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University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Energy andResourcesGroup
Energy, Risk, and the Environment
Daniel M. Kammen
Department of Nuclear EngineeringEnergy and Resources Group; Goldman School of Public Policy
Director, Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory (RAEL)
University of California, Berkeley
Berkeley in Silicon Valley, March 1, 2003
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
• Understanding & building clean energy markets– Distributed generation and clean power
• Locus of energy & locus of impacts• Solar and wind; fuel cells/hydrogen infrastructure
– Solar, wind, and biomass energy in developing nations
• Energy policy– Beyond the environment vs. economy debate
• Deep cuts in carbon emissions• Energy and society
– Energy and health impacts: equity differences based on gender, ethnicity and socioeconomics
Some RAEL Activities
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
QuickTime™ and aPhoto - JPEG decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
With so much attention focused on this risk, we must not loose sight of the reasons for the current situation?
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
A Simple Plan: Energy Policy
• September 11 illustrates the basic problems with U. S. resource/economic policy.
• The U. S. has an energy policy, and it has been the same for the last Century: cheap wins.
• We can debate the past but the current policy is bad business today. Instead, consider what makes sense:
• Energy diversity = energy security = sound economics• This is not happening, despite amazing advances• Lets look at why we got here, and our options.
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Global Carbon Budget units are tons of carbon per year
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Glacier National Park: Montana:
All glaciers in the park will be gone by 2070 if retreat continues at its current rate.
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
GLOBAL WARMING: Early Warning GLOBAL WARMING: Early Warning SignsSigns
htt
p:/
/ww
w.c
limate
hotm
ap
.org
/
Fingerprints and HarbingersHeat waves and periods of unusually warm weather
Sea level rise and coastal flooding
Glaciers melting
Arctic and Antarctic warming
Spreading disease
Earlier spring arrival
Plant and animal range shifts and population declines
Coral reef bleaching
Downpours, heavy snowfalls, and flooding
Droughts and fires
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
And now, appearing in The Economist
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Energy Star HomeAverage
Dane
Average in Berkeley
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Global Renewable Energy Investment, billion dollars per year(Total of $90 billion invested from 1995-2002)
6.10 6.267.16
8.58
10.71
13.08
15.86
17.51
0
5
10
15
20
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Solar PV Wind Solar hot waterGeothermal power Biomass power Small hydroTotal
Source: w/Eric Martinot, World Bank
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Case 2: Solar PVWorld Solar PV Sales (1988-2001)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Solar PV Sales (MWp)
Year
19% Annual Sales Growth(1988-2001)
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Introduction to the Kenyan Market
• Pop: 30 million, 75% rural
• Per capita income ~ $300 ($1000 ppp adjusted)
• Only 2% of rural pop. is served by the electrical grid
• Largest solar PV market per capita among non-industrialized countries
• EAA/RAEL work in solar market for 15+ years
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Kenya Solar Market Growth Linked to Infrastructure & Capacity Building Efforts?
• SHS market grew out of donor aid market in 1980s
• Infrastructure & capacity building support key for sustained growth
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999
Crystalline PVAmorphous PV
Photovoltaic Module Sales(peak Kilowatts)
Year
17% annual growth (1989-1999)
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Research Question [#0]Are a-Si Panels a Good Investment?
• Lower capital cost than x-Si
• More fragile than x-si
• Reputation for inconsistent performance
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Advertising “Wars” in Kenyan Press:a-Si (‘low price’) vs. x-Si (‘quality’)
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Kenya Solar Market Supply Chain
• 75% of market = unsubsidized SHS sales
• Solar supply chain is competitive & extensive– ~10 major import companies
– 50+ solar vendors in Nairobi
– ~ 500 town based vendors
– 1000 to 2000 solar technicians
– 20,000 SHS sold annually
• A regional hub
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Finding Systems in the Field‘Cruising Solar’
• Energy Alternatives Africa, Nairobi
• Local vendors and technicians
• KPLC field crews
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Performance Results for a-Si PV Modules(data from 1999)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Koncar(12 Wp)
Free EnergyEurope
(12 Wp)
IntersolarPhoenix Gold
(14 Wp)
CrystallinePV (various
brands)
Maximum Power Output(% of Rated Power)
Module Brand
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Staebler Wronski Degradation for a New NAPS aSi PV Module
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cum. Solar Energy = 0 kWh/m 2
Cum. Solar Energy = 62 kWh/m 2
Cum. Solar Energy = 404 kWh/m 2
Current (amperes)
Voltage (volts)
• Pmax = 15.9 W o Pmax = 11.2 W x Pmax = 10.6 W
TypicalOperatingVoltage
Typical Operating Current
Typical Operating Current
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
PV Module Output vs. Age
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 5 10 15
Linear Regression for Combined Data Koncar Panels (12 Wp)Old NAPS Panels (11 Wp)
Regression Equation: Output = 0.90 - 0.012*Age
Module Output (Measured Wp as Fraction of Rated Wp)
PV Module Age
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Linking Research to Action: Communicating Conclusions to Get Results
• International academic & policy community
• Solar module manufacturers
• Kenyan solar energy industry
• Rural Kenyans Solar Energy SeminarJanuary 18, 2000Nairobi, Kenya
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Linking Research to Action:Building Capacity in the Kenya Solar Market
• Solarnet: Communicating with solar technicians– “AJ’s Technical Tips” for capacity building - Arne Jacobson
• Seminars in Nairobi– stakeholder meeting on capacity building in solar industry
• Support fundraising to implement recommendations
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Kenya Solar Supply Chain Survey Results
• Key Results:– Non-specialist solar technicians & vendors
dominate the Kenyan solar supply chain– Few non-specialists have adequate training &
knowledge to provide high quality services– Willingness to pay for training &
information is high
• Non-specialists are vendors & technicians for whom solar is only a small part of work
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Seven Reasons for Emergence of the Kenya Solar Home System Market
1) Electricity from grid is unavailable
2) Automotive battery use high in rural areas
3) Television broadcast signals in rural Kenya
4) PV import companies in Nairobi in 1980s– SHS supply chain grew out of donor aid supply chain
5) Innovative marketing by solar vendors (catalysts)
6) Price of solar & accessories decreasing over time
7) Kenyan rural middle class development– cash crops, remittances, & rural teachers
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Capacity Building in the Kenya Solar Market
• Conventional Wisdom– Training has focused on creating solar specialists
• Our Recommendations (and Actions...)– Focus training on non-specialist technicians & vendors– Use short training courses to reach many technicians & vendors– Include solar training in electrical courses at polytechnics– Business management is alien to courses in what is seen as a ‘technical
trade’– Disseminate information through trade magazines
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
World PV Module Shipments (1985-1998)(in Megawatts)
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
Rest of World 1.4 2.3 2.8 3 4 4.7 5 4.6 4.4 5.6 6.35 9.75 9.4 18.7
Europe 3.4 4 4.5 6.7 7.9 10.2 13.4 16.4 16.55 21.7 20.1 18.8 30.4 30.1
Japan 10.3 12.6 13.2 12.8 14.2 16.8 19.9 18.8 16.7 16.5 16.4 21.2 35 49.2
United States 7.7 7.1 8.7 11.1 14.1 14.8 17.1 18.1 22.44 25.64 34.75 38.85 51 53.7
Total 22.8 26 29.2 33.6 40.2 46.5 55.4 57.9 60.09 69.44 77.6 88.6 125.8 151.7
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
San Francisco: 40 MW solar package financed by a $100 million revenue bondGlobal shipments in 2001: 402 MW
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Solar Subdivisions
Clarum Homes is proud to present Watsonville's newest community, Cherry Blossom. Framed by the rolling hills of Watsonville and the Monterey coastline, Cherry Blossom offers an ideal location that has easy commuter access, and is close to schools, shopping and great recreational areas.
The craftsman style two story homes offer three and four bedrooms with 2 1/2 bathrooms, two car garages and inviting front porches. Our homes are designed with great rooms, master suites, energy saving features (i.e. solar electricity) and environmentally friendly materials.
Don't miss out on the opportunity to purchase a home at our special pre-grand opening prices. There are only a few units left in Phase III and there are no homeowner dues!
Model and Sales Office Open Thursday through Tuesday 12pm - 6pm. Call (831) 724-8494
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
$1.00
$10.00
$100.00
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
100s of cumulative ballasts produced
1997$/ballast
1986
1997
Experience Curve for Compact Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts
A typical learning curve:~20% decrease in costs for each doubling of total production.
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Experience Curve for Photovoltaic Modules vs MW Produced
0
1
10
100
0 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
cumulative MWp
$/W
p 2000
1976
Projected 2020: ~ $1 - 1.50/watt
Learning rate: 22%
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Dramatic Cost Reductions with Use
wind
PV
Learning Drives Down the Cost of Renewables
Learning is dynamically driven by market opportunity
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael Source: DOE, Clean Energy Futures (2000)
U.S. Gov't R&D by Budget Function, 1955-1997
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
55 58 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85 88 91 94 97
Year
Billions (1992$)
Defense
Other
General Science
Space
Energy
Health
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Federal R&D PolicyCan be Effective
Figure 1. Total U.S. patents granted and total U.S. investments in R&D.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Year
0
50
100
150
200
250
Patents Granted
Funds for R&D
From: R. Margolis and D. Kammen (1999)Science, volume 285, pages 690 - 692, 30 July issue. Available at:http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael/papers.html
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Lack of Federal R&D policy… leads to lack of support for energy options
Figure 2. U.S. energy technology patents and total U.S. energy R&D.
0
50
100
150
200
250
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Year
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
PatentsGranted
Funds forEnergy R&D
From: R. Margolis and D. Kammen (1999)Science, volume 285, pages 690 - 692, 30 July issue. Available at:http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael/papers.html
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
The Federal Responses …So Far
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1980
1995
-33%
-58%
+20%
-6%
-85%
-53%
-32%-12%Δ = +29%
-89%
Gov
ernm
ent
Ene
rgy
R&
D B
udge
t (bi
llio
n $1
995)
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Electricity Use of Refrigerators and Freezers in the US compared to Generation from Nuclear, Hydro, Renewables and ANWR
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800B
illio
n k
Wh
per
yea
r
150 M Refrig/Freezers
at 1974 eff at 2001 eff
Nuclear
Conventional Hydro
Existing Renewables
ANWR @10,000 Btu/kWh
100 Million Rooftop PV System @ 1kW
Sa
ved
Use
d Use
d
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
The Value of Energy Saved and Produced(production @ .03 and savings @ .085 $/kWh)
0
5
10
15
20
25
Billion $ per year
Energy Saved from150 M Refrig/Freezersat 2001 efficiency
Nuclear
Conventional Hydro
Existing Renewables
ANWR @10,000 Btu/kWh
100 Million Rooftop PV System @ 1kW
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Renewable Energy Markets in Developing Countries
*
The Power of Efficiency & Innovation(World Primary Power or Energy)
TW
a
0
10
20
30
40
50
2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
= -1%/yr
= -2%/yr
= -3%/yr
6 billion people @ 2 kW* = 12
TW = 0%/yr
10 billion people @ 5 kW = 50 TW
Year
= Annual % growth in Energy/GDP
=
+1%
/yr
Qu
ad
s/y
r
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
* Average, not equitably distributed
Countriesare in thisrange
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
If we value the environment, we must utilize renewable energy
Carbon Emissions for Various Electricity Generation Options
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Coal Steam Coal IGCC Coal AIGCC Gas CC Nuclear Renewables
550450
Carbon/kWh for atmospheric stabilization
at 450, 550 ppm
kg (
carb
on)/
kWh
of E
lect
rici
ty
Advanced coal technologies
Atmospheric CO2 concentration in 1850: 265 ppmAtmospheric CO2 concentration in 2000: 370 ppm
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
If we value the environment, we must utilize renewable energy
Carbon Emissions for Various Electricity Generation Options
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Coal Steam Coal IGCC Coal AIGCC Gas CC Nuclear Renewables
550450
Carbon/kWh for atmospheric stabilization
at 450, 550 ppm
kg (
carb
on)/
kWh
of E
lect
rici
ty
Advanced coal technologies
Atmospheric CO2 concentration in 1850: 265 ppmAtmospheric CO2 concentration in 2000: 370 ppm
= -1%/yr
Note: in Art Rosenfeld’s slides, his , and the one I indicate here are for Calif. roughly the same. His = -1 will, as I indicate here, decrease this blue bar by 1% each year
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
4,684 MW of Wind Capacity as of Jan. 23, 2003
Largest single project: WA/OR Stateline wind: 300 MW
INTERNATIONAL:Germany: 12,001 MW
Spain: 4,820 MWUS: 4,684 MW
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
DoE/EIA Studies Put 20% Federal RPS by 2020 at, or below, BAU Costs
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
1942... 2002...
We have valued vehicle efficiency in the past.
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
1942... 2002...
What have we learned in 60 years?
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
We have decisions to make
A real transportation strategy is an important part of any clean energy plan
• For example: adopt a minimum, CAFE fleet average (e.g. 30 mpg, then ramp up)• Efficiency rewards in parking, parking fines (why not energy efficient mortgages?)
A Berkeley street, 2001
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Enabling Technologies:Fuel Cells
• Fuel cells are being developed for use in electric vehicles, for stationary distributed power generation (DG), and for powering electronic devices.
• High Efficiency Systems w/Untapped Potential: Fuel cell systems today have electrical efficiencies of 40-55%, but with use of waste heat energy, overall efficiencies can reach >80%.
• Multiple Benefits: Fuel cell vehicles can play an important role in generating power for buildings, while the vehicles are parked. – There is about 14 times as much power in the vehicle
fleet as in all the stationary power plants in the U.S.!
PlugPower 5 kWStationary fuel cell
Toyota RAV-4Hybrid Battery/ Fuel Cell Vehicle
Examples:
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Summary: Powerful Partnerships
• Emerging clean energy markets• e.g East African solar, Asian wind, Biomass
• Largest, fastest growing power sector
• Technological and financial mainstreaming• Following path of energy efficiency
• Diverse Power Production (support true IPPs)
• Renewable Portfolio Standard(s)
• Global Markets – Energy/security, carbon, health (clean energy)
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
For more information
ERG:
http://socrates.berkeley.edu/erg
Renewable & Appropriate Energy Laboratory
http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~dkammen
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Recent Publications by RAEL on Solar Markets in Developing Countries
• Duke, R.D., and Kammen, D.M. (1999) "The Economics of Energy Market Transformation Initiatives," The Energy Journal, 20 (4), 15-64.
• Jacobson, A., Duke, R., Kammen, D. M., and Hankins, M. (2000) “Field Performance Measurements of Amorphous Silicon Photovoltaic Modules in Kenya”, Conference Proceedings, ASES, Madison, WI, June 16-21, 2000.
• Duke R., Graham S., Hankins M., Jacobson A., Kammen D., Osawa B., Pulver S., and Walther E., (2000) “Field Performance Evaluations of Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Photovoltaic Systems in Kenya: Methods and Measurements in Support of a Sustainable Commercial Solar Energy Industry”, ESMAP, World Bank Report 2000-005.
• Duke, R., Jacobson, A., Kammen, D.M. (2002) “Product Quality in the Kenyan Solar Home Systems Market”, Energy Policy, 30, 477 –499.
• Copies of papers available at http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
RAEL Articles on the Kenya Solar Market in Kenyan Publications
• Jacobson, A., Duke, R., Kammen, D.M. (2000) “Amorphous Silicon PV Panels: Are they a good value for the money?”, Solarnet, Vol.2, No.2, Nairobi, Kenya.
• Jacobson, A., Duke R., and Kammen D. (2001) "Update on the Performance of 14 Watt Phoenix Gold solar panels", Solarnet, vol. 3, no.2.
• Jacobson, Arne (2001) "AJ's Technical Tips - Small solar PV systems should have small batteries", Solarnet, vol.3, no.2.
• Jacobson, Arne (2002) "AJ's Technical Tips - Designing a Small Solar PV System Part I: Calculating the Amount of Energy Used by the Electrical Loads", Solarnet, vol.3, no.3
• Jacobson, Arne (2002) "AJ's Technical Tips - Designing a Small Solar PV System Part II: Sizing the Solar Panel and the Battery", Solarnet, vol.4, no.1
• Copies of papers available at http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Emissions Trading
Existing Investments
Investment type Holdings ($M) Emphasis Investors Regions
Pure Carbon Funds
World Bank PCF 145 Carbon Govt, Private CDM & JI
ERUPT 32 EE, Cogen, RE, Forest Govt CEE
Australian GHG Friendly varies Landfill Meth, RE, capture, EE Private Australia
Private Equity with carbon enhancement
Dexia-FondElec En Eff & Em Redn Fund 63.9 EE Multilat, Private CEE
Ren En & En Eff Fund 65 RE, EE in emerging mkts Govt, Private Em Mkt
FondElec Latam Clean En Svcs Fund 25 EE, microgen, RE Private Latam
Black Emerald Leasing ? RE, Fuelcell, biogas Private Europe
Planned Forestry Funds & Companies
Hancock New Forests Australia 200 sust forest Private Australia
GMO Renewable Resources 50 sust forest Private US, CEE, CDM
COOL ? carbon & forestry Private Latam
Other Planned
UBS Global Alternative Climate 50 carbon Private CDM & JI
Natsource ? en technology Private
Mod from from Bürer (2001)
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Renewable Energy Markets in Developing Countries
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Addendum: Global Climate Change: How clean is a fuel cell car?
•Gasoline ~ C8H17 On a molar basis 113 g of gasoline combusted releases 352 g of CO2
•Assume CH4 is the primary source for H2:
CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2
CO + H2O CO2 + H2 8 g of H2 release 44 g of CO2
CH4 + 2H2O 4H2 + CO2
mile
CO g 442
miles 20
gal
gal
cm 3,785
cm
0.75g
gas. 113g
CO 352g 23
32 =↔↔↔
mile
CO g 272
mile
6MJ
121MJ
1kg
1kg
1000g
gas. 8g
CO 44g 22 =↔↔↔
Gasoline fueled car:
Hydrogen fuel cell car:
car’s energy efficiency: mile
6MJ
miles 20
gallons
gas.gallon
120MJ=↔
Gasoline emits60% more CO2
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
Home PV systems installed recently by upcountry technicians (N = 343)
Component % of SystemsTelevision 87%Lights (any kind) 97% - Lights (fluorescent) 75% - Lights (incandescent) 83%Radio 84%
*for comparison, 1997 Survey of 410 Systems by EAA:- 91% had TV- 75% had lights- 70% had radio
(note that the 1997 survey included systems installed by techniciansas well as ‘self-installed’ systems, while the 2000/20001 survey isfor technician installed systems only)
