutege

Wright JC E Pappi S Triantaphyllou MK Dabney Panagiotis Karkanas Georgia Kotzamani and Alexandra Livarda 2008 Nemea Valley Archaeological Project Excavations at Barnavos Final Report Hesperia The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens 77 (4) 607ndash54

Discussion and conclusions

CHAPTER 7

71 Processing Mycenaean Burial Traditions

This project focuses on two main issues within Mycenaean burial traditions secon-dary treatment and burial exclusion Ap-proaching these themes with a multi-faceted bioarchaeological methodology has allowed me to explore the evidence in a new light

711 Mycenaean Achaia Chapter 2 addressed the questions set out in Chapter 1 of What is the timeline for the introduction and adoption of Mycenaean mortuary practices in Achaia Thus this chapter focused on the adoption and variations within mortuary practices of Mycenaean Achaia By evaluating the changes through time my aim was to distinguish the idiosyncratic variations from true local traditions I separated the evidence of tomb types grave goods and treatment of the body by Pre-Palatial Palatial Post-Palatial periods in order to systematically outline the variations The results suggest that mortuary practices during the Pre-Palatial period in Achaia exhibited experimentation and hybridiza-tion especially seen in the built tombs and at certain sites that possess multiple tomb types107 Alternatively mortuary traditions primarily mirror those of other regions essentially subscribing to the Mycenaean koine during the Palatial Period However

107 Achaia is not unique in this respect sites such as Thorikos and Marathon also possess multiple tomb types

during the Post-Palatial period in Achaian mortuary practices underwent major chang-es During the IIIC period local Achaian mortuary traditions are prevalent as seen in the lsquowarrior-burialsrsquo that have attracted considerable scholarly attention Properly situated in their archaeological context the lsquowarrior-burialsrsquo distinguish Mycenaean Achaia as possessing an alternative sequence of events possibly amounting to a different tradition compared to the rest of the Mycenaean world during the Post-Palatial period Also the increase and emphasis on imports (or stylistically foreign) grave goods suggest that not only were the Mycenaean Achaians practicing a local burial tradition but also that they were placing emphasis on non-Mycenaean goods suggesting an internationalizing society In addition this chapter serves an important reminder that an archaeology of Mycenaean Achaia is an archaeology of death due to the abundant cemetery record As more settlements are excavated in this region the fuller picture of Mycenaean Achaia (and the attitudes of the inhabitants towards burial) will likely be amended

712 Taphonomy Chapter 3 Jones 2018a addresses the aforementioned questions of What is se-condary burial in Mycenaean mortuary practice How can we reconstruct the actions that produced the burial deposits Mycenaean tombs contain deposits of disar-ticulated and commingled human remains found in piles scatters and pits These deposits have been labeled as ldquosecondary burialsrdquo without questioning their

Chapter 6

CHAPTER 6

Publication data

Abstract

Keywords

CHAPTER 6

Publication data

Abstract

Keywords

Central Greece

Elis 26 Agia Triada

Messenia

Area I amp II

Central Greece

Elis 26 Agia Triada

Messenia

Area I amp II

63 Methods

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Male Female

66 Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 6

CHAPTER 6

Publication data

Abstract

Keywords

Central Greece

Elis 26 Agia Triada

Messenia

Area I amp II

Central Greece

Elis 26 Agia Triada

Messenia

Area I amp II

63 Methods

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Male Female

66 Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 6

Central Greece

Elis 26 Agia Triada

Messenia

Area I amp II

Central Greece

Elis 26 Agia Triada

Messenia

Area I amp II

63 Methods

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Male Female

66 Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 6

Central Greece

Elis 26 Agia Triada

Messenia

Area I amp II

63 Methods

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Male Female

66 Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 6

63 Methods

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Male Female

66 Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 6

63 Methods

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Male Female

66 Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 6

63 Methods

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Male Female

66 Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 6

63 Methods

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Male Female

66 Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 6

63 Methods

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Male Female

66 Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 6

63 Methods

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Male Female

66 Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 6

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Extramural

Chamber Tomb Sites

Male Female

66 Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 6

Documents

University of Groningen The Process of Death Jones, Olivia