University of Nigeria Research Publications

EZE-UZOMAKA, Pamela Ifeoma A

utho

r

PG/Ph.D/93/14683

Title

Archaeological Communications in the Nsukka Area

Facu

lty

Arts

Dep

artm

ent

Archaeology

Dat

e

September, 1996

Sign

atur

e

EZE-UZOMAKA, PAMELA IFEOMA ( ~ ~ / ~ . ~ . / 9 3 / 1 4 6 8 3 )

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY U N I V E R S I T Y OF NIGERIA

N S U K K A

ARCHAEOLOGICAL COMMUNICATION I N T H E NSUKKA AREA

EZE-UZOMAKA, PAMELA IFEOMA ( ~ G / ~ . A . / 9 3 / 1 4 6 8 3 )

A PROJECT SUBMITTED T O THE DEPAR'IM E N T OF ARCHAEOLOGY, FACULTY O F A R T S , U N I V E R S I T Y

O F N I G E R I A , NSUKKA

I N P A R T I A L - F U L F I L M E N T OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

MASTER O F A R T S DEGREE I N ARCHAEOLOGY

SEPTEMBER, 1996

APFHOVAL PAGE

ARCHhEOiOGICAL COMMUNICATION I N THE NSUKKA AREA

EZE-UZOMAKA , PAMELA IFEOMA ( F G / M . A . / 9 3 / 1 4 6 8 3 )

T H l S PROJECT HAS BEEN APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT O F ARCHAEOLOGY, U N I V E R S I T Y

OF N I G E R I A , NSUKKA

. , I ' L. ..-..-. i..

CERTIFICATION

M r s Eze-Uzomaka, P a m e l a I f e o m a , a P o s t g r a d u a t e

s t u d e n t i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A r c h a e o l o g y and w i t h

R e g i s t r a t i o n Number, PG/Ci,A./93/14683, h a s s a t i s f a c -

t o r i l y c o m g , l e t c d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r c o u r s e a n d

r e s e a r c h work f - o r t h e d e g r e e o f Master's i n A r c h a e o l o g y .

T h e work e m b o d i e d i n t h i s t h e s i s / d i s s e r t d t i o n /

p r o j e c t r e p o r t i s o r i q i n a l a n d h& n o t b e e n s u b m i t t e d

i n p a r t or f u l l f o r a n y o t h e r d i p l o m a or d e g r e e o f t h i s

o r a n y o t h e r - U n i v e r s i t y ,

D R . V.E. C H I K W E N D U (HEAD O F DEPARTMENT)

-

DR. E.E. OKAFOR (SUPERVISOR)

D E D I C A T I O N

To God Al.mi.qhty ~ i n d my be loved

h u s b a n d , (jsondu. ' T h a n k s for

e v e r y t h i n g .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I a m g r e a t l y i n d e b t e d to my s u p e r v i s o r , D r . E,E.

O k a f o r whose a d v i s e and e n c o u r a g e m e n t h e l p e d m e to f i n i s h

t h i s work. I o w e a l o t t o h i s p a t i e n c e as w e l l as i n t e r e s t

i n t h e w o r k . I a l s o would l i k e t o a p p r e c i a t e my o l d

t e a c h e r s , D r . V.E Chikwendu and D r . F N, A n o z i e who 0

showed q r e a t i n t e r e s t and e n c o u r a g e m e n t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d

o f my w o r k . D r . Chikwendu was e s p e c i a l l y i n s t r u m e n t a l t o

my t a k i n g a s e c o n d Master o f A r t s i n A r c h a e o l o g y . To him

I s a y may God b l e s s you.

To my t e a c h e r , D r . A l e x I. Okpoko a n d BOW.

Andah, I s a y t . t~a r lks f o r p r o d d i n g m e on. E u t f o r you t h e

t o p i c o f t h i s work w o u l d h a v e b e e n changed to a n o t h e r .

To my f r i e n d s a n d c o l l e a g u e s , P a t . Okpoko, J . N , E z i k e ,

L.c. Ekechukwu and A.M. I b e a n u , I s a y a b i g t h a n k you ,

May God r e w a r d you f o r a l l t h a t you h a v e done.

My a p p r e c i a t i o n and g r a t i t u d e Qo t o o t h e r s t a f f o f

t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A r c h a e o l o g y , Oqa Joe, Odo, L a z and A b e l .' ,. , . .!. .b ,

who t o o k m e t o , t h e f i e l d and a l s o h e l p e d i n numerous ways,

F ' i n a l l y , t:o my b e l o v e d h u s b a n d and f a m i l y who b e l i e v e d

t h a t I cou lc i d o t h i s and g o h i g h e r , t h a n k s , I w i l l n o t l e t

you down. I ) . .I

PAMELA IFEOMA EZE-UZOMAKA

TABLE OF COI'JTENTS

T i t l e P a g e

A p p r o v a l P a g e

C e r t i f i c a t i o n

D e d i c a t i o n

~ c k now1 e d g e m e n t . . . . T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s .. . . L i s t o f F ' iqures . . . L i s t o f P l a t e s . . . . L i s t of k h k l r c v i a t i o n s . . kbs t rac t . . . . CHAPTER ONE:

1.1 TNTIiOLHJCTIGN . 0

1.2 O b j e c t i v e s a n d S c o p e of S t u d y

1.3 F l e t h o c l o l o g y . . 1 . 4 D e f i n i t i o n o f T e r m s . .

CHAPTER TWu:

2 .1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION . . . ? T . >> , * .

2.2 ~ ~ i o m o r ~ h o l o ~ ~ a n d G e o l o g y

2.3 C l i m a t e , V e g e t a t i o n a n d R a i n f a l l

2.4 H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d .. 2.5' Review of S e l e c t e d --L-5 t e r a t u r e

CHAPTER THREE:

3.1 ARCHAEOLGGICAL S I T E S I N THE OLD N S U K K A DIVISION

PAGE

. . i

. . ii

. iii

. . i v

. . v

. . v i

0 . v i i i

. . i x

. . x i

.. x i i

v i i

TABL.E O F CONTENTS ( COIJT' D)

CHAPTER FOUR :

4.1 ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE PUBLIC ( F I ELD WORK ) . . .

4.2 A n a l y s i s and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of F i n d s

CHAPTER F I V E :

5.1 DISCUSSION: A CASE FOR BETTER ARCHAEOLOGICAL COMMUNICATION I N NIGERIA. - 0 - 0

5.2 C o n c l u s i o n

5.3 S u q g e s t i o n s for F u r t h e r R e s e a r c h

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX I : I n t e r v i e w Q u e s t i o n s A d m i n i s t e r e d a t t h e S i tes V i s i t e d . .

APPENDIX 11: S u m m a r y of R e s p o n s e s from t h e T e n Sites . .

FIGU t tE;s

PLATES

PAGE -

81

.%a 7

12 7

134

136

138

14 9

15 1

LIST OF FIGURES

F i g . 1.1:

F i g . 1.2:

F i g . 2.1:

F i g . 2.2:

F i g . 2.3:

Fig. 2.4:

F i g . 3.1:

F i g . 3.2a:

F i g . 3.2b:

F i g . 3 . 2 ~ :

F i g . 3.2d:

F i g . 3.3:

F i g . 3.4:

F i g . 3.5:

F i g . 3-6:

F i g . 3.7:

L o c a t i o n o f Nsukka

Nsukka Area Showing A r c h a e o l o g i c a l S i t e s S t u d i e d

Nsukk a a n d h e r N e i g h b o u r s

G e o l o g i c a l Map o f Nsukka D i v i s i o n

P l a n a t i o n S u r f a c e s i n Nsukka D i v i s i o n

V e g e t a t i o n Map o f S o u t h E a s t e r n N i g e r i a

o ~ i E a r l y I r o n Smel ti ng S i t e s

A ~ U Town and h e r N e i g h b o u r s

Aku Town showing I r o n S m e l t i n g and S m i t h i n g S i t e s

R e c o n s t r u c t e d R i m S h e r d s f rom Aku

P o t S h e r d s from ~ k u

Umundu E a r l y I r o n S m e l t i n g S i t e s

OrGa E a r l y I r o n S m e l t i n g S i t e s

O w e r r e E lu I r o n S m e l t i n g S i t e s

R e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e S h a f t a n d Chamber G r a v e

LIST OF PLATES

p l a t e 1.1:

P l a t e 1.2:

P l a t e 1.3:

P l a t e 2.1:

P l a t e 2.2:

P l a t e 2.3:

P l a t e 3.1:

P l a t e 3.2:

P l a t e 3.3:

P l a t e 3.4:

P l a t e 4.1:

P l a t e 5.1:

P l a t e 5.2:

P l a t e 5.3:

P l a t e 6.1:

P l a t e 6.2:

P l a t e 7.1:

P l a t e 7.2:

P l a t e 8.1:

P l a t e 8.2:

Co l e c t i o n o f S l a g B l o c k s a t L e j ja

P a r t i a l V i e w o f Masquerade House (Odo)

S l a g B l o c k s as S e a t a t L e j j a

o u t l i n e of Old F u r n a c e a t V i n c e n t Abonyi , s Compound, Opi

S l a g B l o c k s as S e a t s a t Opi

C l o s e u p o n S l a g s a t O d i n a n s o I d i Opi

Aku S l a g Sample

C y l i ~ d r i c a l S l a g B l o c k s T u r n e d i n t o a S h r i n e a t Amadinkwereke, Aku

C l o s e u p o n Heap o f s l a g , Aku

Examin ing S l a g Remains a n d P o t s h e r d s a t Aku

T a k i n g S h e 1 ter a t Isi Ugwu Obukpa R o c k s h e l ter

T h e C a n n i b a l i z e d ~ r c h a e o l o g i c a l S i t e , Umundu

Remains o f I k p o Ahuru ( S l a g Heap) a t Umuogaleka , Umundu

O r ~ y i s h i ( C h i e f E x p l a i n i n g Some S a l i e n t P o i n t s

.A V i e w o f t h e Farm S i t e , U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka

~ e c e n t . ' ' ~ % k % ~ ' & i ' o n a t Farm S i t e , U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka ( 1995)

A View o f t h e F o r t a t Okpe I g a l a

T h e D i s u s e d S t a t e o f t h e S i t e ,I - ..

P r e s e n t S t a t e o f l k p o Ahuru ( S l a g Mound) a t Orba

A t y p i c a l B l a c k s m i t h ' s Workshop, V r b a

LIST OF PLATES (CONT'D)

P l a t e 9 - 1 : S l a g Samples drom O w e r r e ~ l u

P l a t e 9.2: Timber Shed E r e c t e d o n t h e S i t e a t Owerre Elu

P l a t e 1 0 , l : N e g l e c t e d B u r i a l Chamber a t Ogbodu Aba

P l a t e 10.2: Close up o n a B u r i a l Chamber a t Ogbodu Aba

ABBREVIATIONS

ed . etc.

Co.

V o l ,

WA J A

L.G.A.

Pub.

I n c .

LJtd.

U.S.A.

F i g .

e t a l .

N o .

1J.N.N.

Dept .

N i g.

BOA-

Pi .A.

e d i t o r

e t cetera

Company

Volume

Kes t A f r i c a n J o u r n a l o f A r c h a e o l o g y

L o c a l Government A r e a

k ~ u b l i s h e r

L i r r~ i t e d

l l n i t e d S t a t c s o f Amer ica

._ind o t h e r s

Nuniber

l l n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka

! i < + c h ~ l o r o f A r t s

P ! a s t e r of A r t s

A B S T R A C T

A number o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s are c a r r i e d

o u t e v e r y y e a r w i t h many a r t e f a c t s r e c o v e r e d f r o m e x c a v a -

t i o n s . Ar t e fac t s a n d c u l t u r a l mater ia l s are c a r t e d away

f r o m t h e s e s i tes , s o r t e d , c a t e g o r i z e d , l a b e l l e d a n d stored

i n v a r i o u s museums, l a b o r ~ t o r i e s , c a b i n e t s , etc. T h e r e

w a s a l a c k i n t .he area o f r e s e a r c h d o n e o n t h e communica-

t i o n o f t h e s i q n i f i c a n c e o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s to

t h e p u b l i c . Hence t h e n e e d f o r t h i s s t u d y .

Two i n v e s t i g a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s were u s e d i n t h e s t u d y .

T h e s e a re p u r p o s i v e / j u d g e m e n t s a m p l i n g a n d e t h n o g r a p h i c

i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T e n s i tes were sampl'ed i n t h o Nsukka area

u s i n g i n t e r v i e w s s i n c e most . o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s were o r a l l y

l i t e r a t e*

T h e s t u d y o f t h e s i tes w e r e carr ied o u t i n t w o p h a s e s . * I n t h e f i r s t ph i i s e , a c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e v i e w o f t h e t e n

s i t es w a s d o n e d e s c r i b i n g t h e sites, t h e w o r k carried o u t

t h e r e a n d t h e s i q n i f i c a n c e o f f i n d i n g s w h i c h were made. ,',,.,.. {. . t . . , t * > * ' .

T h e seconcl p l~ ; . s e r x a n ~ i n e d t h e e f f e c t . o f t h e work o f

a r c h a e o l o g i s t : ; !,$n the: p u b l i c ,

Y i r l d i n g s show t h a t i n a number o f sites, t h e p e o p l e 11 - .C

d i d n o t apprc :c i . iLr t h e r e l e v a n c e o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l work

i n t h e i r zreci, 'I'hcy d i d n o t r e a l l y see t h e n e e d to g e t

i n v o l v e d i n a r c i ! ; l e o l o q i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d i n some

x i i i

s i tes t h e r e w a s d o w n r i g h t a n t a g o n i s m a t t h e

s t a g e . Many of t h e s i tes h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n

i n i t i a l

d e s t r o y e d

o r are i n a b a d s t a t e o f n e g l e c t . P e o p l e l i v i n g i n

s i t e s w h i c h were a b i t r e m o v e d f r o m t h e i r home s t c a d s

p re sen t c :d th t z q r ea tes t d i f f i c u l t ies s i n c e t h e y were

m o s t l y i g n o r ~ ~ n t o f t h e i s s u c ? s d i s c u s s e d . T h e p e o p l e

w e r e e a q e r t o l t S c i r n a n d showed g r e a t i n t e r e s t i n w h a t

t h e y w e r e beile~c] t i 1 ~ c 7 h t h ~ ~ t n e e d e d to g e t a c t i v e l y

i r l v o l v e d i n i.rc-tl . ? o l o q i c a l work t h r o u q h some sor t o f

p a r t i c i p a t i o i - 1 .

CHAPTER OWE

1.1 INTROOUCTfO#

It bas been argued that atcbaeoioguts An

Bri ta in have A A k t l e urrder. tslndsny (or even regard)

for what t h e public th ink about the past or

archaeology (Stsna, 2986; B e w h y , 2983). I n addl-

tion to tks above v i e w , O r d Tutu (1990) p a n t e d

out; that archaro logruts d? not wake 8 conscious

effurt to w r i t s or publimh for the no-spccidiat

aodierra, Ad*mle (1990: 204) has a16s argued that

Hhrgh funct ior~rr iev o f p~ldk at f icss are even lvrrirr,

ignorant of t h e i r r e a l cuftura than the ir prcdeces-

sofs weren. Furthermore, i t has baen stated that

archaeologacal information is nomal ly hidden i n

'high-flying academic jargond (Hodder, 1984) and thut

archaeologists have failed to comunrcrrtc with their

non-academic audienca (Gregory, 1983). I n fact,

Maclcod (1977) ,. hcls ,., a*q. conJended .) > that incu&crt;;lorr of

public awarsnesa and respo~asfbility shourd pracead

the o p e r a t ~ o n of digging up ar t l fac to ,

One wonders whether the aWve obsarvatioas I1 - .C

could be universa l ly true o r are they iocalizsad i n

t i m e and space, Although scanty, tho f o r e g o i n g

r e f e r e n c e s , spread over s e v e r a l caunkci es i n v a r i o u s

continent., Stone (1986) and W l c y (1983) wrote from

a B r i t i s h background, while Haclead ' s (1977) work w a s

based o n Canada i n tho Amaricun c o n t i n e n t . O s e i Tutu

(1990) and Adande (1990) are bared i n Ghana i n the c o n t i -

nent of A f r f c b ,

Mumrour e x c r v a t i o n s have been conducted i n Nigeria .

Coprous m o u n t of artifacts are excavated each year I n

many areas of th is coun t ry , These and many other c u l t u r a l

m a t e r i a l s are c a r t e d away frorr t h e s i t e 8 and dumped i n

museums, U n i v e r s i t y l a b o r a t o r l e a , stores and even home@

and offices, A r t i c l e s and p a p e r s u e w r i t t e n o n t h o s e

d i s c o v e r i e s and ace p u b l i s h e d i n book@ end journa lo , they

a r e d f scuased a t academic confe rences and workshops

sonret~mea i n f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s ,

nost of the research which has been done i n N ~ g a r i a n

uchlreo~ogy has been based r a i r u y on ewcavat lor~uaand

f i n d i n g s front these e x c a v a t i o n s , SOPLC of these research

are o n presarvatienP&6Hde~Vation of finds, Others u s

on c a t e g o r i a i t i o n of sites i n t o a t o n e aye, i r o n age,

n e o l i t h f c , at@,, a8 W @ f l a8 analye is of fanbra. Rrrrearch

o n cono tkvaUon hals looKed in to the r e a m n a why ut i fec t s

have been left ka ro t i n s w a arras and means of e n a u r i n g

t h a t ar t i facts are not lost through curelessneas or lack

f inance*, Work k r s &law been c a r k i t d o u t i n the u e r of

ntureurno as w e l l as i n numerous other &tea# p r t i n e n t to

the study of erch&soLogy r n Wigaria. When 1F embarked

on a l i t e r a t u r e review, I d i s o v w e d 6 vacuum i n t h a

area of r e a a a r c h on the e f f a c t i v e cownunlcation o f t h e

a i g n i f i c m c r r o f aurchaeorogicall f i n d i n g s t o tha N~garian

p u b l i c e s p e c i a l l y the paopAerr l i v i n g i n the araials where

excava t ions hvve been c a r r i e d o u t i n the p a s t or f i n d i n g s

~ l l d ~ ,

There is p u b l i c apathy towards the a c h i c v e w n t o f

Niger ian a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n the pas t , The general public

seem l a r g e l y i gno ran f of th61r rich Curtursl p a d t as well

as its %rapurtsnce/si gnif i c ~ n c e to t h e l r future, This

s u g g e s t s t h a t all the work done by a r e h a e o ~ o g i a t s have

made l i t t l e or no impact on t h e l i v e s of t h e people,

&Utd t h e p ~ s b l e n r be I tick o f cocnmunication between tho

profesoior~zrl and the public? IS t h e r e a s i t u a t i o n i n

exi vtence where there i s indrblAity of t h e a r c h a e o l o g u t

t u s h a r e h ~ s d r s c ~ v e r i e s w r t h t h e indigenes? D o the

archaeorog is ts care fiir "'fha s ao r t of ~ n t e r a c t i o n ? What

role does e f f e c t i v e cou~munication have to play between

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s and t h e local populace? okyoko ( 1986 :

150) emphasizes t h e need for a&haeologasts to "rnakd

t h e z r r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s known to the p u b l i c i n o r d e r to

i n f l u e n c e p u b l i c a t t i t u d e and government p o l i c i e s towards

t h e d i S ~ i p ~ l n e " . Would t h i s uo lve t h e problem or

rs t h e r e mote t o a t ?

1.2 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF STUDY

Proln t h e fore-going, s e v e r a l problems have

been i d e n t i f r e d , T h i s s t u d y will aim a t s o l v i n g

these p~obleurs i n t h e f o ~ l a w i r l g ways:

Review some e x c a v a t r o n s and f i n d i n g s made i n

t h e Nsukka area.

Examine how aware of t h e w c u l t u r a l and a r c h a w

logical p a s t t h e p u b l a c are.

C o ~ i e c t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e p u b l i c k percep-

t i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p e s t t h r o u g h i ts

a n t i q u l t y .

Discover what t y p e s of p u b l i c i n t e r e s t t h a t

e x i s t i n a r c h a e o ~ o g y and how i t came about.

Attempt to b r l d g e t h e communication gap between

the p r o f e s s i o n a l and t h e layman by improvrng h i s

awareness of a r c h a a o i o g i c a l p r a c t i c e r i n t h e country.

Based on rhf &&hat ion c o i l e c t e d , t o m a k e

recon~mendatforbs on how to sell archaeology to t h e

p u b l i c ,

It "- .e

SCOPE

T h i s s t u d y w i l l cover the Nsukka Divis ion ,

T h i s area l ies i n t h e extreme n o r t h wes te rn p a r t

of t h e E a s t e r n Region of Nigeria (see Fig , 1.1).

Details of the g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n of Nsukka

area is covered i n S e c t i o n 2,1 of t h i s s t u d y ,

Archaeo log ica l communication i s t h e area being

covered by this s tudy , It must De d ~ s t i n g u f shed

from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e d u c a t i o n even though they have

some similarities, The lat ter w i l l o n l y be s t u d i e d

as one of t h e factors which c o u l d h e l p improve

e f f e c t i v e communication of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l informa-

t i o n to the p u b l i c ,

Var ious f a c t o r s gave rise to the 1 i m i t a U o ~

of t h i s s t u d y to the old Nsukka Divis ion , The

c o u n t r y N i g e r i a i s q u i t e vast and v i r t u a l l y every

w e l l establl shed Universl t y hw depattmen ts of

H i s t o r y , His tory/Archseology o r Archaeology. These ,',,.,.*i. .*.*, . I *

departments are made up of ' a r c h a e o r ~ ~ i s t s who have

done a i o t of work i n their arcas and recovered a

lo t of a r c h a e o i ~ g l r c a l materials. Undartuking this

study i n t h e firfit ins tanceL, i n t h e e n t i r e n u t i o n

wourd t h e r e f o r e t logisticar1 problems which

would form a cog i n the wheel of y rogress .

Because o f t h i s , t h e a u t h o r d i v i d e d t h e Niger ian

U n i v e r s i t i e s i n t o catchment a r e a s and p icked

U n i v e r s i t y of Wigaria, Nsukka a s a c a t c h u s n t area,

Cons ide r ing t h e t i m e and f i n a n c e a v a i l a b l e ,

i t w a s n o t even p o s s i b l e to cover t h e e n t i r e Nsukka

a r e a , The communities closest t o Ure U n i v e r s i t y ,

which have fe l t t h e g r e a t e s t impact of t h e work o f

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n t h e p a s t w e r e s t u d i e d , The geogra-

p h i c a l a r e a was t h e r e f o r e l i m i t e d i n o r d e r to o b t a i n

ir d e t a i l e d r e s u l t which would be r e r e v a n t to t h e

s t u d y of a r c h a e o l o g ~ c a l communication o f N ~ g e r i a

as a whole,

1 3 METHODOLOGY

I n t h e s t u d y o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l cornmun~ca t i o n i n

t h e b u k k a a r e a , t w o major approaches w i l l b@ adopted - p u r p o s i v e / j u d g e t w a t a i eampllng and e thnography- A s

t h e name sounds, purpcrsivefjudgemental sampl ing i s

t h e sample s e l e c t e d by the r e s e a r c h e r based on h i s

~ n o w r e d g e of ,Wm + o p u r a t i o n and on the aims of t h e

.resdprch, I t i s a method used to s t u d y a sub-uet of

a l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n where t h e sub-sa t are easiiy

i d e n t i f i e d , I - .a

According to K e r l i n g e r ( 1973: 129 ) purpos ive

sampl ing i s a n o t h e r form of p r o b a b i l i t y sampling

which i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by t h e u s e o f judgement and a

d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t to o b t a i n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples by

i n c l u d i n g presumably t y p i c a l a r e a s or g roups i n t h e

sample- kwprobabliet ic sampling i s d e f i n e d as " t h a t

which h a s to do w i t h where samples are s e l e c t e d by

i n f t m n a l c r i t e r i a such as prominence and a c c e s s i b i l i t y

and uses i n f o n n w l c r i t e r i a or persona l judgement i n t h e

selection o f samples (Sha re r and Aahnrore, 1979: 991,

It was nece s sa ry t o adopt this method because t h e

r e s e a r c h e r w a s a l r e a d y aware o f major excava t i on si tes

i n t h e Nsukka a r e a - There was no need t o sample t h o s e

a r e a s where a r c h a e o l o g i c a l work had no t been done,

I t canno t be over-emphasized t h a t sampling conside-

r a t i o n s must ''relate t~ the ,rubletns be ing s t u d i e d i n

t h e a r c h a e o ~ u g r c a l r ecorda ' (Grady, 1977: 3401, Ethnography

w i l l be used as a second agproach t o t h i s research,

Ethnography i s t h e s t u d y of people. I t n o t o n l y s t u d i e s

peop le , It s t u d i e s t h e a f f e c t i v e value t h a t peepla p l a c e

o n m a t e r i a l and non-rna.tetrka.t t h i n g s and beliefs,

Ethnography ~ s ' k h e s t u d y of t h e c u l t u r e of Liv ing peop ies

through direct: and i n d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n of behaviour'"

(Beals and Wijer, 1977: 781, I - . promley (1988: 26)

observed t h a t i t A S a a l s c ~ e r ~ c e which has prcrgressive and

demandr ng p r o s p e c t s ;Ln t h e cantemporary s~~let~es''.

Ethnography s t u d i e s man w h o l i s t i c r l l y and i ts aim

is t h e whole make u p a n d n o t o n l y . t h e c h a r a c t e r i s -

tics which d i s t i n g u i s h p e o p l e o n e from a n o t h e r ,

when t h e p r o b ~ e m i s approached i n this way, the

c u l t u r i r l s t r a t u m t h a t p e r f o r m s e t h n i c f u n c t i o n s

w i l l t u r n o u t t o be t h e core o f t h e e thnographe r$

s u b j e c t matter and t h i s w i l l be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l e v e r y d a y c u l t u r e of t h e p e o p l e ,

Respondents w i l l n b t be e x p e c t e d to f i l l

q u e s t i o n n a i r e b e c a u s e t h e l e v e l o f l i t e r a c y o f

most of t h e p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e r e s e a r c h would

make t h i s a h i g h l y i m p r o b a b l e way of c o l l e c t i n g

p e r b n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n , I n a d d i t i o n to t h i s , R a t j e

(1975: 52) w a r n s t h a t o v e r r e l i a n c e on q u e s t i o n n a i r e

i s d a n g e r o u s b e c a u s e i t does n o t g i v e enough p o i n t s

" i n c o n c e p t u a l s p a c e to t r i a n g u l a t e 1 , The quts t i o n -

n a i r e p r e p a r e d (see Appendix I ) was t h e r e f o r e

a d m i n i s t e r e d as o r a l i n t e r v i e w s , .< ,, . 4 - 5 . +' > %!,,P

1,4 DEFINITION OF TERMS

ARCHAEOLOGY

Archaeology h a s been d e f i n e d as a compara-

t i v e s c i e n c e b a s e d o n hypokhLesis , related methodo-

l o g i e s and h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d t e c h n i q u e s ( S c o v i l l

e t a l , , 1977: 4 7 ) - C l a r k (1939: 1 7 ) d e f i n e s i t as

t h e s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y of a n t i q u i t i e s as a means o f

r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e paat . Fagen (*978: 8 ) g i v e s a very

s i m p l e d e f i n i t i o n t h u s " i n today ' s s e n s e , a rchaeo logy

i s t h e s t u d y of a r t e f a c t s and human c u i t u r e s whether

a n c i a n t o r modern by awchreorogicrrl t echn iques .

The term pre -has to ry was f irst employed by a French

s c h o l a r named Tournal i n 1833, S t became widespread

and l a t e r a rchaeo logy became popula r a s t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e

" l ~ t e r a t e h r s t o r y " , A r a t h e r amusing d e f i n ~ t i o n can be

found i n B i n f o r d ' s Archaeo log ica r P e r s p e c t i v e (1972: 11).

Archaeology 18 l i k e a d e t e c t i v e s t o r y , f u l l of mystery

and romance, It r e v e a l s t h e upward s t r u g g l e of man toward

c i v i r i z a t i o n . Onky a gentleman a t t h e end of such a

p r o g r e s s i v e l i n e c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e churacter *of t h e

s t r u g g l e and r e c o g n i s e when man and c u l t u r e were ready

for t h a t f i r a t g r e a t s t e p awry rrom o u r crude f o r e b e a r s

The a r c h a e o l o g i s t collects e v i d e n c e s from t h e 0

c u l t u r a l debris of u i t e s , compares them, e v a l u a t e s them, ,' ,A, 4 , f .k' > !I*

i n t e g r a t e s them with comparable and cors t ras t ing d a t a

from o t h e r l o c a t i o n s and p r e p a r e s a t e n t a t i v e s y n t h e s i s ,

a d j u s t s theory , h y p o t h e s i s and method to t h e t e n t a t i v e

C O ~ C ~ U ~ ~ O ~ S , goes o u t wgailn t6' g e t more e v i d e n c e s and

i n t u r n may make more d j u s r m e n t s bo th i n hypothusas

and i n t h e method and t y p e of d a t a c o l l e c t e d and may go

through t h e whole p r o c e s s a g a i n and a g a i ~ u n t i l the

e x p l a n a t i o n s a d e q u a t e l y a c c o u n t for t h e e v i d e n c e s a t

hand i n terms of e x i s t i n g knowledge, c u r r e n t t . k i e o r y and

d e f i n e d h y p o t h e s e s ( S c h i f fer and Gumerinan, 1977. 471,

The aeuurs to put the work of the ilrchdhwaA~-

g ~ s t t c g e t h e r . Xn c u n c l u s i o n , one c a n draw a n i n f e r e n c e

from C l a r k (1939: 17) who o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e c o m p i e t e

a r c h a e o l o g i s t , ~f s u c h a b e i n g e x i s t e d , "would need to

h a v e a g e n i u s for t r a v e l , e x p l a r a t i o n and r e c o n n a i s s a n c e ,

to be a d e p t a t b u s i n e s s and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , s k i l l e d a t

r a i s i n g funds and o b t a i n i n g a l l manner of p e r m i t s from

a u t h o r i t i e s and ownersw, Archaeology AS t h e r e f o r e t h e

study of t h e m a t e r l a l r e m a i n s of t h e p a s t ,

CMMUNICATION

Communication i s " t h e a c t of t r a n s m i t t i n g informa-

t i o n , i d e a s and a t t i t u d e s from o n e p e r s o n to a n o t h e r "

(Agee, 1979: 4) I t i s t h e exchange o f meanings be tween

i n d i v i d u a l s t h rough a common sys t em of synbo l s . I n i t s

most g e n e r a l s e n s e , the E n c y c l o p a e d i a Americana d e f i n e s .' ,, - . - 7 . \ t ' ,

communicat ion as "a c h a i n of e v e n t s i n which t h e s i g n 1 f ~ -

c a n t l i n k 1s a messagew ( E n c y s l o p a e d i a Americana, 1829:

423). It t d k e s p l a c e when o n e mind acts upon i ts env t ron -

rnent t h a t a n o t h e r mind i s i -n r luenced and i n t h a t o t h e r

mind, "an e x p e r i e n c e o c c u r s which i s l i k e t h e e x p e r i e n c e

i n t h e f i r s t mind, and i s caused i n p a r t by t h a t

e x p e r i e n c e ( E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , 1768: 1005 ) .

T h e s t u d y of commun ica t i on i n v o l v e s t w o a s p e c t s :

a b r o a d c o m p r e h e n s i o n of t h e m e c h a n i c a l means and unde r -

l y i n g t h e o r i e s of comrnunica t i o n and more i m p o r t a n t 1 y,

a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how to use t h e s e tools i n d o u r d a i l y

r o u n d of i n f o r m i n g , i n f i u e n c i n g , i n s p i r i n g , c o n v i n c i n g ,

f r i g h t e n i n g , and e n t e r t a i n i n g o n e a n o t h e r , The p r o c e s s

a l s o i n v o l v e s t h e p r o d u c t i o n , t r a n s m i s s i o n and r e c e p t i o n

of messages , dherl t h e r e i s an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e imag ina -

t i o n e i t h e r i n f o rms or s i q n s t h a t c a n be s t u d i e d and

u n d e r s t o o d t h e r e h a s b e e n communica t ion .

What t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t r e a l l y needs to communica te

is mass communica t ion , T h i s i s d e f i n e d by Agee (1979: 5)

as " t h e p r o c e s s of d e l i v e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , i d e a s and

a t t i tudc to a s i z e a b l e and d i v e r s i f i e d a u d i e n c e t h r o u g h t h e

u s e of t h e media d e v e l o p e d f o r t h a t p u r p o s e w ,

T h e abo,ve d e f i n i t i o n shows t h a t mass communica t ion

i s much more t h a n j u s t t a l k i n g f a c e to face o r p u b l i s h i n g .' ,, . 4 ,,, \:' ,

a r c h a e o i ~ g i c a l f i n d s i n j o u r n a l s , I t i n v o l v e s g e t t i n g

" th rough* ' to t h o u s a n d s of d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n a l i t i e s and a n

a b i l i t y o n t h e s i d e of t h e a r c h a e o i o g i s t to meet i n d i v i -

d u a l r e a c t i o n s a t l eas t hal"f wa'y, One may be a b l e to a

co rnmun~ca t e&ercen t a g e o f t h e a u d i e n c e w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r

a p p r o a c h a n d t h i s same a p p r o a c h will c o m p l e t e l y al ienate

t h e o t h e r percentage.

we c a n communicate w i t h t h e p a s t , Hen who l i ved

c e n t u r i e s a g o " t a l k w to u s t h rough t h e r r books, pa in-

t i n g s , a r t , oral t r a d i t i o n , etc. L i v ~ n g t o g e t h e r A n a

communrty demands t h e u s e of c o m m u n i c a t ~ o n qui te f r e q u e n t l y

a n d r e g u l a r l y . T h e close r e l a t i u n s h i p between c~mmun&-

c a t a o n and cwnmuni t y demands t h e u s e of c o r r m u n i c a t ~ u n ,

The words b o t h come from ucommun~sw which meanrr " sna redn

o r " i n commonw (Comptoms Encyc lopaed ia , 481). T h i s

means t h a t a community c a n n o t e x i s t w i t h o u t cornmunicating.

It t h e r e f o r e follows t h a t s t r a n g e r s t h a t come i n t o a

communi ty must be able t o comuun ica t e b e f o r e they can

make impac t , p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e ,

There. is e x c i t e m e n t i n conn~unlcatiot ' l . I t is a l w a y s

an e l a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e to know that you h a r e s u c c e s s f u l l y

i m p l a n t e d arr idea to o,ther p e r s o n s , A cot iw~unic&tor n o t

o n l y r e c o r d s or p r e s e n t s h i s t o r y , h e mus t also h e l p s h a p e

1 t, He! muat have a braad knowledge of the matter, y u i c k

decislor u&kifig a b i l i t y arci sound juegement amd a persis- . < * A - . , 5 . \ t >

t e n t bu rdca of r e a l i s i n q t h a t a n y t h i n g h e s p e a k s or p u t s

down o n pape r may chanqe t h e c o u r s e of e v e n t s for people.

T h i s i s an enormous r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The succc tusfu l

communicator rill a v a t u & l j discover t h e r i g h t method

o f expression t h a t w i l l e s t a b l i s h auapathy w i t h the

l a r g e s t p o s s i b l e number of i n d i v i d u a l s a t a time.

CHAPTER TWO

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

Nsukka Local Governaunt Area i s located ou

t h e Anamlira River Basin of the d e f u n c t Eastern

Nigeria arvd c o v e r s a surface ate& of about 3,961

sq, kms, I t lies Between l a t i t u d e s 6O 18' and

7O ogr North and l o ~ q i tudcs 6O 52 amd 7O 54 East

(Ofcwata, 1978: 11% (See Figs, 1.1; 1.2; 2 , 1 ) ,

NSUkba s h ~ e s a boundary to the North w i t h

Aderu aad Orska# i n Benue S t a t e , Uwuluwgbe and

Nkaldgu i a t h e East ahd t h e River Niger to t h e West,

*n t h e South-Waat is Ezeagu Local Covctrrwcnt Area

and i n t h e SOUWJ is U d i Local Gover~uvanl U a a .

The town f a placed om a high zone which l ies

at about 1,200 f e e t above sea l e v e l , There u a

iaoPated peaks t h a t range frou 1,200 to 1,800 f e a t .

S o many h i 1 1s surround the area but moat of Wsukkv

itself is lowleurud, "Tkc land s l o p e s to t h e east ,, - 4 ? T \. , 14.

and weat frata this h i g h c e n k a l zone but the slope

of t h e rgrousd Is more gent ly even to t h e west, It

is f i r s t steep and then g e n t l y s l o p i n g to the eastw

(Ezuguu, 19863 14). ~ h u ' $ow l e n d Is l a s s than 400-

feet (1221~) above sea l eve l w h i l e another 25% con-

sists of 1-6 lying between 400 end 800 fect above

sea l e v e l , Only a b o u t 15% o f t h e land is over

1,200 feet above sea l e v e l (Ofomata, 1972: 3).

Wsukk8"Local Government A r e a c o n s i s t s o f Ala-Uno,

Anuka, Ede-Oball a, Edtm, Eha-Aluuona, &ha Ndiugu,

Ibagwa Agu, Xbagur A a i , Lejja, Yaukka tom, O b i m o ,

Ikwoka, Obukpa, O k p r l i g b o , Okpuje , Okutw A and Opi,

I n 1976, t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n w a s estimated at 203,920

(Ufomata, 1976: 3).

2 02 GEOMOHPHOLOGT AND GEOLOGY

Nsukka is s i t u a t e d i n t h e E a s t e r n N i g e r i a s e d i -

men ta ry basis awl i s u n d e r l a i n by r o c k s which r a n g e

i n age from Conii rc ian to P a l e o c e n e ( ~ f o b r v t ? , 1978s

47). Sedf ments depos i t ad w i t h i n t h L s tame i n t e r v a l

o c c u r i n f o u r d i s t:nct p h y s i o g r a p h i c p r o v i n c e s ,

namely, t h e Cross R i v e r P l a i n s , t h e Escarpment , t h e

P l a t e a u and Anambra P l a i n s . These r o c k s are grouped

i n t o s i x f o r m a t i o n s - Awgu S h a l e , Enugu S h a l e , Mamu

Forma t ion , A ) a l l Sands t o n e , Nsukkr Fo rma t ion and ,' ,, . . ,!. ,>' > .,.P

Imo S h a l e F o n n a t i o n ( ~ w a c h u k w , 1978: 471, Nsukka

s t a n d s o n t h e Nsukka-Udi-Okigwe c u e s t a and forms

p a r t of t h e lower Benue t r o u g h f i l l e d w i t h c r e t a c o u s

s e d i m e n t s ( u m e j i , 19~0:- 'iio), (see Pig . 2.2).

U m e j i a lso r e c o r d e d t h r e e p l a n a t i o n s u r f a c e s

named Ukehe, Nsukka and Okigwe, They are u n d e r l a i n

by Upper C r e t a c e o u s s e d i m e n t s i n Sou th E a s t e r n N i g e r i a ,

He based t h e d a t e s o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t each e r o s i o n a l

e p i s o d e c o i n c i d e d w i t h a d e p o s i t i o n a l e p i s o d e ,

Accord ing to Hazel, t h e r e was a n e p i r o g e n i c

movement which o c c u r r e d i n t h e E a r l y Eocene. T h i s move-

ment c a u s e d t h e Ukehe s u r f a c e to emerge d u e t o e r o s i o n

and i t was p a r t of the l a t e r i t e s e r o d e d d u r i n g t h i s move-

ment t h a t w a s d e p o s i t e d o n t h e Nsukka s u r f a c e (Hazel,

1955: 44) . U m e j i , however, s p e c u l a t e s t h a t t h e e x t e n s i v e

e r o s i o n of t h e Nsukka s u r f a c e i tself must h a v e p r o v i d e d

s e d i m e n t s of t h e A m e j i f o r m a t i o n and t h e Asaba f o r m a t i o n

( ~ m e j i , Ope C i t,, 1141, O f t h e t h r e e s u r f a c e s , t h e most

r e m a r k a b l e i s t h e Nsukka P l a t e a u s u r f a c e which e x t e n d s

t o Udi and i s sometimes named Udi P l a t e a u (Grove , 1951) ,

The Nsukka f o r m a t i o n is t h e y o u n g e s t and i s a

p a r a l i c s equence of muds t o n e and s h a l e , T h i s f o r m a t i o n

o u t - c r o p s o v e r d i p s l o p e s and a l s o as relict Mesas and

o u t l i e r s u n d e r l a i n by A j a l i s a n d s t o n e , ( U m e j i , 2980: Ill), ,' ,. . " T \* ,

I n Nsukka D i v i s i o n , t h e Nsukka f o r m a t i o n i s n e a r l y h o r i -

z o n t a l or d i p s a t a l o w a n g l e to t h e West a n d to t h e

S o u t h (DeSwardt arid Casey, 1963: 7 ) .

A number of m i n e r a l s and r o c k s t h a t h a v e v a r y i n g

economic u s e s can be found i n t h e Nsukka a r e a , These

r a n g e from l i m e s t o n e , coal, g l a s s and s a n d t o pe tco leum

p r o d u c t s , The s o r t o f s a n d s t o n e which i s found i n t h i s

area i s so p u r e t h a t i t c o u l d be used to make g l a s s

wares, and t h i s o c c u r s i p t h e Nsukka area, C l a y d e p o s i t s

are used for ceramic wares , Coa l t h a t is found i n Ezirno

area i s u s e d by t h e p e o p l e ,

TERTIARY PLANATION SURFACES

A l t e r n a t i v e N a m e s and S u c c e s s i o n of Upper C r e t a c e o u s

S e d i m e n t s A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Cues t a ( U m e j i , 1980, 111),

-

Age Reyrnent 1965

i v ,

iii,

G e o l o g i c a l Su rvey of N i g e r f a 1974

ii,

"0

I

Nsukka F ~ r ~ a t i o n

A j a l i Sands t o n e

i,

Upper C o a l Measu re s

F a l s e Bedded Sandstones

M a e s t r i c h t i a n Mamu Forma t ion

Mrpowl0 S h a l e

Maes t r i c h t i a n P a l e o c e n e

Maes t r i c h t i a n

Lower Coal Measures

A s a t a Nkyoro S h a l e Group

Carnpani a n

CORRELATION OF THE THREE SURFACES WITH OTHER EVENTS ( U m e j i , 1980: 1 1 5 )

P r e v i o u s P r o p o s e d E l e v a t i o n L a t e r i t e

Ukehe A f r i c a n P a l e o c e n e 550-600 l y T h i c k S u r f a c e and V e s i -

c u l a r

Nsukka Udi a n d Eocene 430-460 l y a n d I g a l a 2y v e r y P l a t e a u s t h i c k

a n d v e s i - c u l a r

Okigwe O l i g o - 270-300 2 y t h i n Miocene a n d P i s o -

li t h i c

Con t emposed D e p o s i t

I m o S h a l e

A m e k i F o r m a t i o n

B e n i n F o r m a t i o n

-

The main r o c k t y p e s i n Nsukka are s a n d s t o n e s , s a n d y

s h a l e s a n d c a r b o n a c e o u s s h a l e s , T h e s e c a n be o b s e r v e d

as o n e moves from Nsukka core area t h r o u g h E h a Ndiagu to

E z i m o , I r r i f l i k e Agu and Ogbodu A b a , D e S w a r d t a n d Casey ,

( 1963: 1 3 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e r e i s a p e r s i s t e n t ba sa l t

s a n d s t o n e h o r i z o n i n t h e area. T h i s i s f o l l o w e d b y a b o u t

30 f e e t of s h a l e w h i c h c o n t a i n most o f t h e known coal

seams, S w a r d t e t a ~ ' ; ' ' ~ ' o ' n ~ S u d e S t h a t t h e s h a l e s are over-

l a i n b y a n o t h e r s a n d s t o n e h o r i z o n 30-70 feet t h i c k and

t h i s i s s u c c e e d e d by a g r e a t t h i c k n e s s o f d a r k s h a l e s

w i t h many' s a n d s t o n e beds, Idsee.; ~i g . 2.3).

T h e A j a l i s a n d s t o n e o n which t h e Nsukka f o r m a t i o n

rests i s l i t h o l o g i c a l l y composed of m a i n l y u n c o n s o l i d a t e d

p o o r l y - s o r t e d s a n d s t o n e s . They are porous and have

s h a l e p a r t i n g s i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s . They are made of

coarse and f i n e g r a i n s and t h i s s u g g e s t s f l u c t u a t i n g

c o n d i t i o n s of d e p o s i t i o n , They are w h i t e or p a l e g r e y

i n c o l o u r b u t sometimes t h e y are s t a i n e d r e d , y e l l o w or

brown by i r o n o x i d e s ,

L i k e the! N s u k k a f o r m a t i o n , A j a l i s a n d s t o n e formu-

t i o n is o n t h e m a e s t r i c h t i a n . Nwachukwu ( 1 9 7 2 : 5 4 ) n o t e s

t h a t s a n d s t o n e t h a t is found t h e r e c o n t a i n s a b o u t 95% of

p u r e q u a r t z and i n some cases t h t content o f pure quartz

is u p t o 99%. He also shoved t h u t feldspar i s r smvrkab ly

a b s e n t and t h e s a n d s t o r m Is almst l n o w n l n c r z l l i c i n

n a t u r e , The abrersce of f e l d s p a r may be duo to t h e p o s t

d e p o s l t i o r a a l changes which n o r m a l l y cruses the l e a c h i n g

of f e l d s p a r * One caanot be s u r e i r o n s t o n e s erode from

t h e v a l l e y sides and t h e y serve as the! b a s i c raw material

for t h e irorl i n d u s t r y which h a s f l o u r i s h a d i n t h e a r e a ,

G r e a t e r p a r t s of t h e Plateau surface i s formed o v e r .. ,, . r 5 0 3 ' la

t h e A j a l f s a n d s t o n e but the assas formed o n t h e Nsukka

f o r n w t i c n , The. s t e e p var l e y s e c t i i i n s wh&h arc w o r e t h a n

l O O m deep , o f t e n e x p o s e t h e c o n t a c t between t h e o v e r l y i n g I1 - .i

N s u k k a f o r m a t i o n and t h e A j a l i s a n d s t o n e ( ~ m e j i , 1980:

Under ly ing t h e A j a l i f o r m a t i o n is t h e Mamu

fo rma t ion . T h i s i s a n o t h e r coal b e a r i n g p a r a l i c

sequence , m o s t l y c a r b o n a c e o u s ( ~ m e j i , Op, C i t, 1,

L i t h o l o g i c a l l y , t h e y c o n s i s t o f s a n d s t o n e s , s a n d y

s h a l e , mudstone, coal seams and s h a l e , Around t h e

Ezimo area, t h e r e are some b o r i n g s which r e v e a l a

p o o r l y d e v e l o p e d c y c l o t h e m i c sequence ( ~ f o m a t a ,

1978: 51) . Simpson ( 1954) o b s e r v e d t h a t most o f

~ i g e r i a ' s coal seams are found w i t h i n t h e Mamu forma-

t i o n . Ofomata d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h i s seam h a s a

maximum t h i c k n e s s o f 1,98m and has produced a s m a l l

water f a l l , H e a d m i t s t h a t i t i s t empt ing to corre-

l a t e t h i s t h i c k seam w i t h t h e number 3 seam i n t h e

Enugu mines which i s t h e c u r r e n t zone o f min ing

a c t i v i t y ( ~ f o m a t a , Op, C i t , ), Nwachukwu (1972)

i n h i s s t u d y o f t e c t o n i c e v o l u t i o n o f t h e Benue

t r o u g h , o b s e r v e d t h a t a mi ld t e c t o n i c movement mus t

have t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e a r e a d u r i n g t h e cenomanian. ., ,, . 4 . f . .%. > * . , a ' .

2.3 CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND RAINFALL

CLIMATE

Nsukka i s . i n t h e t r o p i c s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y

h a s t w o m a j o r s e a s o n s " i n - t h e y e a r , The r a i n y s e a s o n

and t h e d r y s e a s o n , The r a i n y s e a s o n spans t h e p e r i o d

between A p r i i and September , w h i l e t h e d r y s e a s o n

b e g i n s a r o u n d O c t o b e r a n d e n d s i n March which i s t h e

p l a n t i n g s e a s o n .

About 89% o f t h e a n n u a l r a i n f a l l o f a b o u t 1650 mm

f a l l s w i t h i n t h i s p e r i o d . The A u g u s t b r e a k n o r m a l l y

comes a r o u n d S e p t e m b e r ( I n y a n g , 1972 ; Monanu, 1975: 25 1,

T h e v a g a r i e s of t h e w e t a n d d r y climate which o f t e n

beset t h e more n o r t h e r l y p a r t s o f t h i s c l imat ic r e g i o n

i n t h e c o u n t r y are mutrh less pronounced i n t h e Nsukka

area ( I n y a n g , 1978: 9 5 ) . The a n n u a l r a i n f a l l o n t h e

a v e r a g e f o r Nsukka town v a r i e s f rom 986 mm to 2 ,098 mm

( l n y a n g , I b i d ; 9 3 ) .

I n Nsukka area, solar e n e r g y is a n e l e m e n t o f

climate which d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s t h e g r o w t h and c h a r a c t e r

o f p l a n t s , s o i l s a n i m a l s a n d men ( I n y a n g , Xbid,, 861 ,

R a i n f a l l i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e area b u t t h e p a t t e r n

o f r a i n f a l l , c o n t r o l l e d by t h e movement o f t h e s u n h a s

n o t b e e n c o n s i s t e n t t h r o u g h t h e y e a r s (Oguagha a n d

Okpoko, 1984: 1 9 7 ) .

Nsukka c a n be"'l'd&t& b e t w e e n l a t i t u d e s So 50 ' a n d

7O O O e N , Nsukka town i s o n l a t i t u d e 6O 5 1 m N ( ~ n y a n g ,

I b i d , , 8 6 ) Due t o t h e t o w n ' s l a t i t u d i n a l l o c a t i o n ,

t h e w e a t h e r and c l i m a t e i s n o r m a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e

s u n and so t h e r e is some c o n s t a n c y o f i s o l a t i o n , T h i s

c o n s t a n c y now e n s u r e s t h a t t h e time o f maximum t e m p e r a t u r e

d o e s n o t o c c u r a t t h e time of t h e s u n ' s p a s s a g e , Embola

f e e l s t h a t t h i s i s as a r e s u l t of o t h e r f a c t o r s s u c h

as d i f f u s e r e f l e c t i o n , s e l e c t i v e s c a t t e r i n g b y t h e e a r t h ' s

a tmosphere . , c l o u d c o v e r h a r m a t t a n haze., smoke and d u s t

p a r t i c l e s (Ernbola, 1989: 2 7 ) . Due to t h e o u t l a y o f t h e

town, t h e s u n ' s h e a t g r e a t l y a f f e c t s a c t i v i t i e s g o i n g o n

i n t h e area, The area a lso e x p e r i e n c e s a number o f

f a c t o r s which h e l p t o numb t h e h e a t o f t h e s u n ( l n y a n g ,

Op. C i t . ) .

RAINFALL

I n N i g e r i a as f n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e t r o p i c s , r a i n - 0

f a l l i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t of c l i m a t e i n so f a r

as a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e main o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e is

c o n c e r n e d ( I k i r n e , 1980: 1 0 ) .

~ a i n s f a l l i n t o r r e n t i a l downpour and water Le t en -

t i o n is much, T h i s makes t h e heavy v e g e t a t i o n i n t h e

area p o s s i b l e , R a i n f a l l d e t e r m i n e s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f

t h e f a r m i n g s e a s o n . A t i ts o n s e t , f i e l d s a n d f a r m s are .' $ 3 , 4 . 5 . ,t' , . I +

c l e a r e d f o r f a r m i n g to b e g i n . From 2 3 . 6 O ~ i n Sep tember ,

t h e t e m p e r a t u r e rises s t e a d i l y f rom month t o month to

i ts maxirr~um i n F e b r u a r y . I n March i t starts f a l l i n g

f rom 2 7 . 1 ~ ~ to a rninim'inr -i-n J u l y and Augus t , w i t h the

maximum i n F e b r u a r y o f 3 2 . 4 O ~ i t f a l l s s t e a d i l y f rom

month to month to its lowest i n J u l y and Augus t a f t e r

w h i c h i s b e g i n s to rise ( ~ n y a n g , Op. c i t e 1, On t h e other

hand , Awach ie a n d Onwuka ( 1 9 8 9 ) claim t h a t t h e h o t t e s t

month is A p r i l w i t h 2 9 . 2 O ~ maximum a n d minimum o f 27 .3°~ .

One t h i n g i s c e r t a i n , t h e w e a t h e r c a n be v e r y uncomfor-

t a b l e when t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i s as h i g h as 21°c and t h e

h u m i d i t y 60% or a b o v e ( ~ n y a n g , Op, C i t , ) ,

T h o c n w a i t e (1948) classified Nsukke as h a v i n g a

humid mega t h e r m a l climate, O k a f o r c o n c l u d e s t h a t w e t

a n d h o t t r o p i c a l climate i s a n t i - a r c h a e o l o g y , Most

m a t e r i a l r e m a i n s ( a r t i f a c t s ) p a r t i c u l a r l y o r g a n i c r e m a i n s

d i s a p p e a r a t a f a s t r a t e i n t h i s climatic z o n e , H e

f u r t h e r e x p l a n s t h a t o n l y w e a t h e r r e s i s t a n t objects l i k e

s t o n e , we l l - f i red c l a y or s l a g s c a n s u r v i v e t h e h u m i d i t y ,

i n t h i s area ( ~ k a f o r , 1980: 361,

VEGETATION

From a m o i s t u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e s t a n d p o i n t , Nsukka

D i v i s i o n i s o n t h e f r i n g e of a monsoon climate a n d the

w e b t e s t p a r t o f a s a v a n n a h e n v i r o n m e n t , O k i g b o ( 1 9 8 0 ) ,' ,, , 4 <, ,:. , ..>> * .

s a y s ' t h a t t h i s f e a t u r e shows t h a t i t c a n s u p p o r t and h a s

s u p p o r t e d a t r o p i c a l r a i n forest which is n o n - e x t a n t ,

U z o z i e (1972) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e f o r e s t s o n t h e Nsukka

p l a t e a u were p r o b a b l y mope -open t h a n t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s

i n t h e l o w l a n d s t o t h e east and w e s t , A g r e e i n g w i t h

t h a t , I g b o z u r i k e a d d s t h a t forests and o t h e r p a t c h e s of

tree domina ted v e g e t a t i o n t a k e up a smaller p e r c e n t a g e

o f t h e s u r f a c e a r e a o f t h e r e g i o n ( ~ ~ b o z u r i k e , 1978: 101) .

Over e i g h t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p l a n t s p e c i e s o f t h e low-

l a n d r a i n forest a r e o b s e r v e d a l s o i n t h e f o r e s t - s a v a n n a h

b e l t , f g b o z u r i k e o b s e r v e s t h a t Nsukka b e i n g i n a n o r t h e r n

and d r i e r p o r t i o n o f t h i s be1 t h a s u p to s i x t y or s e v e n t y

p e r c e n t o f i ts v e g e t a t i o n c o v e r a s g r a s s ( I g b o z u r i k e ,

1975: 301, (see F i g , 2 - 4 1 ,

L a t e r i n 1978 , t h e same a u t h o r r e c o r d e d t h a t Nsukka

is domina ted by t w o main physiognomic and s t r u c t u r a l

fo rms ( a ) b road l e a v e d tree t y p e s and ( b ) h e r b a c e o u s

g r a m i n o i d s ( I g b o z u r i k e , 1978: 98). T h e r e are a l s o

5 b r y o i d s which c o n s i s t o f mosses, l i c h e n s a n d forbs.

Of most e c o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t i n t h i s s t u d y are t h e

h P trees t h a t a r e s u i t a b l e f o r i r o n working ( ~ k a f o r , 1992: Q

34) woodwork and f i r i n g of c l a y i n f u r n a c e s or k i l n s ,

T h e s e are f i re r e s i s t a n t when w e t and very s l o w i n r egene -

r a t i n g f o r example Ukpaka ( P e n t e c l e t h r a m y c r o p h y l l d and . . . 4 7 . > . > .

Okpenye ( R i c f n u s co-mmunis 1, C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p e c i e s i n

t h i s area are d r y l a n d f ire r e s i s t a n t trees l i k e P a r k i a

_ c l a p p e r t o n i a n a , D d n i e l l d o l i v e r i and Lophi r* l a c e o l a t a .

The re a r e main tree furnt~rrl'artd-:shrubs which are e l t h e r

e x u t i c , r e c e n t arrlvals ~r c u l t f o a t e d trees f u r example

mango ( H a g n i f e r a f n d i c a ) Tamarand ( ' l ' audr i r~dus i n d i c a )

and all palm (Elaesis q u i n e e n s i s ) ( ~ k b o l a , 1989: 37). a

O t h e r s are Khaya q r a n d i f o l i o l a , Khaya i v o r e n s i s a n d

A n t i a ~ i s a f r i c a n a ( I g b o z u r i k e , 1978: l o ) ,

Bush b u r n i n g i s a n a n n u a l e v e n t i n Nsukka area a n d

i n I g b o l a n d as a whole , F i r e r e s i s t a n t trees l i k e t h o s e

m e n t i o n e d a b o v e are t h e o n e s t h a t s u r v i v e s u c h a c t i v i t i e s ,

I n a d d i t i o n to t h o s e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e r e are some

o t h e r s w h i c h are n o t e d as h a v i n g s u r v i v e d so l o n g b e c a u s e

of t h e i r f i r e r e s i s t i n g n a t u r e , T h e s e i n c l u d e O r j i

( C h l o r o p h o r a e x c e l s . a ) , O F o ( D e t a r i u m m a c r o c a r p a ) .

Ifemesia ( 1 9 7 9 ) n o t e d i n r e s p e c t of t h e e n t i r e Igbor

l a n d t h a t t h e d p p a r e n t c o n v e r s i o n of t h e n a t u r a l v e g e t a -

t i o n of a g r e a t p a r t of t h e n o r t h e r n I g b o p l a t e a u also

s u g g e s t s a r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y s e t t l e m e n t and p r o t r a c t e d

u t i l i z a t i o n . Thus t h i s e c o l o g i c a l s h i f t w a s a c t u a l l y

b r o u g h t a b o u t by human m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e e c o s y s t e m ,

The r e s i s t a n t s e c o n d a r y v e g e t a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f t a l l ,

t o u g h g r a s s e s f o r e x a m p l e , A t a ( I m p e r a t a c y 1 i n d r i c a ) a n d

I k p o ( L o u d e t i a a r u n d i n a c e ? ) , O t h e r s are O w a (Andropoqon ,' , , 4 I . , , ! + '

t e c t o r u m ) and U m a (Maran thac3ma c u s p i o i l a t a ) . (&, t e c t o r u m

a n d - P. p o l y s t a c h i o n ) seem to be t h e commonest g r a s s i n

t h e area ( I g b o z u r i k e , 1978: 103) V i l l a g e r s c o n s t r u c t 0 - _.

t h a t c h e d r o o f s a n d townsmen a l so buy f e n c i n g m a t s made

f rom t h e s e g r a m i n o i d s , O t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t g r a s s e p e c i e s

i n c l u d e ( D a c t y l o t e n i u m a e q y p t i u m a n d C h r o r i s q a y a n a )

which a r e v e r y common i n r e g i o n s w i t h s h o r t e r g r a s s

cover o r r e g i o n s t h a t have been g r e a t l y d i s t u r b e d

by man s u c h a s a l o n g r o a d s i d e s or e n bush p a t h s

a s w e l l as o n and a round c u l t i v a t e d l a n d ( I g b o z u r i k e ,

I b i d . 1.

Nsukka p e o p l e a l s o engage i n l i v e s t o c k f a rming ,

and e l e p h a n t g r a s s ( ~ e n n i s c h m purpureum) and o t h e r

g r a s s e s s e r v e a s f o d d e r f o r t h e l i v e s t o c k ,

2.4 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The I g b o are a b r a n c h o f t h e Negro r a c e and

Nsukka b e l o n g s to the I g b o tribe. A r c h a e o l o g i c a l

e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e I g b o s may have o r i g i n a t e d

i n t h e area a l o n g t h e l a t i t u d e of A s s e l a r and Khartoum

t h a t i s more or less o n t h e f r i n g e o f t h e s avanna ,

Af igbo s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s means t h a t t h e homeland

o f t h e I g b o c a n n o t p o s s i b l y ,Be n o r t h o f t h i s l a t i t u d e

t h a t i s a s f a r n o r t h a s Egypt , t h e Holy l a n d or

Yemen ( ~ f i g b o , 1981: 6 ) . ,',A 4 < 5 . .t' , *.,.P

I s i c h e i (1976: 3 ) r e c o r d s t h a t t h e f i r s t human

i n h a b i t a n t s o f I g b o l a n d mus t have come from t h e Niger /

Benue c o n f l u e n c e b u t q u i c k l y adds t h a t t h e f i r s t

c r a d d l e s of human H'abf Vat ion i n t h e I g b o a r e a were

p r o b a b l y t h e C r o s s R i v e r and t h e Anambra v a l l e y .

Nsukka e s c a r p m e n t add ing t h a t men have been l i v i n g

i n I g b o l a n d f o r a t least 5000 y e a r s , s i n c e t h e dawn

of human h i s t o r y .

A l i k e l y h y p o t h e s i s is t h a t , o f a l l I g b o l a n d , t h e

f i r s t p o r t i o n to come u n d e r e f f e c t i v e I g b o o c c u p a t i o n

was t h e p l a t e a u r e g i o n i n t h e n o r t h - s o u t h known as t h e

Nsukka-Okigwe c u e s ta. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e Aroka-Orlu

u p l a n d s a l so seem t o form p a r t o f t h i s n o r t h - s o u t h h i g h -

l a n d a r e a and w a s s e t t l e d by t h e I g b o s q u i t e e a r l y . . I n

a g r e e m e n t t o t h i s v i e w , I s i c h e i (1976 : 6 ) a d d s t h a t t h e

I g b o h e a r t l a n d r e p e a t e d l y b u i l t u p l e v e l s o f p o p u l a t i o n

p r e s s u r e which t h e e c o l o g i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t was u n a b l e to

s u s t a i n a n d from t i m e to t i m e g a v e rise t o m i g r a t i o n s to

o t h e r p a r t s o f I g b o l a n d ,

What i s known a b o u t I g b o l a n d t o d a y w a s l a r g e l y

collected t h r o u g h ora l t r a d i t i o n r e c o v e r e d by h i s t o r i a n s ,

e t h n o l o g i s t s a n d o t h e r s u p to t h e p r e s e n t , I t i s now

b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e w a s a n e a r l y I g b o homeland o n t h e

n o r t h e r n I g b o p l a t e a u . T h a t is i n w h a t are t o d a y p a r t s

o f t h e Awka, O r l u , O w e r r i a n d Okiqwe areas. From t h i s .' ,, , . 1 1 . d . , . . I $ . ' .

h e a r t - l a n d , t h e p e o p l e d i s p e r e e d a t d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s i n

v a r i o u s d i r e c t i o n s , to t h e s o u t h a n d s o u t h - e a s t t o w a r d s

t h e Awgu-Udi-Nsukka h i g h l a n d s ; to the w e s t down t h e I1 - .L

h i n t e r l a n d s f t h e l e f t bank o f t h e N i g e r ( I f e m e s i a , 1977:22)

The c o m m u n i t i e s now i n h a b i t i n g t h e coast a n d h in&?r -

l a n d o f s o u t h e a s t e r n N i g e r i a had b e e n s e t t l e d i n t h e i r

p r e s e n t local i t ies l o n g b e f o r e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e

1 9 t h c e n t u r y . O l a u d a h E q u i a n o p u b l i s h e d a n "ertra-

o r d i n a r y w a u t o b i e g r a p h y i n London i n 1789, I n i t , h e

te l ls u s t h a t h i s homeland was E k a s s a , a p l a c e u n d o u b t e d l y

s i t u a t e d i n I g b o l a n d , E a s t of t h e N i g e r b u t n e a r enough

to B e n i n to h a v e f e l * i t s i n f l u e n c e ( E q u i a n o , 19671,

S p e c u l a t i v e l y , Ifemesia ( 1978: 10) s a y s i t was p r o b a b l y

Nsukka, E z i k e o r some s u c h p l a c e s i n t h e n o r t h e r n I g b o

c o u n t r y ,

Most o f t h e h i s t o r y o f Nsukka f rom earliest t i m e s

depend a l o t o n o r a l t r a d i t i o n and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o n -

n a i s s a n c e a n d e x c a v a t i o n s , The c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a k o r s

s t a r t e d t h e c o l l e c t i o n of t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s b u t t h e y w e

g r o s s l y l i m i t e d i n t h e i r a p p r o a c h d u e to l a c k o f u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g of t h e p e o p l e a n d t h e i r ways as w e l l a s l a n g u a g e

a n d c u l t u r a l barriers, E t h n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l s t h a t h a v e

b e e n u n c o v e r e d d o e s h e l p i n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r

h i s t o r y but: a l o t o f work s t i l l n e e d s to be d o n e ,

T h e Nsukka peop'Fie5d*o n o t h a v e many oral t r a d i t i o n s

w h i c h s u p p o r t m i g r a t i o n s f rom f a r p l a c e s , Many a c t u a l l y

b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r e x i s t e n c e s t a r t e d w i t h t h e e x i s t e n c e

of t h e s o i l , T h i s may pxp- l4 in t h e i r c o n s t a n t r e f e r e n c e

t o t h e e a r t h " a l a " i n most c a s e s . I n a r e p o r t : w r i t t e n

b y a p o l i t i c a l o f f icer , h e claims t h a t . * @ n o t w o v i l l a g e s

claim a common a n c e s t o r a n d i n a l l cases, t h e f o u n d e r

is assumed, for w a n t of more a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n , to

h a v e a r i s e n from t h e e a r t h ( s i n ' a l a p u t e ) or even fe l l

down from heaven ( A f i g b o , 1981: 71, M r , D,C, Ugwu ( 1 9 6 4 )

i n h i s book " T h i s i s Nsukkaw made a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t t o

p r o v e t h i s f a c t ,

Whatever i s t h e case, t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h i s p a r t o f

I g b o l a n d i s q u i t e e x c e p t i o e a l , The v e g e t a t i o n i s much

more d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e d t h a n e l s e w h e r e i n I g b o l a n d and

t h e s o i l i n some cases much more e x h a u s t e d , The i n h a b i -

t a n t s h a v e i n t h e c o u r s e o f c e n t u r i e s t u r n e d f rom depen-

d e n c e on a g r i c r p l t u r e to o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n s which t v e y

h a v e d e v e l o p e d t o a h i g h d e g r e e , The u p l a n d I g b o t r ad i -

t i o n a l l y raised a v a r i e t y of c r o p s b u t t h o s e o c c u p y i n g

t h e l e a c h e d w h i t e l a n d s o f Awka-Orlu a r e a h a v e l o n g

s u f f e r e d c h r o n i c food s h o r t a g e s , The s o i l h a s i n many

p l a c e s unde rgone s u c h e x t e n s i v e d e t e r i o r a t i o n t h a t i t

c a n n o t s u p p o r t t h e d e n s e p o p u l a t i o n and i n t h e s e areas ' , . . . t . .

t e x t i l e weav ing , o i l palm t e n d i n g and p r o c e s s i n g o f palm

p r o d u c e , b l a c k - s m i t h i n g and o t h e r s p e c i a l i s e d economic

a c t i v i t i e s supptlemented f a r m i n g . They a r e s p e c i a l i s t

traders, m e d i c i n e men, s m i t h , - p o t t e r s , and w e a v e r s

(Hende r son , 1972: 36-7),

T h e r e are h i n t s h e r e and t h e r e t h a t I g b o o c c u p a t i o n ares

o f most o f t h e e n t i r e / a r e i n which w e now f i n d them is - p r o b a b l y more a n c i e n t t h a n u s e d to be t h o u g h t , J o n e s

(1963 : 3 0 ) a s s u m e s t h a t i t w a s a n e a r l y d i s p e r s i o n f rom

t h i s c e n t r e to t h e Nsukka-Udi h i g h l a n d s i n t h e east and

a n e a r l y d r i f t s o u t h w a r d t o w a r d s t h e c o a s t , . , which i s

now t h e E a s t e r n I s u a m a area, I t w a s from t h i s s u b s i d i a r y

d i s p e r s i o n area t h a t t h 2 r e w a s o n e movement s o u t h - s o u t h

eas t i n t o t h e Aba d i v i s i o n to form t h e Ngwa g r o u p o f

tribes and a n o t h e r movement e a s t i n t o t h e Umuahia area

and t h e n c e t o t h e Ohafia-Arochukwu r i d g e w i t h a n o f f -

s h o o t t h a t s t r u c k n o r t h to d e v e l o p i n t o t h e N o r t h - E a s t e r n

Ibo,

B e t h a t as i t may, a r c h a e o l o g y as y i e l d e d a l o t o f

material f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e I g b o p a s t , I n

1973-74, a number o f sites w e r e e x t e n s i v e l y s u r v e y e d

i n c l u d i n g Udunedem, Nsukka, Obukpa, Ovoko, Ibagwa , I c h i ,

Unadu, O k p u j e , Orba, O b i m o a n d Nkpologwu, I n a l l , a ., ,,... k t . \ t , , , ,# ' .

t o t a l o f 8 3 sites were r e c o r d e d i n c l u d i n g l s i Uywu Obukpa

r o c k s h e 1 ter a n d Ogba Nkpume r o c k s h e l t e r , F o r t y - o n e

abandoned v i l l z g e s were a l s o s u r v e y e d i n c l u d i n g t h e

U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , f isukka f a r m si te, F o r t y s h r i n e s ,

war t r e n c h e s , "bad b u s h e s " a n d two i r o n s m e l t i n g sites

were r e c o r d e d (Hartle, 1978 : 91,

E x c a v a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t i n Ezi Ukwu Ukpa r o c k s h e l t e r

n e a r A f i k p o town h a v e y i e l d e d s t o n e tools and p o t t e r y

s h e r d s whose d a t e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n human

h a b i t a t i o n a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n of I g b o l a n d f o r s e v e r a l

t h o u s a n d y e a r s (Ifemesia, 1979: 18). The p o t t e r y ( A f i k p o

Red Ware) i s among t h e ea r l i e s t , so far i n N i g e r i a and

t h e s t o n e tools are t h e most u n i q u e , The i n t e r e s t i n g

t h i n g is t h a t s imi lar a r t i f a c t s of t h e l a t e s k o n e a g e

h a v e b e e n r e c o v e r e d i n Isi Ugwu Obukpa r o c k s h e l t e r and

t h e U n i v e r s i t y A g r i c u l t u r i i l Farm s i t e b o t h i n Nsukka

area (Hartle, 1967) farm

T h e U n i v e r s i t y a g r i c u l t u r a l L s i te y i e l d e d d a t e s of

2 , 5 5 5 B,C, 2 1 3 0 a n d 1 , 4 6 0 B,C. + 115, T h e s e w e r e t h e - e a r l i e s t known p o t t e r y e v e r d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e east. On

e x c a v a t i o n of t h e s i t e w h i c h was d i s c o v e r e d a c c i d e n t a l l y ,

p o t t e r y , b o t h f i r e d a n d u n f i r e d , c o n t i n u e d t o a d e p t h of

more t h a n 0.9 metres, G r i n d i n g and p i t t e d s t o n e s were

a l s o d i s c o v e r e d , Most i m p o r t a n t l y , c h h r c o a l w a s d i s c o v e r e d , , . ,t i l * ' .

which y i e l d e d r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s o f 4885 o + 1 4 0 B.P. and

3410 o + 1 1 5 B O P ,

Isi Ugwu Obukpa r o c k shelter which i s n o r t h of Nsukka

w a s a lso e x c a v a t e d i n 1984.- -:About 369 a r t i f a c t s were

d i s c o v e r e d i n c l u d i n g f o u r t e e n c r u d e l y worked s t o n e tools.

T h e s t o n e t o o l s r e s e m b l e d t h a t which w a s d i s c o v e r d d a t

Ezi Ukwu Ukpa r o c k s h e l t e r i n Af ikpo which h a s been

d a t e d a t a b o u t 3000 B.C. Some p o t s h e r d s were also

d i s c o v e r e d . These d a t e s from t h e e x c a v a t i o n s i n 1964

i s so h e l p f u l t o t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e Nsukka p e o p l e and

s u g g e s t a v i l l a g e / f a r m i n g way o f l i f e a t l e a s t 5000

y e a r s ago. T h i s g o e s to s u p p o r t I s i c h e i ' s c l a i m t h a t

Nsukka was p o p u l a t e d a b o u t 4500 y e a r s ago. The d i s c o -

v e r y o f f o r t s and t o b a c c o smoking p i p e s a l s o s u g g e s t

e a r l y t r a d e p r o b a b l y w i t h t h e I g a l a and 'doma. T h i s

l e a d s u s t o t h e e x c a v a t i o n s a t "Okpe I g a r a " l o c a t e d a t

t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka campus,

The s i t e "Okpe I g a r a u p r o v e s an e a r l y s e t t l e m e n t

o f t h e I g a l a among t h e Nsukka peop le , P r o f e s s o r Har t le

p o s t u l a t e s t h a t t h e I g a l a p e o p l e c o u l d have u s e d t h i s

s i t e t o k e e p s l a v e s who were on t h e i r way to be s o l d t o

f o r e i g n e r s , The " f o r t m is made u p o f a b i g d i t c h w i t h

a w a l l round i t o n t o p of a s m a l l h i l l . H e d i s c o v e r e d

a s h r i n e b u t h e t h e o r i s e d t h a t since e v i d e n c e o f a r c h i - .' ,, . . r l . d . > . . I * ' .

t e c t u r e c o u l d n o t b e found , t h e s i te ,may have been u s e d

f o r d e f e n c e by the p e o p l e t h a t l i v e d t h e r e ,

T h i s I g a l a f a c t o r now l e a d s t o o n e o f t h e mott I ' - .L

i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t s of t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e Nsukka people .

Many writers e r r o n e o u s l y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e I g a l a conquered

and r u l e d p a r t s o f t h e Nsukka D i v i s i o n , e s b a b l i s h i n g an

I g a l o p a x m a i n t a i n e d by a c h a i n of for ts and a h i e r a r c h y

of l o c a l o f f i c i a l s ( S h e 1 t o n , 1971: 19-24).

I t was t h e N r i who h a v e a t r a d i t i o n of h a v i n ( l9?8

f o u n d e d I d a , t h a t is , t h e I g a l a kingdom, A f i g b o b o i n t s

o u t t h a t i t was t h e ki hegemony which m u s t h a v e p l a y e d

a n i m p o r t a n t ro le i n t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l

o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e Nsukka area and n o t t h e o t h e r way

r o u n d , I g a l a , however , p l a y e d a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t role

of t r a d e and c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e i n Nsukka,

M r , Ukpabi w h i l e r e v i e w i n g t h e Nr i - Iga la -Nsukka

r e l a t i o n s h i p a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e w a s a g r o u p f r o m t h e N r i

p e o p l e i n Awka d i v i s i o n i n t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y which moved

n o r t h from t h e Awka-Orlu c e n t r e a n d s e t t l e d i n N i b 0 0 A

p a r t o f them l e f t Nibo t h r o u g h Nkpologu t o e n g u l f t h e

v i l l a g e s , s o u t h of Opi ( N s u k k a ) w h e r e N r i t r a d i t i u n i s

st111 v e r y s t r o n g . The o t h e r arm moved n o r t h - e a s t t h r o u g h

Ugbene Nsukka and Eha-Alumona, T h i s was a r e s u l t of t h e

e x p a n s i o n o f B e n i n towards t h e N i g e r which h e sa id f o r c e d ,' ,,. .k5. ,t' , %.,.t

many p e o p l e to move e a s t w a r d -

The I g a l a h a v e a well-known t r a d i t i o n t h a t a man

c a l l e d Omeppa who l a t e r became t h e i r first Ashadu had

l o s t h i s way a r o u n d ~ d a h on h i s way f rom Nri., Omeppa

was a n I g b o h u n t e r and w h i l e h e wandered h e w a s c a p t u r e d

by t h e I g a l a Mela, T h i s man w a s a n o b l e a n d t h e I g a l a

p e o p l e e l e v a t e d him to t h e r a n k of k i n g (Ashadu) ,

T h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i s t h a t w h e r e s u c h l e q e n d s

e x i s t , i t is most p r o b a b l e t h a t t h i s Omeppa w a s t h e

p u r v e y o r of t h e N r i c i t i l i z a t i o n to t h e I g a l a p e o p l e .

T h i s t y p e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n ( ~ r i ) m u s t h a v e b e e n t h e

earlies t which e x i s tdd a r o u n d t h e Niger-Anambra con-

f l u e n c e . I t i s p r o b a b l y t r u e t h a t t h e N r i p e o p l e f o u n d e d

t h e I g a l a .

Meek (1931) w r i t e s i n a number o f towns, t h e

p r i n c i p a l c u l t o f t h e town i s o n e which i s a a i d to h a v e

b e e n i n t r o d u c e d by i m m i g r a n t s %rom Nshi ( N r i ) . Thus a t

Eha-Alumona, i t was s t a t e d t h a t E z e g w e l e w a s i n t r o d u c e d

by o n e E z e o k p a k ~ r who came f r o m N s h i , a t Nsukka, t h e

p r i n c i p a l c u l t i n t h e town (known ad ~ e o g u d a ) i s asso-

c i a t e d w i t h a n a n c e s t o r who i s s a i d to h a v e b e e n t h e s o n

o f t h e p r i e s t - c h i e f of Nshi .

T h e r e are many o t h e r l e g e n d s a b o u t t h e f o u n d i n g

f a t h e r s o f Nsukka who w e r e c u l t u r e h e r o e s a n d had b r o u g h t

social i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d r e l i g i o u s c u l t s f rom N r i v i a Awka , ,',*.,.. 5 . ,t. , , . > a ' .

A v i a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s e claims to N r i o r i g i n i s

r e c o r d e d i n P r o f e s s o r S h a w v s (1970: 284-285) a r c h a e o l o -

g i c a l w o r k i n Igbo-Ukwu which shows t h a t by t h e 9 t h c e n t u r

a t least , t h e N r i p e o b l & had a d i v i n e monarchy, T h i s may

h a v e b e e n a s a r e s u l t o f t h e h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l n o r t h e r n

t r a d e w h i c h w a s o n e o f t h e m a j o r e c o n o m i c m a i n s t a y s o f

t h e N r i c i v i l i z a t i o n , I t seems t h a t t h e N r i hegemony

s p r e a d w i d e l y t o o t h e r l a n d s a n d a l so d o m i n a t e d Nsukka

m e a beyond t o areas l i k e I d a h a n d few I g a l a i n g e n e r a l .

T h e Nsukka p e o p l e , however , owe a l o t t o I d a h

( I g a l a ) p e o p l e , when I d a h became a p o l i t i c a l power to

b e r e c k o n e d w i t h , many o f t h e p e o p l e o f N o r t h e r n I g b o -

l a n d became i n f l u e n c e d by i t s powers , Nsukka was o n e

s u c h community and i t i s r e c o r d e d t h a t t h e y made many

t r i p s to t h e A t t a h o f I g a l a and h i s c h i e f o f f i c i a l known

a s Ashadu, w i t h t h e rise o f t h e I g a l a k ingdom, t h e

monarchy t r i e d t o c o n t r o l many p a r t s , o f N o r t h e r n I g b o

t h r o u g h t r a d e . t h e i r

c h a n g i n g / n a m e s , - and some of t h e

Some c o m m u n i t i e s e v e n w e n t as f a r as

e ,g , , Nsukk a became Nsukka-Ashadu-Attah

p r i e s t s were now c a l l e d A t t a m a .

S h e l t o n (1968: 2 4 7 ) r e c o r d s t h a t some e l d e r s t o l d

him t h a t ifi t h e o l d e n d a y s , I g a l a would t a k e h o r s e s down

to Nsukka to se l l them to t h e I g b o f o r s l a v e s and t h e n

t h e i r f a t h e r s would se l l t h e s l a v e s t o r i v e r p e o p l e a t ., +. . * 5 . ,t' > .,4-

I d a h , who would now t a k e them down t h e r i v e r to Beke

( E u r o p e a n s ) ,

To u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a c t i o n o f t h e s e Nsukka communi- ,I .- -L

t i es w e tnust: remember t h a t t h e y were p o l i t i c a l l y f r a g -

mented a n d m i l i t a r i l y weak., I n t h e Nsukka a r e a , t h e i r

v i l l a g e g r o u p i r l g s are s t i l l g e n e r a l l y more on t h e small

size t e r r i t o r i a l l y and i n r e g a r d to t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n ,

T h e s e v i l l a g e s a r e n o t o n l y t h e l a r g e s t u n i t o f p o l i t i c a l

i n t e g r a t i o n i n e x i s t e n c e , b u t t h e y a l s o r e p r e s e n t bond-

i n g s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h them f rom other v i l l a g e s , H a r d l y

d o you h a v e w e l l - a r t i c u l a t e d o r s t r o n g t r a d i t i o n s o f

common d e s c e n t among t h e v a r i o u s v i l l a g e s ,

. Faced w i t h t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f e x t e r m i n a t i o n , t h e y

t h e n a s s o c i a t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e s e m i l i t a r i l y s t r o n g

I g a l a - Some v i l l a g e s s t a r t e d d r e a m i n g u p l e g e n d s o f

I g a l a o r i g i n w h i l e o t h e r s a t t d c h e d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e

A t t a h ' s c l a n or e v e n t h e ~ s h a d u ' s c l a n , O t h e r s t o o k t i t les

l j k e t h e Asadu a n d p a i d f o r them. L e a d e r s a t t a c h e d them-

s e l v e s to s l a v e r a i d e r s and a l s o bdGame s l a v e t r a d e r s i n

t h e p r o c e s s ( Ugwu, 1964: 1 2 1,

The t h i r d i n f l u e n c e i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d h i s t o r y

o f t h e Nsukka p e o p l e i s t h e Nike-kro-Abam l e a g u e , With

t h e d e c l i n e of t h e I g a l a h o l d o n Nsukka, t h e A r o were

a l r e a d y o n t h e way t o e s t a b l i s h i n g a f l o u r i s h i n g t r a d e , < ,, . 4 , 5 . ,t, ,>

'

i n s l a v e s w i t h t h e p e o p l e o f ~ i k e , Nike f o u n d i t v e r y

c o n v e n i e n t to r a i d f o r s l a v e s f r o m Nsukka and t h e p e o p l e

o f A b a m a c t e d as t h e tool f o r s e c u r i n g t h e s e s l a v e s ,

H o r t o n (1954 : 311) e x p l a i l n s -&at N i k e a d j a c e n t to a l a n d

s t a r v e d , o v e r - p o p u l a t e d g r o u p was i d e a l l y p l a c e d f o r

s e c u r i n g s u p p l i e s o f s l a v e s , e s p e c i a l l y as i ts a b u n d a n t

l a n d p r o v i d e d t h e w e a l t h to a c q u i r e them i n commdrce a n d

a l so to s e i ze them b y force w i t h t h e a i d of A b a m merce-

n a r i e s h i r e d b y t h e A r o who were t h e u l t i m a t e recipients

of them,

T r a d i t i o n h a s i t t h a t N ike a n d A r o e v e n had a b l o o d

c o v e n a n t a l t h o u g h t h i s w a s d e s t r o y e d b y a series o f w a r s

i n t h e area, A f i g b o ( 1 9 7 8 : 3 2 ) r e p o r t s t h a t a N i k e elder

e v e n boasted t h a t t h e i r h u n t i n g g r o u n d s w e r e O k p a t u , t h e

Nsukka area, A r o a n d Aushum, T h e y a lso h e l p e d p r o m i n e n t

Nsukka traders to dea l d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e A r o t h r o u g h

a c t i n g as t h e i r g u i d e s a n d a g e n t s ,

L a n d s w e r e r a i d e d i n c e s s a n t l y f o r slaves, A s s l ave

r a i d i n g c o n t i n u e d , o t h e r t o w n s i n c l u d i n g Ohaf i a also

b e g a n to r a i d Nsukka fo r s l a v e s , T h e s e r a i d s a n d t h e

r e r u l t a n t l a c k o f p e a c e a n d s t a b i l i t y s p a r k e d off w a r s

a n d s k i r m i s h e s b e t w e e n v i l l a g e s , T h e r e w e r e a l o t of

k i l l i n g s a n d d i s t r u s t , T h e wars n o t o n l y y i e l d e d a l a r g e

c r o p of s l aves b u t a l so " c o n v e r t e d Nsukka area i n t o o n e

l a r g e m a r k e t for danC"gu 'Hs , 'gun power a n d m a t c h e t s "

( ~ f i g b o , 1981: 110),

T h e B r i t i s h r u l e w h i c h starkd g r a d u a l l y i n t h e 2 0 t h

c e n t u r y declared Nsukka , ( p a r t ; of t h e Awka s u b - d i s t r i c t ,

Native c o u r t s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d a n d w a r r a n t c h i e f s a d m i n i s -

tered f h e " c o l o n i s e d v areas, T h i s t r e n d c o n t i n u d u n t i l

i ndependence when N i g e r i a i n g e n e r a l and Nsukka i n p a r t i -

c u l a r s t a r t e d o p e r a t i n g a p a r l i a m e n t a r y sys tem of s e l f -

government .

The q u e s t i o n of t h e p e o p l i n g o f t h e Nsukka area

b e l o n g s to t h e l a r g e r peoblern o f the o r i g i n o f t h e Igbo-

s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s and how t h e y came to occupy t h a t p o r t i o n

of S o u t h e r n N i g e r i a where w e now f i n d them. ~ n u g u - ~ z i k e

h a s a t t r a c t e d a l o t o f a t t e n t i o n i n t h e a t t e m p t to accounq

f o r t h e p e o p l i n g o f t h e Nsukka a r e a . I n 1953, i t s popula .

t i o n was p u t a t 61,000 w i t h a n a v e r a g e d e n s i t y of more

t h a n 800 p e r s o n s p e r q u a k e m i l e (Af igbo , l b i d . , 75) .

I t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e m o s t d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d r u r a l v i l l a g e

g r o u p i n West A f r i c a . Hor ton c l a i m s t h a t f o r t h i s r e a s o n

e t h n o g r a p h e r s have been i n c l i n e d to r e g a r d i t as an a r e a

o f e a r l y and p r o b a b l y i n d e p e n d e n t s e t t l e m e n t ( F o r d e e t a l ,

By t h e t h i r d m i l l e n i u m B.C., Nsukka seems to have

a t t a i n e d t h e N e o l i t h i c s t a g e o f development . H a r t l e ,,. . w 5 . ,*' > < ! , 4 t

( 1967: 1 4 3 ) p o s ' t u l a t e s t h a t t h e c u l t u r a l a s semblages

began sometime d u r i n g t h e e a r l y N e o l i t h i c a t a t i m e when

t h e N e o l i t h i c c u l t u r a l i n v e n t o r y is s i m p l y added to a

l a t e s t a g e o f Sangoan ~ ~ d e r e l o p m e n t , The Af ikpo r o c k s h e 1 t t

may b e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s t i m e , b u t t h e farm s i t e a t

Nsukka which h a s a d a t e o f 2555 B.C. i s o b v i o u s l y a w e l l

deve loped N e o l i t h i c . Af iqbo (1981: 7 8 ) b e l i e v e s , however,

t h a t t h e y had a t t a i n e d s u c h a l e v e l o f social and e c o n o m i c

s t a b i l i t y . a s would e n a b l e them to p e r p e t u a t e t h e i r k i n d

o v e r t h e area a n d a r o u n d u n l e s s b r o u g h t u n d e r o v e r w h e l m i n g

p r e s s u r e and e i t h e r d r i v e n o u t o r e x t e r m i n a t e d .

P r o f e s s o r T h u r s t a n Shaw h a s a l so t u r n e d u p e v i d u n c e

t o a s s i k t t h e f a c t t h a t man m i g r a t e d f rom t h e s a v a n n a

l a n d , down t o t h e G u i n e a Coast, The e x c a v a t i o n of a s k u l l

f o u n d i n s i t u 200 k i l o m e t r e s w e s t - sou th -wes t of L a r g e a u

i n t h e Chad r e g i o n , p r o d u c e d t h e T c h a d a n t h r o p u s U x o r i s

w h i c h i s of t h s AUS t r a l o p i t h o c i n e g e n d e r , ? - +nus .

A l o t o f work s t i l l n e e d s to be d o n e o n t h e h i s t o r y

of t h e Nsukka p e o p l e . D e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t them

w i l l o n l y be r e a c h e d a s more e v i d e n c e is t u r n e d u p by

l i n g u i s t i c e t h n o g r a p h i c and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h .

From my f i n d i n g s , t h o s e who had earl ier o n a t t e m p t e d t o

h a n d l e t h e h i s t o r y o f t h i s p e o p l e m u s t h a v e b e e n m i s l e d

by some t r a d i t i o n s which are i n e x i s t e n c e t o d a y b u t w a s

n o t n e c e s s a r i l y so i n t i m e s p a s t . A l o t of t h e biases .' ,, . 4 .(. >t. ,> a .

a r e i n a d v e r t e n t l y i n c l u d e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h .

2.5 REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE

P u b l i c a r c h a e o l o g y i s t h e p r a c t i c e o f a r c h a e o -

l o g y a s i t relates to t h e i n t e r e s t s a n d c o n c e r n s

of t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c , The p e o p l e h a v e a r i g h t to

know what a r c h a e o l o g i s t s are i n v o l v e d i n . Archaeo-

l o g i s t s u s e m o s t l y p u b l i c m o n i e s t o c o n d u c t and

p r e s e n t a r c h a e o l o g y t o s c h o o l s , museums, and v a r i o u s

o t h e r e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , T h e r e i s , t h e r e f o r e , a rela-

t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h e r i t a g e r e s o u r c e s a n d o t h e r

h u m a n i k t i c i n t e r e s t s ,

E d e t (1990: 89) r i g h t l y o b s e r v e d t h a t N i g e r i a

i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r i c h i n p r e - h i s t o r i c s i tes and

h i s t o r i c monuments, A l o t h a s happened s i n c e t h e

e s t a b l i s h r n e n r : o f t h e c o n c e p t o f a r c h a e o l o g y a n d

c u l t u r a l material c o l l e c t i o n s i n N i g e r i a which h a s

p a s s e d t h r o u g h t w o t h o u s a n d y e a r s o f a n c i e n t a r t .

S a m p l e s of t h i s a r t w h i c h h a v e b e e n r e c o v e r e d

c o n s i s t o f wood4, b r o n z e ? p o t t e r y , s t o n e work, i r o n . , 1. +' , (.1.?

work , e tc , , and t h e s e are now p r e s e n t e d i n N i g e r i a n

museums, Mow aware are t h e p u b l i c o f t h i s o u r g r e a t

p a s t . To u n d e r s t a n d f u l l y why a r c h a e o l o g i s t S s h o u l d I ' - .L

communicate t h e p a s t t o t h e p u b l i c a d e t a i l e d l o o k

a t t h e p a s t i s i m p e r a t i v e a t t h i s j u n c t u r e ,

An a r c h a e o l o g i s t o b s e r v e s t h e traces o f t h e p a s t

a n d r e c o r d s them, H e i s a n A c h i l l e s , c h a s i n g a p e s t

which seems so e a s y t o r e a c h a n d y e t , h e n e v e r q u i te

g e t s t h e r e * S h a n k s (1989: 11) o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e p a s t

which o t h e r s may c a l l t h e museum, t h e a r c h i v e , t h e l i b r a r y ,

receedes i n a n i n d e f i n i t e , p e r h a p s i n f i n i t e series of

g a l l a r i e s , The a r c h a e o l o g i s t i s t h e n f o u n d w a n d e r i n g

t h e w i n d i n g a n d sometimes e n d l e s s corridors a n d h a l l w a y s ,

f o r e v e r u n l o c k i n g doors which a p p e a r new, armed w i t h

d i f f e r e n t a n a l y t i c a l k e y s , p i c k i n g o v e r t h e s k e l e t , a l

r e m n a n t s o f societies w h i c h are e x t i n c t , s c r u t i n i z i n g

s h e l v e s o f d e a t h a n d d e c a y o r e v e n " g a t h e r i n g t r u t h s

from s e l f - r e f e r e n c e i n g s i te r e p o r t s M ( S h a n k s , I b i d , ) ,

A c c o r d i n g to D a n i e l ( 1962: 1 6 5 ) " t h e t r u t h of t h e

p a s t c a n n e v e r be known fo r c e r t a i n " . Objec t s h a v e

a l r e a d y b e e n locked u p i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r t i m e a n d r e g r e t -

a b l y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e a l so b e e n l o c k e d i n t o t h e i r s ,

On many o c c a s i ~ n s , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e d rawn i n c r e a s i n g l y .. ,, . . 'I. , I . . ' 1.) ' .

close to s o l v i n g t h e i s s u e of t h e p a s t b u t t h e y n e v e r

q u i t e g e t t h e r e . T h i s i s b e c a u s e o f t h e s u b j e c t i v i t y

t h a t b e l o n g s to the p a s t . S h a n k s (1989: 8) a g r e e s w i t h

t h e a b o v e v iew b e c a u s e h e s=es ' t h e p a s t as s o m e t h i n g t h a t

i s o v e r , c o m p l e t e d a n d q u i t e a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f i t

i s lost i n the d i s t a n c e , H e , however , c o n c e d e s t h a t some

traces o f t h e p a s t a r e s t i l l h e r e w i t h u s and t h e p r o b l e m

' i s how to u s e t h e s e a s p e c t s t h a t w e c a n s t i l l g r a s p to

e n a b l e u s see a n d u n d e r s t a n d ass w e l l as v i s i t t h e

d i s t a n t p a s t , w i l l i a m F a u l k n e r , q u o t e d i n H o l z e r (1978 : 9 )

d i s a g r e e s w i t h S h a n k s and D a n i e l , "The p a s t Q Q , h e c l a i m e d ,

"is n e v e r d e a d , i t h a s n o t e v e n p a s s e d onm.

Hawkes (1968: 262) b e l i e v e s t h a t a r c h a e o l o g y is a

p e r s o n a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e p a s t , i t is u l t i r n a t e l y

b a s e d o n a l o n g i n g f o r d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e p a s t and e v e n - ,

t u a l l y g e t t i n g b e y o n d t h e o b j e c t s to t h e i r human creators

b e i n g i n t h e i r - p r e s e n c e , T h e p a s t is c o n c e i v e d as com-

p l e t e d , t h a t i s p e r f e c t , A p e r f e c t p a s t i s , t e m p o r a r i l y

a b s e n t b e l o n g i n g to a n o t h e r t i m e . T h e objects o f the

p a s t - a r e h e r e w i t h u s now b u t as t h e c o n t r a r y o f t h e

c o n t i n u o u s i m p e r f e c t p r e s e n t w h i c h i s a process o f a

c o n t i n u i n g i n c o m p l e t e s t a te -

I n t h e s t u d y of a r c h a e o l o g y , t h e r e i s a c o n c e n s u s

as t o how to o b s e r v e t h e t r a c e s which t h e p a s t h a s l e f t .* ,, . 4 ,<. ,t. , .,+ ' .

b e h i n d , T h i s c a n be a c h i e v e d by means o f s u r v e y , e x c a v a -

t i o n a n d d e t a i l e d s c i e n t i f i c e x a m i n a t i o n s b u t most impor-

t a n t of a l l a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o m n ~ u n i c a t i o n , T h e traces

of t h e p a s t are f a s t d i s a p ' p e s f ' i n g i n t h e p r e s e n t , They

are b e i n g e x c a v a t e d away i n one way or the o t h e r , and

t h i s i s a t a n a l a r m i n g r a p i d rate , What do w e d o ?

T h e r e i s a b e l i e f t h a t i t i s r i g h t to p r e s e r v e t h e p a s t ,

T h e p r o b l e m i s p l a n n i n g , l e g i s l a t i o n a n d f u n d i n g , I t i s

also e d u c a t i o n a l t h a t i s t e a c h i n g t h e p e o p l e to r e s p e c t

t h e p a s t , Wheel er ( 1954 : 18 1 c o n c l u d e s t h a t lo t h e humani-

ties t r a i n e d a r c h a e o l o g i s t , t h e i m a g i n a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l

b r e a k s w i t h t h e ties of t h e p r e s e n t t o f e e l t h e way b a c k

to t h e p a s t " , The r o l e o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t i s t h e r e f o r e

o n e o f empa thy , b r e a t h i n g l i f e i n t o t h e d u s t y relics o f

t h e p a s t .

A r c h a e o l o g y c a n be communicated to t h e p u b l i c i f

t h e manner of a p p r o a c h i s r i g h t , The c o m m u n i c a t i n g a r c h a e o -

l o g i s t i s a s t o r y teller. Ben jamin (1973 : 18) sees s t o r y

t e l l i n g a s t h e " r e f l e c t i o n a n d c r e a t i o n o f a world w h e r e

e x p e r i e n c e e x i s t s as c o n t i n u i t y a n d f low11, I n s u c h a

w o r l d , t i m e a n d mean ing are r e l a t e d , I n e s s e n c e , t h e

s t u d y of h i s t o r y and a r c h a e o l o g y become a series o f e v e n t s

t h a t is s a t u r a t e d w i t h mean ing , However, S h a n k s (1987: 1 6 )

b e l i e v e s t h a t Itto r e l i e v e t h e p a s t w i t h o u t c o p y i n g would ,' ,< - 4 < 5 . \.. , >*

be a n e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i e n c e .

The a r c h a e o l o g i s t m u s t be ab le t o create a v i v i d

p i c t u r e for t h e p u b l i c a b o u t w h a t h e i s d o i n g by u s i n g I ) " .L

materials t h a t c a n be s e e n . I m a g i n e f o r a moment a t t e m p t -

i n g t o d e s c r i b e d e t a i l , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n s h a p e b e t w e e n

a hand a x e a n d a p i b l i s h e d s t o n e a x e , etc, Miller (1987: 98)

shows t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e ar tefact m u s t b e g i n w i t h

i t s most o b v i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h i s t h a t i t e x i s t s

as a p h y s i c a l l y c o n c r e t e f o r m i n d e p e n d e n t o f a n y i n d i v i -

d u a l ' s m e n t a l i m a g e o f i t , B e n j a m i n ( o p e C i t , , 18) a d d s

t h a t t h e s t o r y teller d o e s n o t a i m a t c o n v e y i n g w h a t i s

a p u r e l y abs t rac t e s s e n c e o f t h e p a s t i n t h e same way

t h a t t h o s e who w a n t t o create a g r e a t i n v e n t o r y o f f a c t s

or i n f o r m a t i o n u s u a l l y t r y t o d o , R e c r e a t i n g t h e p a s t

for p e o p l e "is a p r a c t i c e w h i c h r e v e a l s t h e a u t h o r t h e

s u b j e c t and t h e p e o p l e ( S h a n k s , 1987: 1 6 1 , T h e a n a l y s i s

g i v e n b y Ben jamin a p p l i e s g r e a t l y t o t h i s i s s u e o f communi-

c a t i n g t h e p a s t t o t h e p u b l i c , E v e n t s o r a r t e f a c t s are

m e a n i n g f u l on1 y when t h e y h a v e b e e n e f f e c t i v e l y i n c o r p o -

r a t e d i n t o t e x t s t h z t m a k e s e n s e t o a n a u d i e n c e and n o t

when t h e y are c o n c l u d e d i n u n i n t e l l i g t k b l e j a r g o n ,

What i s n e e d e d i s n o t t h e p r o m o t i o n and p r o t e c t i o n

o f a commodi f i ed p a s t , T h e r e s h o u l d be a n a c t i v e re-

w o r k i n g of the p a s t i n t h e p r e s e n t b y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s who .',...,<. ,t, > , . , a ' .

d o n o t a s s e r t t h e m s e l v e s as m a n a g e r s of some u n s p e c i f i e d

g e n e r a l h e r i t a g e ( S h a n k s , 1987: 2 5 ) . H e c o n t i n u e d t h e

a r g u m e n t b y p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h e i s s u e is n o t b a s e d o n

t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o r even1' n o W p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e p a s t b u t

i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e known as a r c h a e o l o g y .

The f e a r i s t h a t t h e a c t u a l p r a c t i c e o f a r c h a e o l o g y is i n a

t h e power o f / s e l f - a p p o i n t e d m i n o r i t y who see t h e m s e l v e s

as N p r o f e s s i o n a l s l t . T h i s t r e n d t e n d s t o have t h e e f f e c t

o f d e n y i n g t h e p u b l i c t h e r i g h t o f a c t i ve p a r t i c i p a t i o n

i n t h e i r h i s t o r y ,

S c h i f f e r ( 1979 : 245) s t a t e d t h a t " t h e c o n c e p t o f

p u b l i c . s i g n i f i c a n c e s t r i k e s close t o t h e u l t i m a t e p u r p o s e

f o r d o i n g a r c h a e o l o g y , The pooblem i s t h a t a l l too o f t e n ,

t h e s o - c a l l e d manage r s p r e s e n t a p e t r i f i e d p a s t which

i s a l w a y s i n need o f p r e s e r ~ a t i o n ~ a decay ing c o r p s e i n

need o f l lembalming b e f o r e t h e s m e l l becomes too s t r o n g 1 @

( S h a n k s , Op. C i t . ) . G a r r i s o n (1986: 1 ) a b l y summar i s e s

t h e p a s t as "what a l l p e o p l e b u i l d t h e i r p r e s e n t a n d

f u t u r e onV1, w i t h o u t t h i s t h e p e o p l e are l e f t s i t t i n g i n

a v o i d and t h e i r m a i n aim w i l l b e to r e c l a i m t h e i r h i s t o r y

wh ich r e g r e t a b l y h a s b e e n s u s p e n d e d i n a tqbottomless p i t " .

I t h a s been a r g u e d t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n B r i t a i n

and i n o t h e r p l a c e s , h a v e l i t t l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f wha t

t h e p u b l i c t h i n k a b o u t t h e p a s t o r a b o u t a r c h a e o l o g y

(Bewley , 1983; S t o n e , 1986 ) . S u p p o r t i n g t h i s v iew, , < ,, 4 ,$. ,t. , -14- ' .

O s e i T u t u (1990: 1 1 0 ) a g r e e s t h a t a p a r t f rom p u b l i c l e c t u r e s

t t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s d o n o t expound o r communicate t h e i r d i s c i -

p l i n e and i n d e e d t h e i r f i n d i n g s i n a way t h a t a p p e a l s t o

t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c N . They h ? e f u l l y and somet imes d e l i -

b e r a t e l y h i d e v i t a l a r a h c e o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n h i g h

f l y i n g academic j a r g o n i n "a s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t to main-

t a i n t h e i r h i g h - s t a t u s p o s i t i o n i n a s o c i e t y whe re c o n t r o l

o f knowledge is s e e n as synonymous w i t h t h e c o n t r o l o f

power (Hodder , 1 9 8 4 ) - I t i s q u i t e s u r p r i s i n g t h a t f o r

many r e a s o n s which i n c l u d e e d i t o r i a l and f i n a n c i a l , q u i t e

a l o t o f p e r t i n e n t A f r i c a n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h f i n d -

i n g s are p u b l i s h e d o u t s i d e t h e c o u n t r y i n f o r e i g n j o u r n a l s ,

Such j o u r n a l s are o u t o f r e a c h o f many b e c a u s e t h e y c a n

o n l y be a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h s u b s c r i p t i o n i n f o r e i g n c u r r e n -

cies which are i n s h o r t s u p p l y . Adande (1990: 1 0 6 )

l a m e n t s t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s method o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

communica t ion and d i s s e m i n a t i o n of c u l t u r a l i n f o r m a t i o n

sometimes " e x c l u d e s many A f r i c a n researchers and a l so

many u n i v e r s i t y l ibraries, whose l i m i t e d f u n a s d o n o t

a l l o w f o r t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a l l t h e j o u r n a l s i n t h i s

d i s c i p l i n e " dnu t k d s i n c l u d e s t h e p u b l i c as w e l l ,

A rchaeo logy by i t s v e r y n a t u r e i n c l u d e s a commitment

to d i s s e m i n a t e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l data t o t h e p u b l i c , C o n v e r s e l y ,

G r a d y (1977: 263-2641 acknowledges t h a t i t i s o n l y when

" t h e p u b l i c c a n be made f u l l y awa re o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e and

p o t e n t i a l o f a r chaeoWgfc&X r e s o u r c e s t h a t r e s p o n s i b l e

management o f t h e s e r e s o u r c e s can b e f o r m u l a t e d and imple -

mented," T h i s b r i n g s u s QYs t h e fact t h d t p a r t i c i p a t i o n

is a v i t d p a r t of p u b l i ~ , ~ a r c K ; s e o l o g y , E f f e c t i v e conrmuni-

c a t i o n c a n n o t be a c h i e v e d u n l e s s t h e r e i s i m a g i n a t i v e

f e e d - t a c k which i s to a g r e a t e x t e n t , r e l i a b l e .

T h i s s e r v e s t h e p u r p o s e of a s s e s s i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s e f f o r t s to communicate. Agee ( 1979: 9)

a g r e e s to this feed - t ack e f f e c t t h a t t h e coumunica tor

i s a i d e d by i t. He h o l d s t h a t r e a c t i o n s whf ch come as

a r e s u l t of t h e p r o c e s s o f cmimunica t ion @@are t r a n s m i t t e d

backward; by t h e c o j m u n i c a t o r t o t h e audience*. T h e r e is

o b v i o u s l y better feed-back 1 n p e r s o n t o p e r s o n conm~unica-

t i o n t h a n i n mass media communl.cation to t h e peop le ,

D e r i v e r i n g a message face to face i s t h e r e f o r e a more

c o n v i n c i n g way of g e t t i n g t h e job done, D e s p i t e A g e e g s

argument , A l e x i s Adande (1990: 105) f e e l s t h a t i t i s .I

t h e du1Q of t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s to e t t h e

p r e s s i n v o l v e d i n t h e i r work s i n c e they, t h e media, a r e

p r o c e s s o f t r a n s m i t t i n g a rchaeo log ic ik l i n f o r m a t i o n to

t h e p u b l i c on r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n 1s st i l l rare o r

h i g h l y i r r e g u l a r i n A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s .

T e l e v i s i o n l i k e f i l m s i s a n e x c e l l e n t medium f o r ,',,.,., f . > t . ,%.,.P '

s t i m u l a t i n g i n t e r e s t and for m o d i f i c a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e s ,

b u t i t i s a poor medium o f communication o f f a c t u a l

i n f o r m a t i o n . Research carried o u t i n a number o f coun-

tries i n t h e pas t t e n yeaPs was r e p o r t e d by Hudson (1977:

77 ) a s hav ing shown t h a t v i e w e r s have t h e a b i l i t y to

remember o n l y a few o f t h e facts p r e s e n t e d t o them on

t e l e v i s i o n , These c o u l d h a v e been i n a news b u l l e t i n ,

a documentary oq even i n a programme which had been

d e s i g n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r e d u c a t i o n a l pu rposes . I n i t s

role as c e n t r a l c u l t u r a l medium, t e l e v i s i o n , e s p e c i l l y

i n f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s , p r e s e n t a d i v e r s i t y o f meanings

to the p u b l i c rather t h a n a m o n o l i t h i c dominant p o i n t

of view,., "The r a i s i n g o f q u e s t i o n s i s as i m p o r t a n t as

t h e answer ing o f themn ( N e w c o m b , 1984: 6 2 ) - Viewing o f

t h e t e l e v i s i o n d o e s n o t j u s t happen, I t i s c o n s t r u c t e d

by members of t h e f a m i l y . L u l l (1988: 1 7 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t

" v i e w e r s n o t o n l y make their own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f shows,

t h e y also c o n s t r u c t t h e s i t u a t i o n s i n which v i ewing t a k e s

p l a c e and t h e ways i n which acts of v i ewing and programme

con t e n t are p u t to use" , I n o t h e r words , i t i s when

p e o p l e t a l k a b o u t t e l e v i s i o n t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e i s c o n s t i -

t u t e d .

Whi l e programmes are b e i n g shown o n t e l e v i s i o n ,

programmes o n a r a h c e o l l o g i c a l f indls s h o u l d be s l o t t e d i n ., ,, . < $ . \ t ' ,

o c c a s i o n a l l y by the media. p e o p l e d o t a k e i n some f a c t s

f rom t e l e v i s i o n b u t s i n c e t h e programme h a s to move a l o n g

a t a pre-de te rmined p a c e and c a n n o t b e r u n back or s t o p p e d

if o n e v i ewer h a s missed some & n t s and would l i k e to

check u p o n someth ing t h a t w a s shown a b o u t twen ty s e c o n d s

ear l ier , o n e mus t a g r e e that t e l e v i s i o n is q u i t e a rough

a n d r e a d y way of l e a r n i n g a b o u t a s u b j e c t l i k e a r c h a e o l o g y .

However, f o r c h i l d r e n and most a d o l e s c e n t s , t e l e v i -

s i o n where a v a i l a b l e i s u n d o u b t d d l y t h e most i m p o r t a n t

s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e wor ld . Har tman a n d h u s b a n d

(see Swan, 1985: 4 5 ) i n a s u r v e y t h a t t h e y c o n d u c t e d ,

d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t of t h e mass w d i a

i s n o t t h a t w a t c h i n g t e l e v i s i o n m a k e s u s more v i o l e n t or

p e r m i s s i v e o r e v e n r a c i s t ; b u t t h a t t h e media h a v e a way

o f t h r o w i n g some f e a t u r e s i n t o s h a r p r e l i e f w h i l e ob l i t e -

r a t i n g o t h e r s , They select a n d l i m i t t h e i s s u e s which

are w o r t h y o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n and recall,

The news m e d i a c a n i n d e e d b e h e l p f u l i f w e know how

t o u t i l i z e them p r o p e r l y a n d n o t th row u p o u r h a n d s a t

t h e f i r s t m i s q u o t e , L i p e (1977 : 2 4 ) a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t

t h e r e a r e many who h a v e s t o o d aside w h i l e t h e i r disco-

v e r i e s i n a r a h c e o l o g y were t u r n e d i n t o a t r e a s u r e h u n t

b y s h a l l o w j o u r n a l i s m , A s a r e s u l t , L i p e i n s i s t s t h a t

t h e o n l y way to r e d r e s s t h e s i t u a t i o n i s to i n c r e a s e o u r ,' $ 3 4 < 5 .t' , 1.P

e f f o r t s t o g e t t h e media to t e l l o u r s t o r y p r o p e r l y e i t h e r

by w r i t i n g more p o p u l a r mater ia ls o u r s e l v e s or w e s h o u l d

s p e n d more t i m e e d u c a t i n g t h e m e d i a p e o p l e . T h i s e f f o r t

m u s t be made b e c a u s e o f tk 'power o f t h e media t o e d u c a t e .

I f w e w i t h d r a w f rom making t h e s e e f f o r t s , newspaper a n d

t e l e v i s i o n c o v e r a g e o f a r c h a e o l o g y w i l l n o t s t o p , i t w i l l

o n l y be less a c c u r a t e and i n c r e a s i n g l y u n l i k e l y to

i n c l u d e t h e m e s s a g e s w h i c h w e h o p e t o g e t across to t h e

communi t y .

T h i s t h e n i s b o t h t h e d i f f i c u l t y a n d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y

of f i l m s and t e l e v i s i o n s b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e a n enormous ,

u n e q u a l l e d p r e s t i g e i n t o d a y * s t o r l d . " N o t h i n g e x i s t s

u n t i l i t h a s b e e n s e e n o n t e l e v i s i o n a n d now c h i l d r e n

who h a v e grown u p h a v e become a c c u s t o m d to l e a r n i n g a b o u t

t h e world t h r o u g h v i s u a l i m p r e s s i o n s t q , (Hudson , 1977: 89).

I t i s a fac t t h a t t h e mass m e d i a do n o t d e t e r m i n e p e o p l e s '

a t t i t u d e towards a r c h a e o l o g i c a l material b u t t h e y do

s t r u c t u r e a n d e v e n t u a l l y select i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t p e o p l e

may u s e o n which t o base d e c i s i o n s o n w h a t a t t i t u d e i s

a p p r o p r i a t e . " A t t i t u d e s themselves are i l 1- inf ormed a n d

may be f o c u s e d by t h e i m a g e s a n d a t t i t u d e s of t h e mass

mediam (Swan, 1985: 45).

CHAPTER THREE

3.1 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES I N THE OLD NSUKKA DIVISION

SITE ONE

LEJJA I R O N SMELTING SITE

LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF SITE

L e j j a i s a town a b o u t 12-14 kms s o u t h o f Nsukka

town i n Enugu S t a t e . I t is l o c a t e d o n 6 O 4 8 ' Nor th

a n d 7O 30' E a s t o n t h e N i g e r i a n map, L e j ja l ies o n

a r a i s e d g r o u n d r i g h t i n a v a l l e y s u r r o u n d e d b y

g r a s s y h i 1 1s. V e g e t a t i o n i s p r e d o m i n a l t y r e s i d u a l

f o r e s t t y p e and t h e r e are also trees l o c a t e d o n t h e

h i l l s and s h r u b s i n f i e l d p l o t s , T h e area c o n s i s t s

m o s t l y o f d e r i v e d s a v a n n a g r a s s l a n d a n d s h r u b s .

T r e e s s u c h a s t h e o i l b e a n , P e n t a c l e t h r a r n n c r o p h y l l a

A q b a b a t e r i "AhabaW and "OkpeyeW C l a p p e r t o n i a p a r k i i

are p a r t o f t h e r e m n a n t s f o r e s t , T h e s e m u s t h a v e

b e e n u s e d f o r c h a r c o a l and f u e l d u r i n g s m e l t i n g ,

I t i s l a r g e l y s u s p e c t e d t h a t t h e Adada River which ,' ,, ., . < < . ,>. , a ,

f l o w s t h r o u g h Nkpologu to t h e Anambra R i v e r m u s t

h a v e s t a r t e d Prom L e j j a ,

1 , e j j a i s made u p o f t h r e e m a j o r k i n s h i p s e c t i o n s - E j u Ona, Uwani ~ e j j a " a n a " ~ k a b i te. E j u Ona is s u p p o s e d

to b e t h e o l d e s t of t h e k i n s h i p s e c t i o n s and t h e

v i l l a g e s q u a r e i s l o c a t e d t h e r e ,

ARCHAEOLOGY

C y l i n d r i c a l s l a g b locks are t h t most o b v i o u s r e m a i n s

of a p a s t t h r i v i n g i r o n i n d u s t r y i n t h e area. T h e s e

c o v e r a n area o f o v e r 1 0 0 h e c t a r e s of l a n d . Each of them

m e a s u r e s a b o u t 0 - 3 c u , m. T h e diameters r a n g e b e t w e e n

3 1 a n d 5 6 c m and t h e d e p t h o r h e i g h t o f e a c h block r a n g e

b e t w e e n 22 a n d 36 c m ( A n o z i e , 1979: 124). A l l t h e b l o c k s

are c y l i n d r i c a l w i t h orre o f t h e t w o e n a s e i t h e r c o n i c a l

i n s h a p e or else r o u n d e d a n d f l a t , T h e r e are a t l eas t

5 0 , 0 0 0 b l o c k s i n L e j ja a n d a b o u t 8 0 0 of them a d o r n t h e

v i l l a g e s u q a r e a t L e j ja known a s "Otobo Dunoka". Dunoka

m u s t h a v e b e e n a g r e a t s m e l t i n g s i t e b e c a u s e of t h e m a s s i v e

number o f c y l i n d r i c a l b l o c k s a r r a n g e d i n f r o n t o f i t s

masqueradrz !:ouse (see P l a t e 1.1).

Some o f t h e s e s l a g b locks w e r e s t i l l i n s i t u a n d had

t a k e n t h e s h a p e o f t h e p i t w h e r e t h e y were found . Most

of t h e s e w e r e e x p o s e d as a r e s u l t o f f l o o d , On closer

e x a m i n a t i o n , i t w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e p i t s where t h e , , . , I +

b l o c k s l a y were l i n e d w i t h c l a y 2 c m t h i c k b u t t h e

c l a y l i n i n g m u s t h c v e come i n c o n t a c t w i t h h e a t a n d had

become black i n c o l o u r .

A f e w o f t h e b l o c k s M e r e - b r o k e n b y p e r c u s s i o n to

r e v e a l a n o u t e r s e c t i o n which i s i n l a y e r s and a n i n n e r

s e c t i o n which i s f u s e d t o g e t h e r . O t h e r f r a g m e n t s r e v e a l e d

i m p r i n t s o f g r a s s a n d wood. Some t u y e r e f r a g m e n t s were

also r e c o r d e d . An almost c o m p l e t e t u y e r e was among t h o s e

d i s c o v e r e d , Some o f t h e t u b e s o f c l a y measured u p t o

1 5 c m i n d i a m e t e r " w i t h a bore' d i a m e t e r b e t w e e n 4,s and

6 , O cmw ( A n o z i e , 1983: 1 8 3 ) . The c l a y was o b v i o u s l y

t e m p e r e d w i t h g r a s s s i n c e t h e g r a s s was s t i l l v i s i b l e

t h ough c h a r r e d by h e a t . I n a d d i t i o n , a small o b j e c t ,

r o u n d e d i n n a t u r e a n d a b o u t 4 c m i n d i a m e t e r was a l s o

d i s c o v e r e d , i t was made o f s l a g . A n o z i e (1973 : 1 2 5 )

p o s t u l a t e d t h a t i t was a p o u n d i n g implement .

E x c a v a t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t a t L e j ja i n 1984, The

e x c a v a t i o n s w e r e o f a s m a l l scale ( 6 x 6 m ) i n a n ore

r o a s t i n g p i t a n d i n a c h a r c o a l b u r n i n g p i t , One of t h e

s i tes w a s n e a r t h e Nkwo m a r k e t w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r o n e was

i n t h e "Otobo Dunokoam, v i l l a g e s q u a r e . D u r i n g t h e e x c a v a -

t i o n o f t h e o r e r o a s t i n g p i t , some e v i d e n c e w a s f o u n d

w h i c h h e l p e d i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g how t h e s l a g b locks were

formed. T h e r e was a s h a f t d u g i n t o t h e s o i l a n d i n t h e

l o w e r p a r t , s p e c i a l l y p r e p a r e d c h i p s o f i r o n ore were ., ,, . . " I . ,1. > . .1* ' .

f o u n d a n d t h e s e Bad a l r e a d y b e e n mixed w i t h c h a r c o a l ,

T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e b l o c k s were formed by r e d u c i n g t h e

i r o n o r e a n d charcoal. F u r n a c e s h a v e n o t y e t b e e n d i s -

c o v e r e d , I1 _ _L.

DISCUSSICN

The p e o p l e o f Lej j a a m a z i n g l y d o n o t h a v e a n y r e c o r d

o f i r o n s m e l t i n g , They h a r d l y a c c e p t e d t h e f a c t t h a t

t h e s e s l a g b locks were e v e n by p r o d u c t s of i r o n s m e l t i n g ,

Many of t h e i n d i g e n e s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g

b l o c k s were dug u p from t h e g round by t h e i r a n c e s t o r s .

Even t h e local e l i t e seemed i g n o r a n t o f t h e o r i g i n o f

t h e s e lumps o f s l a g , The b l o c k s are r e f e r r e d to as

"nne-nkumen or mo the r s t o n e and t h e y were m o s t l y u s e d as

"Etukwum o r seats, Women were f o r b i d d e n to s i t o n t h e s e

a n d t h e p r e s e n t writer sat o n o n e of t h e b l o c k s and was

q u i c k l y c h a s e d o f f .

Anoz i e ( 1979) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e local h i s t o r i a n ,

M r . E z e , c l a i m e d t h a t i n t h e o l d e n d a y s , L e j j a had some

b l a c k s m i t h s who p roduced k n i v e s f rom t h e s l a g b u t h e was

u n a b l e to d e s c r i b e t h e p r o c e s s of r e d u c i n g t h e c y l i n d r i c a l

b l o c k s i n t o i r o n and s l a g , One o f the o l d e s t men w a s

c o n s u l t e d a n d he claimed t h a t t h e i r o n lumps known as

"Akpaka Igweu ( o i l b e a n i r o n ) were b o u g h t f r om m e r c h a n t s

before t h e l o c a l s m i t h s t u r n e d them i n t o u s e f u l implements .

The p r o c e s s e s h a v e b e e n , s u g g e s t e d a s a r e s u l t of .' ,, 4 ,<. >t , a *

e x c a v a t i o n s he1 d a t L e j ja, Anoz i e ( 1979 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t

t h e c y l i n d r i c a l b l o c k s c o u l d be f u r n a c e bottoms i n which

s l a g a c c u m u l a t e d d u r i n q s m e l t i n g or t h e s e b l o c k s c o u l d be ,I - .C

p a r t s o f a p i t i n which i r o n ore and f u e l was packed and

r e d u c e d , An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c l a y l i n i n g u s e d i n t h e

p i t s s u p p o r t t h i s v iew t h a t the p i t s were used as the

combus t l o n chambers . S e c o n d l y , l i n i n g t h e p i t s w i t h c l a y

s u g b e s t t h a t t h e p r o d u c t s of t h e p i t were more thiin j u s t

waste m a t e r i a l , The c l a y l i n i n g made i t easier for t h e

c y l . i n d r i c a 1 b l o c k s to be b r o u g h t o u t of t h e g r u u n d and

a l so p r e v e n t e d water f rom g e t t i n g i n t o t h e p i t s .

Oka fo r (1992: 109-110) d i s a g r e e s w i t h t h i s view.

E v i d e n c e u n c o v e r e d b y him showed t h a t i r o n s m e l t i n g was

n o t d o n e i n p i t f u r n a c e s b u t r a t h e r i n f o r c e d d r a u g h t

s h a f t f u r n a c e s a n d s l a g i s t a p p e d t h r o u g h a l r e a d y p r o v i d e d

chambers i n t o s l a g p i t s a l s o p r o v i d e d f o r t h a t p u r p o s e ,

H e a r g u e d t h a t when s a m p l e s which were o b t a i n e d from t h e

core of t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g b l o c k s w e r e examined u n d e r

S.E.M, ( 6 c a n n i n g E l e c t r o n Mic roscopy ) t h e l a y e r s i n t h e

s l a g showed w h i t e b a n d s o f m a g n e t i t e o n them. T h e s e

o c c u r r e d as a r e s u l t o f o x i d a t i o n o n t h e s l a g a f t e r i t

w a s t a p p e d from t h e f u r n a c e . The e x t e r n a l area c o o l e d

faster .and s o l i d i f i e d b e f o r e t h e core. Due t o t h e f a c t

t h a t t h e l a y e r s were f o r m ~ d u n d e r d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s , , c , , . 4 , s . ., !

t h e y got cool a t d i f f e r e n t rates and t h e r e s u l t i s t h e i r

p o s s e s s i o n of d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l t e x t u r e .

O k a f o r s s t h e s i s seemed more p r o b a b l e b e c a u s e a t O p i , ,I - .i

for i n s t a n c e , t h e c l a y l i n i n g s i n t h e p i t s were n o t s l a g g e d

or v i t r i f i e d . A l s o t h e p 1 . w d i d n o t show s l a g p e n e t r a t i o n

o f t h e c l a y a s would h a v e b e e n t h e case i f t h e s e p i t s were

u s e d f o r s m e l t i n g ( ~ l e i n e r , 1978: 38) . Anoz i e (1979: 1271 ,

however , made a s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t i n h i s e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t

t h e c l a y l i n i n g i n some p i t s were "so a f f e c t e d by h e a t t h a t

t h e o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s i n them were b u r n t so t h a t t h e

c o l o u r changed t o b lack" . O k a f o r ( p e r s o n a l commun ica t i on )

e x p l a i n e d t h a t a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t which s l a g is fo rmed

and i r o n m e l t e d , t h e o r g a n i c material cou ld b e c h a r r e d

b u t i f t h e p i t w e r e a c t u a l l y a f u r n a c e , " t h e r e would b e

no t r a c e o f t h e o r q a n i c m a t e r i a l e t

Be t h a t a s i t may, d o t h e p e o p l e o f L e j j a know and

a p p r e c i a t e t h e g r e a t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l h e r i t a g e which t h e y

h a v e i n t h e s e c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g b l o c k s i n t h e i r town?

H o w f a r h a v e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s g o n e t o i n v o l v e them i n t h e

d i s c o v e r y a n d p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h i s u n i q u e f i n d ?

SITE TdO

OPI I R O N SMELTING SITE

LOCATION

Opi i s l o c a t e d a b o u t 7 km S o u t h - E a s t o f Nsukka,

V e g e t a t i o n i s t h a t of d e r i v e d s a v a n n a w i t h a l o t o f h a r d

wood trees l i k e t h e o i l b e a n tree, P e n t a c l e t h r a m a c r o p h y l l a

a n d " icheku" V e l v e t t a m a r i n d tree. I r o n s l a g i s f r e e l y

s t r e w n a l l o v e r t h e p l a c e . A l o t o f c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g

b l o c k s a l so gre s e e n i n t h i s site, T h e r e are o t h e r c y l i n -

d r i ca l s l a g b l o c k s which c a n be s e e n e r o d i n g f rom the

g r o u n d a n d t u y e r e p i e c e s made o f h a r d b a k e d c l a y are

e a s i l y s e e n ,

ARCHAEOLOGY

The c y l i n d r i c a l b l o c k s o f s l a g which are f o u n d a t

Opi are v e r y similar t o t h o s e i n L e j j a , They m e a s u r e

b e t w e e n 54 an t o 57 c m i n d i a m e t e r a n d b e t w e e n 1 7 c m a n d

2 1 c m i n h e i g h t . They w e i g h b e t w e e n 43 kg a n d 47 k g

( ~ k a f o r , 1992: 54). S l a g p i t s were also d i s c o v e r e d measur- ,' ,, , . W T . .*. , . I * '

i n g b e t w e e n 6 1 crn a n d 64 c m i n d i a m e t e r and b e t w e e n 19 cm

and 23 c m i n d e p t h .

F o u r m a j o r s m e l t i n g si tes h a v e b e e n d i s c o v e r e d , They

are a t A f o r Opi ( m a r k e t ) , 0 p i " c u s f o m a r y c o u r t , which is

v e r y n e a r t h e m a r k e t , a t t h e f o o t o f Opi h i l l , some d i s -

t a n c e away a n d f i n a l l y a t O d i n a n s o I d i O p i , some 2 km away,

(see F i g , 3.1)-

A t Opi c u s t o m a r y c o u k t , t h e s l a g b l o c k s and d e b r i s c o v e r e d

a n e x t e n s i v e area, T h i s is a l so t h e case a t t h e f o o t o f

Opi h i l l . Two k i l o m e t r e s ( 2 km) east o f Afor Opi ( m a r k e t ) ,

c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g b l o c k s h a v e b e e n a r r a n g e d i n t o a s h r i n e

a t O d i n a n s o I d i Opi v i l l a g e (see P l a t e 2 .2) . T h e s e s l a g

b l o c k s are m o s t l y d a r k g r e y i n c o l o u r a n d some are c o v e r e d

w i t h a l i g h t -g reen s u b s t a n c e ,

Opi h a s b e e n d a t e d t o t h e f i r s t h a l f m i l l e n i u m B.C.

T h r e e c h a r c o a l s a m p l e s c o l l e c t e d a t t h e f o o t o f 9 p i h i l l

g a v e t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e s . T h e t h r e e r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s a r e

2305 - + 9 0 BOP,, 2170 2 8 0 B-P. and 2080 - + 9 0 B.P. T h e

c a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e s e d a t e s to o n e s i g m a l e v e l show t h a t

i r o n s m e l t i n g w a s c a r r i e d o u t i n t h i s a r e a b e t w e e n a b o u t

520 cal, B,C, and 15 Ca l . A,D, and t o t h e s e c o n d s i g m a

l e v e l b e t w e e n 765 C a l , B.C, and 75 C a l . A.D. ( O k a f o r , 1992:

53; O k a f o r a n d P h i l l i p s , 1992: 686-6801.

A t t h e f o u r sites, s e v e r a l tes t p i t s h a v e b e e n sunk

and t h e s e p r o d u c e d i m p o r t a n t f i n d s . Some o f t h e m a j o r ., ,, . . c < . >r' , . .1*

f i n d s i n c l u d e t u y e r e p i e c e s , c i n d e r and c h a r c o a l , p i e c e s

o f f u r n a c e s , etc. N o s t a n d i n g f u r n a c e was f o u n d b u t f rom

t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s g i v e n , t h e f o r c e d d r a u g h t f u r n a c e was t h e

t y p e u s e d a t Opi and t h e h e i g h t * k o u l d b e u p t o 1.5 metres,

T h e f u r n a c e s were made f rom l o c a l c l a y and c o u l d e a s i l y

d i s i n t e g r a t e i f l e f t f o r some t i m e , Near t h e b a s e of t h e

f u r n a c e were p i ts p r o v i d e d f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f slag

t h r o u g h c h a n n e l s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e f u r n a c e , A t t h e end

o f e v e r y smelt, t h e bloom w h i c h r e s t e d o n t h e b a s e o f ,

t h e f u r n a c e would b e removed w i t h a wooden c lamp. F u e l

u s e d f o r s m e l t i n g w a s m o s t l y c h a r c o a l g o t f r o m o i l b e a n

trees, P e n t a c l e t h r a m a c r o p h y l l a and I c h e k u trees V e l v e t

t a m a r i n d . C h a r c o a l made f r o m t h e s e trees w e r e s a i d t o

h a v e t h e a b i l i t y t o b u r n f o r s e v e r a l d a y s w i t h o u t t u r n i n g

i n t o a s h .

O r e i s i n a b u n d a n c e a t Opi and was c o l l e c t e d b y

smelters b y o p e n cast m i n i n g a t t h e f o o t o f O p i h i l l .

They were later b r o k e n down t o t h e s i z e o f a b o u t 150 mm

b e f o r e being l o a d e d i n to t h e f u r n a c e w i t h t h e c h a r c o a l ,

T h e ore was l o a d e d a l t e r n a t e l y w i t h t h e c h a r c o a l a n d

p i e c e s o f d r y wood. O k a f o r (1992) a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t

b e l l o w s were u s e d i n w o r k i n g t h e f u r n a c e s a t Opi .

O r a l t r a d i t i o n a t Opi s u p p o r t d d t h e f a c t t h a t smel t-

i n g d e v e l o p e d i n O p i a s a r e s u l t o f demand f o r bloom b y ., ,, 4 . q . ,.' , L .

b l a c k s m i t h s from o t h e r v i l l a g e s who u s e d t h e bloom f o r

f o r g i n g tools arid f a r m i n g i m p l e m e n t s , T h e s e b l a c k s m i t h s

came from Eha WJumona,Nktrerre, Awka and Ede O b a l l a.

S I T E THREE

AKU I R O N SMELTING SITE

LOCATION

Aku l ies a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6O 40' N o r t h of t h e E q u a t o r

a n d 7O 18' E a s t of t h e E q u a t o r . Aku h a s t h r e e major

h o r i z o n t a l r i d g e s t h a t r u n a c r o s s it. T h e town i s almost

c o m p l e t e l y s u r r o u n d e d b y a c h a i n of h i l l s . To t h e E a s t ,

k k u i s bounded b y Ukehe , l k o l o a n d Ohebe ; t o t h e West b y

Nkpo logu , Akpugo a n d Udueme; t o t h e ~ o r t h b y L e j j a a n d

Oza l la a n d t o t h e S o u t h by A f a a n d Akpakume Nzue, T h e

town i s made u p o f t h i r t e e n v i l l a g e s - Use, Amaboku,

Mgboko Umu E z i k e , Ohemu je, Nua, O f i e n y i , Ugwunani , O b i e ,

Amogu, O s h i g o , Oda a n d Ugwuegede, (see F i g s . 3.2a a n d 3.2b)

VEGETATION

L i k e m o s t o t h e r sites s t u d i e d i n Nsukka area, Aku

f a l l s w i t h i n t h e fo res t z o n e a n d t h e v e g e t a t i o n h a s b e e n

c h a n g e d t o d e r i v e d s a v a n n a as a r e s u l t o f v a r i e d human

a c t i v i t i e s . A s i n most i r o m s m e l t i n g s i tes , Aku h a s abun-

d a n c e o f h a r d wood"tr&'s ' r i k e "Ahitbat* Acioa ba r t e r i , - t tOkpeyet t P a r k e c l a p p e t o n i a n a a n d t h e o i l b e a n tree - P a n t a c l e t h r a m a c r o p h y l 1 a , Most of t h e s e h d d b e e n r e d u c e d

t o sturn* d u e to t h e a c t i u d t i & of i r o n smelters i n Aku,

AKU SMELTING SITES

T h e r e are many s m e l t i n g sites a t Aku, T h e s i t e a t

Umudimotue Mqboko c o n t a i n s c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g b l o c k s , some

b r o k e n t u y e r e s a n d f u r n a c e w a l l s . A m a Uwani s i te c o n t a i n

f r a g m e n t s o f s l a g and baked c l a y . A m a Ogbo, Umu Dimarua,

Umu U l i ~ m a b o k u s i te , a l l c o n t a i n h e a v y c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g

b l o c k s , baked c l a y f r a g m e n t s a n d s l a g are i n abundance .

The g r e a t e s t number o f c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g b l o c k s i s f o u n d

a t Amadinkwereke O b i e a l t h o u g h by c o m p a r i s o n , t h e y l o o k e d

less m a s s i v e t h a n t h o s e f o u n d a t Umudimotuc Mgboko. Some

i n d i g e n e s , however , i n s i s t e d t h a t Amaet i s i t e w a s t h e

o ldest s m e l t i r i g s i t e i n Aku.

ARCHAEOLCGY

E x c a v a t i o n s h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d o u t i n Aku. One s u c h

e x c a v a t i o n w a s a t A m a e t i ( E z i k e , 1989: 67-81). A t r e n c h ,

o n e by t h r e e metres w a s s u n k i n t o t h e g r o u n d till i t

a t t a i n e d a d e p t h o f 1 5 0 c m - 160 c m , which was t h e s ter i le

l a y e r . The main f i n d s f rom t h e e x c a v a t i o n i n c l u d e v a r i o u s

s i z e s o f i r o n s l a g , t w o t u y e r e n o z z l e s , p o t s h e r d s , c h a r c o a l ,

i r o n ore, t w o b o n e s , a b r o k e n jaw and p a r t o f a l o n g bone.

Hard baked f u r i l a c e wal l s were a l so d i s c o v e r e d ( E z i k e , 4 , . ,

I b i d , , 8 7 ) . S l a g t y p e s which w e r e d i s c o v e r e d a t Aku were

t h r e e i n number, The f i r s t w e r e t h e m a s s i v e c y l i n d r i c a l

b l o c k s o f s l a g , T h e s e m e a s u r e d a b o u t 5 0 c m t o 6 0 c m i n

d i a m e t e r a n d 50 c m to 60 ' c m *i-n h d g h t , The s e c o n d s l a g

t y p e were f r a g m e n t s o f s l a g r i v u l e t s s t i l l c o n t a i n i n g

e v i d e n c e o f d i r t 3 c t i o n o f s l a g f l o w . F i n a l l y , t h e r e are

i r r e g u l a r s h a p e d s l a g lumps which seemed t o . be common to

most of the. a r e a .

SITE FOUR

IS1 UGWU OBUKPA ROCK SHELTER

LOCATION

T h i s s i t e i s located o n t o p o f a s t e e p r o c k y h i l l o n

t h e n o r t h e r n b o u n d a r y o f Nsukka town. Obukpa i t s e l f i s

s u r r o u n d e d o n t h e n o r t h b y I h e a k p u Oka and Ibagwa Nkwo,

o n t h e eas t b y Ovoko, o n t h e w e s t by Ibagwa Ani a n d o n

s o u t h b y Nsukka main town, The r o c k s h e l t e r i t s e l f i s

found o n t h e w e s t e r n p a r t o f Obukpa, o n Ugwu Ogba ( H i l l

of B o u l d e r s ) . T h e r o c k s h e l t e r i s known by t h e Nsukka

i n d i g e n e s a s "Nkpuru Ogbaw. T h e v e g e t a t i o n is m o s t l y

d e r i v e d s a v a n n a w i t h some s h r u b s w h i c h are m o s t l y f i r e

r e s i s t a n t .

T h e Isi Ugwu Obukpa r o c k s h e l t e r i s p a r t o f a b o u l d e r

w h i c h l e a n s o u t to o n e s i d e . T h i s m a s s i v e b o u l d e r con-

sists o f s a n d s t o n e and i s e a s i l y wea t i re red by w i n d s and ,' *, 4 .I. .*. , * . ,4P

storms. Right : i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e s h e 1 ter , o n e c a n

o b s e r v e a b i g pouch i n which p e o p l e m u s t h a v e l i v e d i n

times p a s t . I1 - .e

ARCHAEOLOGY

E x c a v a t i o r l s were c o n d u c t e d a t Isi Ugwu Obukpa r o c k

s h e l t e r by P r o f e s s o r D,DI Hartle i n 1964, T h e e x c a v a t i o n

l a s t e d s e v e r a l d a y s and a t o t a l of 369 ar tefacts were

recovered (Nzewunwa, 1983: 8 2 1. T h e t r e n c h was s u n k

i m m e d i a t e l y b e n e a t h t h e d r i p l i n e of t h e b o u l d e r a n d

f o u r t e e n s a m p l e s o f c r u d e l y worked s t o n e a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h p o t s h e r d s w e r e r e c o v e r e d a t some d e p t h ( H a r t l e , 1963:

137; 1978: 1 2 ) . T h e s e ar tefacts were t h e n s tored i n t h e

A r c h a e o l o g y D e p a r t m e n t of U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka,

No d a t e s were o b t a i n e d f r o m t h i s s i t e b u t a close e x a m i n a -

t i o n of t h e s t o n e a r t e fac t s r e c o v e r e d showed t h a t t h e y

bear a close r e s e m b l a n c e to t h e tools e x c a v a t e d a t

Ezi-Ukwu Ukpa r o c k s h e l t e r i n A f i k p o .

T h e tools f o u n d a t Ezi-Ukwu Ukpa are m o s t l y o f t h e

L a t e S t o n e A g e i n d u s t r y a n d a lso i n c l u d e d a l o t of p o t t e r y

s h e r d s . Har t le ( 1 9 6 3 : 1 4 0 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t " t h e s t o n e a

a r t e f a c t s u e r e / r a t h e r - a m o r p h o u s c o l l e c t i o n o f b i t s a n d

p i e c e s , a1 t h o u g h a f e w d e f i n i te tool t y p e s h a v e b e e n

f o u n d s u c h as k n i v e s , b a l l s , s c r a p e r s a n d h o e s , t h e b u l k

o f t h e s t o n e r e m a i n s u n i d e n t i f i e d . O t h e r s i n c l u d e f l a k e s ,

cores, Celts, discs, q u e r n s , g r i n d e r s , hammer s t o n e s - , 4 . T . ,t' , . , I >

i n a r g i l l i t e , q u a r t z f ' c e a n d q u a r t z (Nzewunwa, 1983: 9 2 ) .

T h e r e w e r e t e n r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s from s a m p l e s o f c h a r c o a l

r a n g i n g f r o m 4885 2 B.P. o r 2 9 3 5 B.C. - + 140 to 2045 + 9 5 BOP. - or 9 5 B.C. - + 95 (Shaw, 19681: 4 5 9 ) . S i n c e Is1 Ugwu Obukpa

r o c k s h e l t e r l i es o n t h e s a m e c u e s t a as Ezi-Ukwu Ukpa

r o c k s h e l t e r a n d c o n t a i n e d t h e same tool t y p e s a n d p o t t e r y

s h e r d s , Hartle ( 1 9 6 3 ; 1 9 7 8 ) a s c r i b e d t h e same dates

m e n t i o n e d a b o v e t o Obukpa,

SIGNIFICANCE OF FINDS

T h e r o c k s h e l t e r m u s t h a v e b e e n a r e f u g e a r e a f o r

h u n t e r s d u r i n g r a i n storms o r p e r h a p s a camp f o r them.

E x c a v a t i o n r e v e l a e d t h a t t h e s i te w a s s h a l l o w (Hart le ,

1978: 12) a n d t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s t o n e d e b r i s showed

t h a t t h e r e w a s p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e tools b e i n g m a n u f a c t u r e d

t h e r e . T h e Isi Ugwu Obukpa rock s h e l t e r b e l o n g s t o t h e

same c u l t u r a l a g e as Ezi-Ukwu Ukpa i n Af ikpo . Q u i t e a

number o f p o t s h e r d s were f o u n d and t h e s e were n o t f i r e d

b u t similar i n c o l o u r a n d d e c o r a t i o n .to t h o s e g e n e r a l l y

f o u n d i n I g b o l a n d . S i n c e s t o n e too l s were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

p o t t e r y , i t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e p e o p l e who l i v e d t h e r e were

s l r e a d y moving i n t o t h e N e o l i t h i c u s i n g tools which t h e y

had earlier f o r m u l a t e d , T h e si te, t h e r e f o r e , r e p r e s e n t s

a p o s s i b l e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m h u n t i n g / g a : t h e r i n g s t a g e to t h e

a g e of a g r i c u l t u r e a n d t h e p o t t e r y making t e c h n o l o g y ,

SITE FIVE

UMUNDU I R O N

LOCATION

Umundu

,' ,, . 4 < $ . ,:. , * .,.t ' ,

SMELTING SITE

i s a b o u t 10 krn N o r t h - E a s t o f Nsukka a n d o n

t h e * b o l l o - ~ n u y u Road i t i l S a b o u t 3 km s o u t h o f Obol lo-Afor ,

V e g e t a t i o n i s of t h e d e r i v e d s a v a n n a t y p e and i t seems t h a t

t h e town was o r i g i n a l l y i n t h e f o r e s t b u t had b e e n changed

by human a c t i v i t i e s . A number o f e c o n o m i c trees are

f o u n d i n t h e a r e a , f o r e x a m p l e , o i l pa lm, E l a e s i s q u i n e e n s i s ,

k o l a , C o l a n i t i d a , o i l p e a n , P e n t a c l e t h r a m a c r o p h y l l a ,

Cocos n u c i f e r a , mangoes M a n q i f e r a i n d i c a a n d c i t r u s trees. - A t Umundu, i r o n s m i t h i n g sites are many. ~ l m o s t

e v e r y f a m i l y h a s a s m i t h i n g w o r k s h o p which i s n o r m a l l y a

small t h a t c h e d h u t i n which h a s b e e n p l a c e d some b e l l o w s ,

t u y e r e s , hammer, a n v i l , b a s k e t o f c h a r c o a l a n d o l d metal

p a r t s o f d i s l ~ s e d v e h i c l e s . B l a c k s m i t h s a g r e e d t o the f a c t

t h a t s m e l t i n g of i r o n ore w a s a r e a l i t y i n Umundu i n t h e

p a s t. T h e r e are s ti1 1 si tes i n t h e town where i r o n srnel t-

i n q had b e e n c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e p a s t . Most o f t h e sites

had b e e n d e s t r o y e d b u t o t h e r s a re s t i l l i n t a c t , ( F i g . 3.3) .

E x c a v a t i o n s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t a t Umundu i n 1 9 7 6 a n d

c h a r c o a l s a m p l e s c o l l e c t e d p r o d u c e d t h r e e r a d i o c a r b o n

d a t e s as f o l l o w s : 1 8 5 0 - + 7 5 A.D, 1760 - + 75A.D. and 1 7 0 0 2 d o n e

75 A.D. T h i s c o u l d mean t h a t s m e l t i n g ~ a ~ L ~ 0 n ~ i ~ t e n t l y

from 1625 to 1925 A.D. 2 7 5 y e a r s . T h e e x c a v a t i o n h e l d

i n 1 9 7 6 c o n s i s t e d o f 'f%Yo"Tohq t r e n c h e s w h i c h c u t e a c h

o t h e r a t r i g h t a n g l e s r i g h t a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e d e p r e s -

s i o n o f a f u c n a c s w a l l which was d i s c o v e r e d . The s m e l t i n g

s i te a t '~rnundu had a d e p r ; e s s i ~ n which i s r o u n d i n n a t u r e .

A c y l i n d r i c a l f u r n a c e l a y i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e d e p r e s s i o n

and had a c r e s c e n t i c mound a l l a r o u n d it. T h i s mound was

a b o u t o n e metre i n h e i g h t , ( A n o z i e 1979: 1 2 9 ) .

T h e t r e n c h e s g o t t o a b o u t 1.4 metre d e e p b e f o r e t h e

s ter i le l a y e r . Some o f t h e f i n d s i n c l u d e d e f u n c t f u r n a c e

r e m a i n s , i r o n s l a g c i r c l i n g a mound, f u r n a c e , t u y e r e s ,

p o t s h e r d s ( Nzewunwa, 1983: 83 1, O t h e r s were b r o k e n c l a y

p o t s and bowls, p i e c e s o f f u r n a c e w i i l l s a n d u n u s e d i r o n

ore ( A n o z i e , Op. C i t , ) .

O k a f o r (1992: 5 0 ) r e p o r t s a n o t h e r r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d

o u t a t Umundu i n 1990 and c h a r c o a l s a m p l e s f rom t h i s

r e s e i i r c h y i e l d e d a n e a r l i e r date f o r Umundu s m e l t i n g

i n d u s t r y , T h e s e dates o f 1 4 9 0 A I D I t o 1950 A,D were

d e r i v e d by t h e a c c e l e r a t o r t e c h n i q u e .

Some members o f Umudu community h e l p e d to r e - e n a c t

t h e t e c h n i q u e o f i r o n s m e l t i n g a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of N i g e r i a ,

Nsukka i n 1976 ( A n o z i e , 1983: 1 8 4 ) . A f u r n a c e a b o u t

1.5 m h i g h was b u i l t i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y and i r o n ore was

r e d u c e d i n i t , T h e p r o c e s s l a s t e d f o r 36 h o u r s , Umundu

smal t@zs u s e c h z i r c b a l f r o m h x d woods l i k e W k p a k a l @ ,

Ahaba a n d Okpeye". T h e s e h a r d woods b u r n f o r l o n g w i t h o u t ,' ,,. . . T . .t 5 I.?

p r o d u c i n g a s h . A t t h e e n d o f t h e s m e l t , t h e f u r n a c e is

l e f t to cool s l i g h t l y and i s o f f l o a d e d w i t h wooden i m p l e -

m e n t s t h r o u g h t h e o p e n i n g a t t h e b a s e . I t i s o n l y when I t - .i

a l l t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e f u r n a c e are r a k e d o u t t h a t t h e

bloom i s s o r t e d f rom t h e s l a g , c h a r c o a l and u n r e d u c e d ore,

SIGNIFICANCE OF SITE

Umundu is t h e f i r s t i r o n s m e l t i n g sitel d a t e a t

Nsukka (see A n o z i e , 1 9 7 9 1 , T h i s e a r l y d a t i n g i n 1 9 7 6

c h a n g e d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i r o n w o r k i n g i n t h e area,

P r i o r t o t h e d a t i n g of Umundu n o other i r o n s m e l t i n g s i t e

h a d b e e n da ted i n t h e O l d Nsukka D i v i s i o n , Har t le ( 1 9 6 9 )

r e p o r t e d t h a t h e f o u n d some i r o n a t Ezi-Ukwu Ukpa r o c k

s h e l t e r i n A f i k p o a t a l o e v e l d a t e d b e t w e e n 2 0 0 0 a n d 2 1 0 0

B , P , w h i c h w o r k s o u t t o 5 0 B.C. a n d 1 5 0 B.C. Umundu,

t h e r e f o r e , p r o v e d t h a t s m e l t i n g c o n t i n u e d q u i t e l a t e . 1850 A,D,

( O k a f o r a n d P h i l l i p , 1 9 9 2 : 688) a n d h a d b e e n c o n s t a n t

f o r a t l ea s t t w o or t h r e e c e n t u r i e s ( A n o z i e , 1 9 8 3 : 1 8 4 1 ,

S m e l t i n g m u s t t h e r e f o r e h a v e p l a y e d a major role i n p r e -

c o l o n i a 1 i n d u s t r y a n d t r a d e .

A t Umundu, s e v e r a l p e o p l e s t i l l remembered t h e s m e l t -

i n g i n d u s t r y a n d q u i t e a number o f p e o p l e are i n v o l v e d i n

s m i t h i n g ~ u s i n y o l d p a r t s o f a u t o m o b i l e s as t h e i r raw

materials. Do t h e p e o p l e know t h a t from t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y , < ,, 4 ,!. ,*. , * .,.r ' .

t o 1 9 5 0 t h a t t h e i r p e o p l e were i n v o l v e d i n i r o n s m e l t i n g ?

. . I ' .:. i..

SITE SIX

THE UNIVERSITY OF N I G E R I A FARM SITE

LOCATION

T h e U n i v e r s i t y farm si te is l o c a t e d t o w a r d s t h e

N o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka campus,

I t l ies i n a n a r e a u s e d as t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Farm and

a p p e a r e d t o b e a n abandoned h a b i t a t i o n s i t e , I t i s v e r y

close t o t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A r c h a e o l o g y Museum B u i l d i n g ,

ARCHAEOLOGY

The fa rm s i te was e x c a v a t e d f o l l o w i n g t h e d i s c o v e r y

o f t w o smoking p i p e s which h a d b e e n f o u n d i n t h e p l a c e ,

E x c a v a t i o n s w e r e c o n d u c t e d i n ,964, T h r e e t r e n c h e s were

o p e n e d a n d p o t t e r y f i n d s b o t h f i r e d a n d u n f i r e d c o n t i n u e d

to a d e p t h of more t h a n 0.9 metre (Hartle, 1978 : 11).

O t h e r f i n d s were g r i n d i n g s t o n e s , p i t t e d s t o n e s and p o s t

h o l e s which were about : o n e metre below t h e g r o u n d ,

Two r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s w e r e o b t a i n e d from c h a r c o a l

s a m p l e s 2555 2 1 3 0 B,C, and 1 4 6 0 115 B,C, (Hart le , 1967: ., ,.. . .l. .l. , . . I +

1 3 7 ; Nzewunwa, 1983 : 841 , Hart le (1980: 1 6 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t

t h e s e d a t e s make t h e U n i v e r s i t y fa rm s i t e a t the t i m e o f

e x c a v a t i o n t h e earliest known s i te f o r p o t t e r y i n t h e E a s t

r e g i o n L o f t h e Niger . ~ e v e ~ a l o t h e r e x c a v a t i o n s h a v e b e e n

c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y f a r m s i te , T h e la tes t I

e x c a v a t i o n s were h e l d i n 1995 , o n A p r i l 1 0 , and 11 and

from December 14 to 15 o f t h e same y e a r . F i n d s i n c l u d e

p o t s h e r d s (see P l a t e 6.2) b o n e f r a t m e n t s , fibre p i p e

f r a g m e n t s , i r o n rod, b i t u m e n amonqs t o t h e r s .

SIGNIFICANCE OF SITE

The site shows e v i d e n c e o f v i l l a g e / f a r m i n g way o f

l i f e a b o u t 3000 y e a r s B.C. Har t le a l so o b s e r v e d t h a t

a b o u t a t h o u s a n d y e a r s la ter , t h a t is. 1460 + 115 BoCm,

t h e r e was n o t much c h a n g e i n t h e s i t e e x c e p t f o r t h e

d i s c o v e r y of more p o t s h e r d s . T h e a b o v e p r o v e d t h a t t h e r e

i s c o n t i n u i t y o f c u l t u r e f rom a b o u t 3000 y e a r s a g o t o t h e

p r e s e n t . ' l h e p e o p l e who l i v e d i n t h i s area h a d b e e n

making p o t s w i t h i m p r e s s e d d e c o r a t i v e m o t i f s s i n c e t h e n

a n d t h e y s t i l l make them t o d a y .

SITE SEVEN

OKPE I G A L A SITE

LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF SITE

T h e name Okpe I g a l a o r O k p e I g a r a means t h e I g a l a

t r e n c h . I t i s s i t u a t e d j u s t b e h i n d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f ., ** . 4 , t . >t. , * ,.!- '

N i g e r i a , s o u t h - e a s t of t h e Campus by Odenigwe Road, Nsukka.

Okpe I g a r a s i t e i s l o c a t e d o n top o f a d i v i d e d r e s i d u a l

h i l l o n t h e U d i - ~ s u k k a P l a t e a u . T h e Nsukka p e o p l e r e f e r 1 1 - .i

to t h i s p l d c e as Ugwu A m o f i a o r Ugwu Odenigwe. I t c a n be

f o u n d a t 6 O 50' N o r t h and 7O 28 ' E a s t o f t h e E q u a t o r ,

S i t e c o n s i s t s o r a h i l l t o p e n c l o s u r e and a s h r i n e .

Okpe I g a r a i s r e a l l y a d i t c h and a wall e n c i r c l i n g

t h e t o p o f a small h i l l . T h i s i s o n e o f t h e e l e v e n f o r t s

f o u n d from Unadu a l o n g t h e Nsukka e s c a r p m e n t t o Ogurugu

o n t h e Anambra R ive r t h a t may h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r d e f e n c e

by t h e l o c a l p e o p l e (Hart le , 1963: 1 3 6 ) . T h i s m u s t h a v e

t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e 1 7 t h a n d 1 8 t h c e n t u r i e s A.Dm

ARCHAEOLOGY

The s i t e was e x c a v a t e d i n 1964 by P r o f e s s o r D,D.

Hartle, T h r e e e x p l o r a t o r y t r e n c h e s were dug i n t h e i n t e r i o r

o f t h e e n c l o s u r e . A n o t h e r s i t e was e x c a v a t e d i n a n area

j u z t b e l o w t h e d i t c h o n t h e s o u t h s i d e and t h i s happened

t o b e a s h r i n e a n d p r o d u c e d s e v e r a l a r t i f a c t s , Some of

t h e f i n d s i n c l u d e d numerous p o t t e r y v e s s e l s , p o t s h e r d + ,

b e a d s a n d o t h e r o b j e c t s ( s e e Hart le , 1978: 8-23; Hartle,

1 9 8 0 ; Nzewunwa, 1983: 84-84 1 . T h e v e s s e l s were m i n i a t u r e

i n s i z e m e a s u r i n g a b o u t 6 rnillirnetres a n d 2 5 millirnetres.

Most o f t h e v e s s e l s were p l a c e d u p s i d e ' down i n \ . a c e r e m o n i a l

s t y l e s t i l l p r e v d l e n t t o d a y . N o c h a r c o a l w a s f o u n d w i t h .' $ 5 . 4 w 5 . .:. , * ' ,

t h e f i n d s so t h e s i te was c i r c u m s t a n t i a l l y d a t e d t o a l i t t l e

ear l ier t h a n a b o u t 1 7 t h c e n t u r y A,D, (Hart le , 1967: 1 4 3 ) .

SIGNIFICANCE OF S ITE

T h e si tc p r o v e s a n '&l$ s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e I g a l a

among t h e Nsukka p e o p l e . P r o f e s s o r Har t l e p o s t u l a t e d

t h a t t h e I g a l a p e o p l e c o u l d h a v e u s e d t h i s s i t e to k e e p

s l a v e s who w e r e o n t h e i r way to be s o l d to f o r e i g n e r s .

H e d i s c o v e r e d a s h r i n e b u t t h e o r i s e d t h a t s i n c e e v i d e n c e

o f a r c h i t e c t u r e c o u l d n o t be f o u n d , t h e s i te may h a v e

b e e n u s e d f o r d e f e n c e by t h e p e o p l e t h a t l i v e d t h e r e .

T h e s i t e i s a n e v i d e n c e o f I g a l a d o m i n a t i o n o f Nsukka,

D o t h e p e o p l e tanow t h i s ? D o t h e y know t h a t t h i s s i t e

was a n I g a l a army camp? Why d i d t h e I g a l a come t h e r e

a n d why d i d t h e y d o m i n a t e u p t ill pi? Why d o t h e Nsukka

p e o p l e a n s w e r a name l i k e Asadu? D o t h e y know t h a t ~ s a d u

w a s a n I g a l a c h i e f ?

The Nsukka- Iqa la w a r s h a v e b e e n d a t e d to b e t w e e n t h e

, i 8 t h and 1 9 t h c e n t u r i e s A.D. ( ~ g u a g h a , 1982: 5 8 ) . T h e s e

wars b r o u g h t a l o t o f Nsukka p e o p l e u n d e r I g a l a i n f l u e n c e ,

W r i t i n g a b o u t t h e Nsukka I q b o c o m m u n i t i e s i n , . 1 9 3 0 , Meek

o b s e r v e d t h a t " t h o u g h t h e r e i s l i t t l e t r a d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e

o f d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h I d a h , i t i s a d m i t t e d t h a t most o f

AJ t h e s u k k a d i v i s i o n w a s a t o n e t i m e o v e r r u n b y a n I g a l a

r a i d e r known as Onu ( c h i e f ) O j o Ogbonyim. T h i s O j o Ogbonyi ,' ,, ,, . w 5 . ,t. , I * ' ,

m u s t be t h e same Onojo O q b o n i , t h e s o n o f A t t a o f I d a h ,

A g i a n t w i t h s i x f i n g e r s a n d s i x toes who c a r r i e d away ( 1 9 3 0 )

many i n h a b i t a n t s i n t h e form o f s l a v e s , M e e k / w r o t e t h a t -C

h i s a t t a c k s p e n e t r a t e d as f d r s o u t h a s Opi , The e a r t h

w a l l s known a s O k p e I g a r a ( I q a l a w a l l s ) were t h e r e f o r e

u s e d f o r d e f e n c e a g a i n s t I g a l a a t t a c k s , H a r t l e is o f a

d i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n ( H a r t l e , 1967: 1 3 6 ) -

H e h a d p o s t u l a t e d t h a t s l a v e s m u s t h a v e b e e n moved

f r o m t h e corrkls known as Okpe I g a r a , s o u t h t o t h e Anambra

R i v e r w h e r e t h e y w o u l d awai t s h i p m e n t down to O n i t s h a .

If Hart le 's p o s t u l a t i o n i s t r u e , t h e n these f o r t s w e r e

a c t u a l l y a p l a c e o f i n t e n s e s l a v e t r a d i n g b y t h e I g a l a

f r o m w h e r e t h e s h i p m e n t w a s made t o t h e West A f r i c a n

c o a s t a l p o r t s ,

S ITE EIGHT

ORBA I R O N SMELT1 NG SITiS

LOCATION AND DLSCkIPTION OF SITE

Orba c a n be l o c a t e d o n t h e N i g e r i a n S u r v e y Map a t

t h e N o r t h - E a s t e r n p a r t o f Nsukka. T h e town l ies b e t w e e n

l a t i t u d e 6O 5 2 ' N o r t h a n d l ~ n g i t u d e 7O 3 2 ' E a s t . Orba i s

bounded n o r t h w a r d s b y Eha-Alumona, E a s t w a r d s b y I m i l i k e - U n o

a n d W e s t w a r d s b y Nsukka town, A c c o r d i n g t o 1 9 6 3 N i g e r i a n

p o p u l a t i o n c e n s u s , Orha h a d 1 6 , 4 2 1 p e o p l e w i t h a l a n d area

of a b o u t 160 s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e s . C l i m a t e i s l i k e t h a t o f

N s u k k a g e n e r a l l y . O f o m a t a ( 1 9 7 8 ) r e c o r d e d t h a t i t i s . ' , d ' . * l . d' > ..'&

e s s e n t i a l l y d r y t r o p i c a l s a v a n n a h w i t h t h e a v e r a g e mean

d a i l y t e m p o e r a t u r e o f a b o u t 6 9 . 8 0 ~ ~ a n d a m o n t h l y maximum

t e m p o e r a t u r e r a n g e o f a b o u t 7 4 . 4 O ~ a n d 8 0 . 8 ~ ~ ~ T h i s i s 1 1 _..

o b t a i n e d as f r o m S e p t e m t e r , March b r i n g s r a i n f a l l a n d

t h e o n s e t o f f a r m i n g i n v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s . T h i s r e a c h e s

i t s maximum s t r e n g t h i n J u l y . R a i n o c c u r i n t o r r e n t i a l

down p o u r s a n d a l o t o f water i s e v e n t u a l l y r e t a i n e d

i n t h e g r o u n d ,

O r b a l ies o n t h e u p p e r coal m e a s u r e s a n d t h i s rests

o n f a l s e bedded s a n d s t o n e s . P r e d o m i n a n t r o c k t y p e s are

s a n d s t o n e s , c a r b o n a c e o u s s h a l e s as w e l l as s a n d y s h a l e s .

T h e s h a l e s c o n t a i n c o n c r e t i o u s and Ofomata (1977) r e p o r t e d

t h a t t h e u p p e r coal f o r m a t i o n s a r e l i t h o l o g i c a l l y more 7

r e s i s t a n t t h a n t h e f a l s e bedded s a n d s t o n e s w h i c h u n d e r l y i t .

Economic trees abound i n O r b a . Some o f them are t h e

o i l pa lm, Elae is q u i n e e n s i s , l o c u s t b e a n trees, - P a r k e

c l a p p e r t o n i a , and t h e A f r i c a n b r e a d f r u i t trees, T r e c u l i a

a f r i c a n a . Most o f t h e s e trees as w e l l a s t h e I r o k o

C h l o r o p h o r a e x c e l s a were u s e d b y t h e smelters f o r s m e l t i n g

p u r p o s e s .

T h e p e o p l e o f O r b a l i v e i n t w o major a r e a s - O r b a

Uno, which i s t h e o r i g i n a l homeland o f the p e o p l e and Agu

O r b a which i s a n a r e a some o f them m i g r a t e d t o as a r e s u l t

of w a r s a n d s k i r m i s h e s , They a l s o h a v e a major m a r k e t

known a s O r i e orba. T h i s m a r k e t i s p o p u l a r b o t h l o c a l l y ,' ,, , .*I. .*. > , I * ' ,

a n d i n n e i g h b o u r i n g towns o f h s u k k a and beyond , S o c i o -

p o l i t i c a l l y , Orba i s d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e n v i l l a g e s - O w e r r e

Eze-Orba, A j u o n a , O k ~ u , A m a l l a , Amaoba, Ohom, a n d Ohebe

I1 - .- ( Ngwu, 1983) -

ORBA SMELTING SITES

S m e l t i n g w a s carried o u t i n a n area known as A m a o b a ,

They p r o d u c e d bloom w h i c h w a s t h e n sold t o t h e p e o p l e of

Amube A m a l l a f o r s m i t h i n g , They f a s h i o n t h e bloom i n t o

u s e f u l tools a n d s t i l l p r s c t i c e s m i t h i n g till t h e p r e s e n t .

Orbs t r a d i t i o n r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r e were t w o m a j o r s m e l t f ng

s i tes from wktich a l s o raw m a t e r i a l i s p r o c u r e d f o r s m e l t i n g ,

T h e t w o s m e l t i n g sites a r e l o c a t e d a t "AguU Amaoba a n d

"Ndi Agu Ndi U n ~ ~ ~ . l F i i { g , 3-41. O k a f o r (1984: 2 2 ) o b s e r v e d

t h a t t h e a r e a was r i c h i n b o t h h a r d wood and i r o n ore

w h i c h is f o u n d i n a b u n d a n c e most o f t h e trees t h a t p r o d u c e d

t h e h a r d wood h a v e b e e n c u t down f o r e x a m p l e t h e o i l b e a n

tree, Pen t a c l e t h r a macrophy l 1 a a n d "AhabaW A c o i a b a t e r i ,

T h e s e p r o d u c e d f u e l f o r s m e l t i n g .

S m e l t i n g was d o n e i n f u r n a c e s known as "Itoro".

'taro i s a s e l f - d r a u g h t f u r n a c e which d i d n o t n e e d b e l l o w s

to o p e r a t e , A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f how t h i s I t o ro was

b u i l t i s c o v e r e d by O k a f o r (1984: 2 3 ) . H e a lso r e c o r d e d ,',, .k5..t. , * , . P ' .

t h a t smelters i n 6rba d i d n o t u s e c h a r c o a l a s f u e l b u t

r a t h e r t h e y u s e d h a r d wood f rom o i l b e a n trees, "AhabaW,

a n d l o c u s t b e a n trees. T h i s c o n s t a n t f e l l i n g o f trees

l e d to t h e d e c i m a t i o n o f h a r d wood i n t h e area, Even t h e

p l a c e known as % Amaoba i s no l o n g e r a b i g f o r e s t ,

ARCHAEOLOGY

A mound o f i r o n s l a g known as I k p o Ahuru was e x c a v a t e d

to g a t h e r more i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t O r b a as w e l l a s to esta-

b l i s h a c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f i r o n

s m e l t i n g i n s u b - s a h a r a n A f r i c a . T h i s l k p o Ahuru c a n b e

l o c a t e d on t h e N i g e r i a s u r v e y map s h e e t 2 8 7 Nsukka N o r t h

E a s t w i t h i n 6* 5 l V N a n d 7O 27'E. A test p i t , t w o metres

b y f o u r metres w a s s u n k a t t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t o f t h e mound

a n d t h e e x c a v a t i o n w a s d o n e i n a r b i t r a r y s p i t l e v e l s o f

20 c m e a c h . T h e team g o t t o t h e n i n t h s p i t l e v e l b e f o r e

t h e y were d i s t u r b e d b y t h e n a t i v e s ( O k a f o r , I b i d , ) ,

Major f i n d s i n c l u d e b o n e s , a n d t e e t h among o t h e r s .

T h e f i n d s were so numerous . P o t s h e r d s were u p to a

t h o u s a n d t w o h u n d r e d and f i f t y p i e c e s , t h e metal f l a k e s

a n d s l a g a b o u t one h u n d r e d and e i g h t y f o u r and t h e t u y e c e

n o z z l e s , a b o u t t w e n t y - s i x p i e c e s i n number,

Dates of 300 - + 90 B.P. to 215 2 1 0 0 B P. were p r o d u c e d

f rom Orba , T h e s e w e r e c a l i b r a t e d t o t w o s i g m a l e v e l s ,' ,, , 4 , T . .t. , * ,"t ' ,

p r o d u c i n g d a t e s r a n g i n g f rom 1430 cal. A.D, t o 1950 Ca1.A.D.

SIGNIFICANCE OF SITE

Orba i s among t h e s i tes t h a t smel ted i r o n l a s t , I t 1 1 - .L

i s l a r g e l y b e l i e v e d i n t h i s area t h a t s m e l t i n g d e c l i n e d

d u e to t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f c h e a p metal f rom o u t s i d e N i g e r i a ,

S m e l t i n g , t h e y c l a i m e d , w a s l a b o u r i n t e n s i v e a n d O r b a

i n d i g e n e s no l o n g e r r e d u c e i r o n we to bloom b u t now u s e d

m e t a l s c r a p s and o l d a u t o m o b i l e p a r t s f o r s m i t h i n g .

SITE NI'NE

OWERRE ELU SMELTING SITE

LOCATION

O w e r r e E l u is l o c a t e d j u s t a few k i l o m e t r e s f r o m Opi

i r o n s m e l t i n g s i t e t h r o u g h Ede O b a l l a (see P i g , 3.5).

T h e - s i te h a s b e e n b a d l y d e s t r o y e d by f a r m i n g and t h e

e r e c t i o n o f a t i m b e r s h e d r i g h t o n t h e site. T h e w h o l e

area had t o b e b u l l d o z e d to make a way f o r t h e t i m b e r

m a r k e t , ( s e e P l a t e 9.2) .

ARCHAEOLOGY

No e x c a v a t i o n h a s so f a r b e e n c o n d u c t e d a t Ower re E l u

b u t some s u r f a c e c o l l e c t i o n s which h a v e l a s t i n g s i g n i f i -

c a n c e o n t h e h i s t o r y o f i r o n s r n e l t i n g i n West A f r i c a as

a w h o l e a n d I g h o l a n d i n articular h a v e b e e n made, S l a g

c o l l e c t i o n s f rom Owerre E l u a p p e a r i n f l a t c a k e form and

h a v e smooth r o p y s u r f a c e , F r a g m e n t s o f t u y e r e were reco- . . , , r . *< . . , ' , . . I + ' .

v e r e d and t h e s e were made o f baked c l a y a n d t empered w i t h

t w i g s a n d l o c a l straw. Haematite ( i r o n ore) i s also i n

a b u n d a n c e and c h a r c o a l w a s c o l l e c t e d f rom t h e site.

T h e most i n t r i g u i n g issue a b o u t O w e r r e E l u site

which h a s made i t a most i m p o r t a n t s i te i s t h e r a d i o -

c a r b o n C-14 d a t e s which w e r e p r o d u c e d f rom t h e s i te

( O k a f o r , 19921, C h a r c o a l s a m p l e s which were r e c o v e r e d

from t h e f loor o f i r o n s m e l t i n g f u r n a c e s w e r e d a t e d b y ,

t h e A c c e l e r a t o r method t o 1060 2 6 0 B.P, and 570 + 60 B.P.

When t h e s e d a t e s were c a l i b r a t e d t o t w o s i g m a l e v e l s , t h e y

g a v e dates o f a b o u t 800 to 1430 C a l , AID. ( s e e O k a f o r ,

1992: 57; O k a f o r , a n d P h i l l i p s , 1992: 6881,

SIGNIFICANCE OF SITE

O w e r r e E l u i s o n e o f t h e most c r u c i a l s i tes i n t h i s

s t u d y . T h e r e is a l o t o f e v i d e n c e o f a s m e l t i n g i n d u s t r y

i n t h e p a s t w h i c h m u s t h a v e made q u i t e a n i m p a c t i n t h e

l i v e s o f p e o p l e i n t h e a r e a f rom t h e 9 t h to t h e 1 5 t h

c e n t u r y A,D, The m o s t u p s e t t i n g f a c t a b o u t O w e r r e Elu

i s t h a t t h e w h o l e p l a c e h a s b e e n g r a d e d and a timber s h e d

e r e c t e d d i r e c t l y o n t o p o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e o n

t h e s i t e ,

SITE TEN

OGBODU ABA B U R I A L CHAMBERS

LOCATION ., #, ., 4 , q ,t' , . '

Ogbodu A b a i s a town i n t h e p r e s e n t I s i - U z o L o c a l

Government A r e a o f Enuqu S t s t e . I t l ies b e t w e e n Obollo-

Eke a n d Mbu and t h e s i t e i t s e l f c a n b e f o u n d o n a s m a l l

h i l l known as " U g w u 0 k p 6 r o ~ O g b u Nwanyigbon ( t h e h i l l o n

t h e f r o n t a g e of 0q5u Nwanyiqbo) , (see F i g , 3 , 7 ) ,

Ogbodu Aba Bu ri a1 Chambers w e r e a c c i d e n t a l l y d i s c o -

v e r e d b y CIMECO E n g i n e e r i n g Company d u r i n g a r o a d

c o n s t r u r t i o n , Whil e t r y i n g t o r e d u c e t h e g r a d i e n t of

o b s t r u c t i n g l o w l y i n g h i l l i n Oqbodu Aba, some b u r i a l

c h a m b e r s were c u t t h r o u g h a n d human s k u l l s were s e e n

l y i n g i n p o t s , A s s o o n as t h e s i te w a s r e p o r t e d , a r e s c u e

e x c a v a t i o n w a s a r r a n g e d w i t h i n 24 h o u r s b y t h e D e p a r t m e n t

o f A r c h a e o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka, T h i s was

i n November, 1973,

ARCHAEOLOGY

D u r i n g t h e e x c a v a t i o n , s i x c h a m b e r s were o p e n e d ,

Chikwendu ( 1 9 8 1 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t m e a n i n g f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

o f t h e morpho logy o f t h e c h a m b e r s were no l o n g e r a c c u r a t e

b e c a u s e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e E n g i n e e r i n g Company i n a d v e r -

t e n t l y d i s t u r b e d t h e s o i l o v e r - b u r d e n , T h e chamber w a l l s

showed e v i d e n c e o f soot and c h a r c o a l s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e

c h a m b e r s w e r e i n t e n s i v e l y smoked p r o b a b l y t o p r e s e r v e t h e

c o n t e n t s o f t h e b u r i a l c h a m b e r s ,

A t y p i c a l chamber c o n s i s t s o f a cone-shaped s h a f t

a t t h e b a s e which i s o v o i d i n s h a p e , (see F i g , 3.6) . . "1. d' , "'4-

I b e a n u ( 1989: 3-4 )""gave p r e c i s e m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e

chamber , A c c o r d i n g to h i s m e a s u r e m e n t s , t h e s h a f t i s

2.6 m i n l e n g t h , t h e o r i f i c e i s a b o u t 1.3 m a n d t h e o v o i d

s h a p e d b a s e i s 1.8 m and11 1.-5+rn d u e E a s t a n d S o u t h , A s t o n e

s l a b m e a s u r i n g 1.3 m i n c i r c u m f e r e n c e was d i s c o v e r e d and

c o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e s l ab u s e d t o close t h e s h a f t , Some

c l a y e y d e p o s i t m e a a u r i n g 65 c m i n t h i c k n e s s was a l s o f o u n d

i n t h e chamber ,

F i n d s i n c l u d e l o t s o f a s h and c h a r c o a l , human

s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s w i t h s k u l l s i n p o t t e r y bowl s w i t h

p e r f o r a t e d base, T h e r e were a n a s s o r t m e n t o f g r a v e goods .

T h e s e i n c l u d e a b a r b e d s p e a r - h e a d , a z e b l a d e s , p r i m i t i v e

s h a v i n g b l a d e and a g r i c u l t u r a l imp lemen t s , One p r o m i n e n t

f e a t u r e was t h e l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f a g g r e g a t e s o f i r o n s l a g

and p o t s h e r d s . Uui te a number o f p o t t e r y wares were care-

f u l l y a r r a n g e d i n t h e chambers .

ORAL TRADITIOFJ

O r a l t r a d i t i o n e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e p e o p l e o f Ugbodu Aba

f o u g h t a number o t w a r s , Even t i l l t o d a y , some o f t h e i r

v i l l a g e s m a i n t a i n c u l t u r a l ties w i t h o t h e r commun i t i e s

w h e r e t h e y c l a i m some o f t h e i r b r o t h e r s were d r i v e n to,

Such cornmuni t ies i n c l u d e O b o l l o a n d I m i l i k e Rgu, I t was

g a t h e r e d t h a t t h e v i l l d g e where t h e b u r i a l chambers are

s i t u a t e d had to l e a v e t o s e t t l e i n p r e s e n t - d a y ldoma

communi t i es .

Ano the r i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t o f t h e o r a l t r a d i t i o n o f

t h e p e o p l e of ~;g t )odu, Aba , is & t h e g r e a t r e v e r e n c e and r e s p e c t

which t h e y g i v e to t h e Emukpe d e i t y , Emukpe i s t h e most

power fu l god wor sh ipped by t h e i n d i g e n e s o f Ogbodu Aba.

A t a p a r t i c u l a r t i m e i n h i s t o r y ( d a t e unknown) t h e p e o p l e - .- o f Ggbodu Aba were th rown i n t o c o n f u s i o n when t h e Emukpe

p r i e s t s c a r r i e d o u t t h e s a y i n g s of t h e d e i t y t o b a n i s h

t h e v i l l a g e o f Urnuokpe to a n o t h e r p l a c e , T r a d i t i o n h a s

i t t h a t t h e y e m i g r a t e d t o p r e s e n t - d a y Benue S t a t e . They

are c u r r e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o a s Nsiama p e o p l e . I t is a n

e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t t h a t t h e p e o p l e o f Iduma s t i l l w o r s h i p

t h e Emukpe d e i t y a n d t h e o l d e s t man f r o m Nsiama l i v e s i n

Ogbodu Aba and h e t a k e s care o f t h e c e r e m o n i e s i n t h e

s h r i n e a t Umuokpe v i l l a g e . T h e p e o p l e o f Ogbodu A b a h a v e

no o r a l t r a d i t i o n o n t h e b u r i a l c h a m b e r s ,

SIGNIFICANCE O F SITE

Chikwerrdu ( 1981 h a s d e s c r i b e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of

t h e b u r i a l c h a m b e r s a s a n i n d i g e n o u s p i o n e e r work i n t h i s

p a r t of I g b o l ana. The s m o k i n g o f t h e c h m b e r h a s d o n e a

l o t t o p r e s e r v e them i n t a c t u n d e r t h e s o i l , T h e p o t s i n

w h i c h t h e s k u l l s w e r e f o u n d had p e r f o r a t i o n s a t t h e bottom.

T h i s m u s t p o i n t t o a p a r t i c u l a r s k i l l i n f u n e r a r y p r e s e r -

v a t i o n y e t u n d i s c o v e r e d .

The p r o b l e m , however , r e m a i n s t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

a r e n o t clear o n whose c u l t u r e h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d i n t h e

Ogbodu Aba b u r i a l chambers . Do t h e c h a m b e r s b e l o n g to .',, . * t . . t . > . 3 * ' ,

t h e Idorna? Do t h e y b e l o n g t o a n e x t i n c t t r i b e t h a t l i v e d

i n Ogbodu Aba? I f so, which t r i b e ? T h e p e o p l e of Ogbodu

Aba were as amazed a s t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a t t h e d i s c o v e r y

1 1 - .. o f t h e s e chambers .

Some c h a m b e r s d i d n o t h a v e s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s , They,

however , c o n t a i n e d g r a v e g o o d s w h i c h were p r e s e r v e d o v e r

t i m e , T h e r e i s t h e r e f o r e need for more i n d e p t h s t u d y i n t o

t h e s e problems to r e a c h a c c e p t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n s o n t h e

i s s u e s r a i s e d . The p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r

r e s e a r c h would b e , how aware a r e t h e p e o p l e of Ogbodu Aba

a b o u t t h e g r e a t d i s c o v e r y made i n t h e i r a r e a ? What h a v e

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s done to p r e s e r v e t h i s a r e a f o r p o s t e r i t y ?

CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 ARCHAEOLOGY A N D THE PUBLIC (FIELD WORK)

H a v i n g r e v i e w e d t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i tes i n

Nsukka area a n d assessed t h e work d o n e i n t h e m , i t

bdcame i m p e r a t i v e to s a m p l e t h e o p i n i o n o f t h o s e who

s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a f f e c t e d most b y t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

d i s c o v e r i e s to a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r a r c h a e o l o g i s t s who

worked i n t h e i r area b o t h e r e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e a r c h a e o -

l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h m ,

T h e t e n sites l i s t e d i n t h e above c h a p t e r were

a l l v i s i t e d a n d i n t e r v i e w s c o n d u c t e d , S t a r t l i n g

d i s c o v e r i e s w e r e made w h i c h w o u l d become a p p a r e n t

a s t h e r e p o r t i s e x a m i n e d , A number o f i s s u e s were

r e v i e w e d e s p e c i a l l y i n a r e a s l i k e s i tes o n e a n d t e n - L e j j a a n d Oqbodu Aba - w h i c h seemed to be t h e most

f r e q u e n t l y v i s i t e d of t h e t e n sites. T h e s e t w o sites

g a v e u s the l a r q e s t number o f d i s i l l u s i o n e d r e s p o n -

d e n t s t o t h e q u e s t i o r i s a sked . T h i s , i t w a s l a ter ' $ 4 5 . , > , . * '

d i s c o v e r e d , was d u e t o a num'ber of p r o m i s e s w h i c h

h a d b e e n made b u t w e r e n e v e r f u l f i l l e d b y v i s i t i n g

a r c h a e o l o g i s ts.

SITE ONE

LEJJA

A t L e j j a , t h e team v i s i t e d t h e s i t e n e a r Nkwo m a r k e t

b u t c o u l d n o t locate t h e e x c a v a t i o n t r e n c h d u e to o v e r -

grown v e g e t a t i o n . However, a t Otobo Dunoka ( t h e v i l l a g e

s q u a r e ) a n e x c a v a t i o n t r e n c h o n t h e l e f t was s t i l l s l i g h t l y

v i s i b l e , T h e c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g b l o c k s were s t i l l i n t a c t

(see P l a t e 1.1 ) b u t t h e p e o p l e o f L e j j a p r e f e r r e d t o

meet w i t h u s i n t h e s e c l u s i o n o f t h e v i l l a g e h a l l ,

The p e o p l e o f L e j j a w e r e q u i t e f a m i l i a r w i t h a r c h a e o -

l o g y a n d a r c h a e o l o g i s t s b u t seemed t o l i n k t h e s e w o r d s

o n l y t o t h e d i s c o v e r y o f c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g b l o c k s which

a d o r n e d tileir v i l l a g e s q u a r e a n d l i t t e r e d many p a r t s o f

L e j j a town. They claimed t h a t L e j ja w a s known world-wide

a n d t h i s i s b e c a u s e o f t h e work o f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n t h e i r

town. T h e p e o p l e acknowledged f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h members o f

t h e team and o t h e r a r c h a e o l o g i s t s b u t would n u t adrrlit t h a t

t h e y h a v e e v e r b e e n f i n a n c i a l l y r e m u n e r a t e d f o r t h e i r ,' ,, ,, 4 , T . .t, . 1.P ' ,

i n v o l v e m e n t i n e x c a v a t i o n s p r e v i o u s l y c a r r i e d o u t i n L e j ja.

On t h e issue o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how t h e s e c y l i n d r i c a l

s l a g b l o c k s w e r e made t h e r e was a l o t o f d i s p u t e . Some

c l a i m e d t h a t i t came o u t o i t h e g r o u n d w h i l e some o f t h o s e

who were more f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e work o f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n

t h e a r e a exp1 ,a ined t h a t t h e i r f o r e - f a t h e r s were s a i d t o

b e i r o n smelters b u t o n closer q u e s t i o n i n g i t w a s d i s -

c o v e r e d t h a t t h i s k n o w l e d g e came a b o u t a s a r e s u l t o f t h e

a c t i v i t i e s o f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n t h a t area. None o f t h e

r e s p o n d e n t s had ac bra1 l y w i t n e s s e d or p a r t i c i p a t e d i n

i r o n s m e l t i n g .

T h e r e was b i t t e r n e s s i n t h e minds o f t h e L e j ja

p e o p l e . T h i s w a s as a r e s u l t o f p r o m i s e s which t h e y

c l a i m e d w e r e made t o them b u t n e v e r f u l f i l l e d . C e r t a i n

claims were made b y t h e i n d i g e n e s h n i c h i n c l u d e t h e claim

o f a museum b u i l d i n g p r o m i s e d to them i n t h e i r p l a c e .

T h i s b u i l d i n g was s u p p o s e d to h o u s e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e m a i n s

f r o m ~ k u , Umundu, O p i , Nsukka, Ogbodu A b a and o t h e r p l a c e s

o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i m p o r t a n c e .

The Eze Le j ja ( L e j j a r u l e r 1 b y name Ugwu Nweze Nwobodo,

t h e I z u Negbu Okwu o f L e j j a , s e e m e d t o h a v e a l o t o f com-

p l a i n t s a b o u t how a r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e c o n d u c t e d a f f a i r s

i n t i m e s p a s t . H e d e c r i e d t h e f a c t t h a t d e s p i t e t h e i r

close r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a r c h a e o l o g i s t s t h e y c o u l d n o t $ 3 4 . , * '

s p a r e some t i m e t o v i s i t L e j ja a t t h e d e m i s e o f t h e p a s t

Eze L e j j a . When a s k e d w h a t h e had g a i n e d f rom h i s r e l a t i o n -

s h i p ' w i t h a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , t h e E z e s t a r t l e d u s when h e

r e p l i e d t h a t h e had g a i n e d " a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g a n d t h a t

e v e n . i f a r c h a e o l o q i s ts n e v e r came b a c k to L e j j a , Dunoka

( h i s v i l l a g e ) w i l l c o n t i n u e as E z e L e j j a . H a v i n g n o t i c e d

h i s mood t h e team wenk t o g r e a t l e n g t h s to calm him down

a n d a s s u r e d him t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s who e x c a v a t e d a t L e j j a

s t i l l h a v e t h e i r best i n t e r e s t a t h e a r t a n d w o u l d d o n o t h i n g

to d e s t m y t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p .

One o f t h e e l d e r s o f t h e town , Ugwuoke N w a l i c a l l e d

f o r a c h a n g e i n t h e manne r i n w h i c h u n f u l f i l l e d p r o m i s e s

are made. I-te p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s who came t o

L e j j a made a l o t o f e m p t y p r o m i s e s . Some o f t h e s e are

t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a d r emoved some s l a g , b r o k e n p o t s ,

c h a r c o a l a n d s t o n e s f r o m L e j j a a n d h a d p r o m i s e d to p u b l i s h

t h e s e f i n d i n g s a n d s e n d c o p i e s to them. I n a d d t i o n , h e

Claimed t h a t t u y e r e s ( A r n i ~ k o ) were f o u n d a n d f u r n a c e wal l s

( N k p o k o r o i toro) w e r e s e v e r a l a n d t h e y d o n o t know w h e r e

t h e s e h a v e b e e n s t o r e d o r e v e n why t h e y were removed .

I n t e r r u p t i n g a n q r i l y , Ugwuoke Aruma ( a n o t h e r e l d e r ) a s k e d

why a r c h a e o l o g i s t s p r o i n i s e d to w r i t e a b o u t t h e i r town a n d

t h u s f a r , n o t h i n g h a d b e e n s e n t t o t h e i n d i g e n e s .

T h e most a n t d g o n i s t i c o f t h e l o t w a s Ugwuoke O g o t a 4 . , , . a

( a n e l d e r dnd m e m b e r o f 9 ' t h e r u l i n g c o u n c i l ) who made i t

clear t h a t h e d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t a l l t h e p e o p l e who come

t o L e j ja came f r o m t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A r c h a e o l o g y a t

U n i ~ e r s i ty of ~ i q e r i a , Nsukkal, -&wuoke O g o t a made

s t r e n o u s e f f o r t s t o d r a g o u r t e a m i n t o t h e p o l i t i c s o f

L e j ja, H e d e c r i e d t h e f a c t t h a t a F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t

C o l l e g e w h i c h e x i s t s i n L e j j a w a s n o t b u i l t i n t h e i n t e r e s t

o f t h e p e o p l e of L e j j a . He r a i l ed a c c u s a t i o n s o n t h e

g o v e r n m e n t a n d a f t e r sometime, t h e team w a s ab le to d r a g

h i s a t t e n t i o n b a c k t o t h e i s s u e a t h a n d a n d r e m i n d e d h im

t h a t o u r t r i p w a s n o t s f a p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e .

I n a h i d t o a c q u a i n t t h e i n d i g e n e s w i t h t h e g o i n g s o n

i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A r c h a e o l o g y , a l o t o f t i m e w a s s p e n t

o n e x p l a i n i n g how a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t i e s came a b o u t

a n d b h y L e j ja i s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t s i t e f o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n f u t u r e ,

Speak i . nq o n t h e r e a s o n why museums h a d n o t b e e n b u i l t ,

Dr. FIN. k n o z i e e x p l a i n e d t h a t h e h a d n e v e r p r o m i s e d t o

b u i l d t h e p e o p l e o f L e j j a a museurn. A museum i s n e c e s s a r y

i n t h e p l a c e a n d t h e p e o p l e may h a v e g o t t e n t h a t i m p r e s s i o n

b u t t h e y p r o b a b l y m i s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e w h o l e i s s u e ,

D r . A n o z i e who i s o n e o f t h e earl iest a r c h a e o l o g i s t s t o

t a k e s t u d e n t s to t h e v i l l a g e s q u a r e i s o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t

L e j ja s h o u l d be b r o u q h t t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t ,' ,, ., 4 " t . ,t. , , ,* ,

who s h o u l d be a b l e t o s a f e g u a r d t h e p l a c e f o r p o s t e r i t y .

He p r o m i s e d to m a k e more e f f o r t to i n v o l v e t h e p e o p l e i n

f u t u r e a r c h a e o l o g i c d l i n v e s t i q a t i o n s ,

SITE TWO

OPI

T h e work of a r c h a e o l o g i s t s w a s r e c o g n i s e d b y O p i

i n d i g e n e s b u t m o s t l y b y t h o s e who h a d b e e n i n v o l v e d i n

o n e way o r t h e o t h e r i n p r e v i o e u s e x c a v a t i o n s . O t h e r s

w e r e i g n o r a n t a n d a f t e r a f e w q u e s t i o n s , t h e team a b a n d o n e d

t h e e f f o r t a n d c o r l c e n t r d t e d o n q u e s t i o n i n g o n l y t h e f ew

who showed i n t e r e s t i n w h a t we were d o i n g , P l a c e s v i s i t e d

i n c l u d e d Umu I h e I d i O p i , Umu Eze Nakwa,Opi H i l l , O d i n a n s o

I d i O p i , A f o r O p i , e tc , k t t h e s e p l a c e s , t h e c y l i n d r i c a l

s l a g b l o c k s were s t i l l i n t a c t a n d e x i s t i n g r e a t number

e s p e c i a l l y a t G d i n a n s o I d i Op i (see P l a t e

The q u e s t i o n " w h a t i s a r c h a e o 1 o g y " i n i t i a l l y d rew a

b l a n k a s p e o p l e were o n l y a b l e to associate a r c h a e o l o g y

w i t h c y l i r ~ d r i c a l s l a g b l o c k s a n d i n o n e case t h e r e s p o n d e n t

i d e n t i f i e d a r c h a e o l o g y w i t h a n a r c h a e o l o g i s t ( D r . E.E.

O k a f o r ) who had d o n e e x t e n s i v e w o r k i n Opi . R e s p o n d e n t s

f r o m A f o r O p i w e r e i g n o r d n t o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s of a r c h a e o - ,' ,, . 4 " t . ,>. > a .

l o g i s t s i n t h e i;ast so o t h e r p l a c e s weee i n v e s t i g a t e d .

A t Umu Eze N a k w a , q u i t e a number o f c i r c u l a r r i n g s

were d i s c o v e r e d i n I v i r , V i n c e n t A b o n y i ' s compound ( a , I - .-

c a r p e n t e r a t O p i D . u r k e t ) , ?'he r i n g s were o b v i o u s l y

f u r n a c e w a l l s s i n c e some o f t h a n had b e e n p r e v i o u s l y e x c a -

v a t e d b y a team f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y of N i g e r i a , Nsukka,

( s e e P l a t e 2 .1) .

A g r o u p o f p e o p l e g a t h e r e d a r o u n d u s so w e were a b l e t o

a s k them some q u e s t i o n s , T h e y w e r e n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a n d had n o t h a d much to do w i t h them,

One o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s , t h e w i f e o f t h e o w n e r of t h e

compound (Mrs R e g i n a A b o n y i ) e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e c i r c u l a r

r i n g s g r e w o u t o f the g r o u n d a n d t h a t was a l l s h e knew.

I f , h o w e v e r , w e were i n a n y d o u b t , we c o u l d v e r i f y from

h e r h u s b a n d i n t h e m a r k e t ,

M r . Aboriyi w a s p l e a s e d to see o u r team, H e was v e r y

f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e a c t i v i t i e s of a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a t O p i b u t

d e n i e d h a v i n g b e e n a s k e d t o j o i n o r h e l p o u t w i t h a n y

e x c a v a t i o n , H e h a d n o k n o w l e d g e of t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f

t h e f u r n a c e w a l l s i n h i s compound, M r , Abony i a f f i r m e d

o v e r a n d o v e r t h a t t h e s e g r e w o u t o f t h e g r o u n d , H e c u t s

them o f f a n n u a l l y so t h a t c h i l d r e n d o n * t t r i p o v e r them

w h i l e p l a y i n g , H e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e f u r n a c e w a l l s were

j u s t a n a t u r a l phenomenon a n d n o t s o m e t h i n g t o be p r e s e r v e d ,

H i s c o - w o r k e r i r i t h e c a r p e n t e r ' s s h e d a g r e e d w i t h him, . , . . , , a

A coninlent f r o m t h e team t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e s e

were f u r n a c e w a l l s b u i l t b y t h e i r a n c e s t o r s who s m e l t e d

i r o n i n t h e p a s t b r o u g h t 1 a u g h t e r f r o m t h e r e s p o n d e n t .

H e a r g u e d t h c t when h i s \ ' f a t h e r c a m e to l i v e t h e r e , t h e

p l a c e w s s j u s t a f o r t - . s t , It w a s i n c r e d u l o u s t h a t people

h a d l i v e d t h e r e s i n c e h e was among t h e f i r s t t o clear t h e

b u s h a n d c u l t i v a t e t h e l a n d w i t h h i s f a t h e r ,

A t t h i s , t h e team p r o c e e d e d to e d u c a t e t h e p e o p l e

g a t h e r e d . They were made t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e s e

f u r n a c e s were known as I t o ro a n d d i d n o t a c t u a l l y g r o w

o u t of t h e g r o u n d b u t h a d b e e n e x p o s e d b y r a i n water

w a s h i n g away loose s o i l a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y e x p o s i n g t h e

f u r n a c e w a l l s , T h e s e c i r c u l a r r i n g s i n t h e g r o u n d were

a c t u a l l y f u r n a c e w a l l s known as " I torom a n d i s a s i l e n t

r e m i n d e r t h a t t h e r e w; i s a l o t o f s m e l t i n g a t O p i u n t i l

t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y AIDI T h e c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g b l o o k s w h i c h

l i t t e r t h e foo t of Opl. h i l l .as w e l l a s o t h e r p l a c e s i s

e n o u g h p r o o f of t h i s f ac t . On s m i t h i n g w e l e a r n t t h r o u g h

t h e r e s p o r i d e n t s t h a t black s m i t h i n g s t i l l g o e s o n i n

s e v e r a l v i l l a g e s i n @ p i t i l l da te . They w e r e q u i t e

e x c i t e d a t t h e i n f - o r m a t i o n g i v e n t o them, T h e y h o p e d

we w o u l d come b a c k and p r o m i s e d t o h e l p i n a n y way p o s s i b l e .

O t h e r sites v i s i t e d were t h e foot o f O p i h i l l a n d

t h e s i t e a t O d i n a n s o I d i C p i , A v i l l a g e s q u a r e h a d c y l i n -

d r i c a l blocks o f s l a g a r r a n g e d i n some s o r t o f order a l l . $ 9 . . , , . *

o v e r t h e v i l l s g e s q u a r e (see P la te 2.2). A n o t h e r r e s p o n -

d e n t , M r . Samue l k sogwa of Umui l e v i l l a g e , l d i O p i , was

h e l p f u l i n t a k i n g u s r o u n d t o show u s t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g

b l o c k s . A r e t i r e d s t a f f df u n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a ,

M r . Asogwa f i r s t h e a r d o f t h e c u l t u r a l a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

h e r i t a g e o f O p i i n 1991. H e w o r k e d e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h

D r . E,E, O k a f o r and was a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e i m p o r t a n c e

o f c y l i n d r i c a l s lag blocks i n t h e A r c h a e o l o g y o f Africa.

Me had n o t s e e n a n y p u b l i c a t i o n s o n Opi i r o n w o r k i n g b u t

was n o t e x p e c t i n g a n y s i n c e n o n e was p r o m i s e d , H e ,

however , t o l d m e h e would be p l e a s e d to h a v e some, H e

h a d n e v e r h e a r d o f o n t h e r a d i o a n d had n o t

r e c e i v e d a n y r e m u n e r a t i o n f o r b e i n g p a r t o f e x c a v a t i o n s

i n t h e p a s t , On h i s g r i e v a n c e s a b o u t t h e coming of a r c h e o -

l o g i s t s t o h i s p l a c e , h e s a i d h e had no g r i e v a n c e s a n d

would w i s h w e come more o f t e n t o O p i .

SITE THREE

AKU

A t Aku, i t became a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e p e o p l e had u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g o f t h e work o f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s and a f f i r m e d t h a t

t h e y were a w a r e o f t h e e x c a v a t i o n s t h a t had b e e n c a r r i e d

o u t i n t h e i r a r e a . Most o f t h e p e o p l e i n t e r v i e w e d were

s t i l l w e l l i n f o r n ~ e d a b o u t s m e l t i n g i n Aku i n d a y s g o n e by.

A t A m a Uwani, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e y were a b l e t o d i s c u s s ,' ,,.,a "$. ,t' , *.,*

i n t e l l i g e n t l y t h e v a r i ~ u s p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n i r o n s m e l t -

i n g . T h i s knowledge t h e y c l a i m e d to h a v e r e c e i v e d f r o m

t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , A t H k i b i t e , , o n e o f o u r i n f o r m a n t s o b s e r v e d I ' - . L

t h a t Aku was r e l a t e d t o Owerre a n d Lejja,

On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e r e were some a r e a s w h i c h were

v i s i t e d ar.4 a l t h o u g h t h e y had c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g b l o c k s i n

t h e s e areas t h e y w e r e i g n o r a n t o f t h e s o u r c e of t h e s e

b l o c k s , A t Umudimotue a n d A m a d i n k w e r e k e of A k u , t h i s

w a s t h e s i t u a t i o n . T h e y w e r e , h o w e v e r , w e l l a w a r e of

t h e f a c t t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a d worked i n t h e area i n

t h e p a s t a n d showed u s w h e r e t h e f i l l e d u p e x c a v a t i o n

t r e n c h h a d b e e n dug .

On g e t t i n g t o A m a d i n k w e r e k e , t h e t eam d i s c o v e r e d

t h a t t h e p i l e o f c y l i n d r i c a l slab b l o c k s w h i c h h a d e a r l i e r

b e e n s t a c k e d t o g e t h e r h a d now b e e n l a i d o u t n e a r t h e

m a s q u e r a d e h o u s e ( O d o ) a n d t u r n e d i n t o a s h r i n e (see P l a t e 3.2).

T h e p e o p l e t a l k e d to c l a i m e d t h a t t h e y were n e v e r i n v o l v e d

i n t h e d i g g i n g o f t r e n c h e s d u r i n g t h e e x c a v a t i o n 8 ) b u t were

d u l y c o n s u l t e d a n d i n some cases k o l a n u t a n d pa lm w i n e

w e r e s e r v e d to them b y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s .

T h e p e o p l e i n t e r v i e w e d d i d n o t h a v e c o p i e s o f a r c h a e e -

l o g i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s o n h k u . T h e c h i e f o f t h e t o w n ,

I q w e Manu was t h e o n l y o n e i n p o s s e s s i o n o f a c o p y of

M r . E z i k e ' s u n d e r g r a d u a t e t h e s i s o n t h e History a n d ,' $ 3 , 4 , 5 . ,:. , . >+ ,

A r c h a e o l o g y o f Aku, ( M r . E z i k e , a n d r c h a e o l o g i s t , i s o n e

o f t h e s o n s o f A k u ) , T h e y h a d n e v e r b e e n i n v i t e d t o see

a d i s p l a y o f t h e i r materials o u t s i d e t h e t own a n d i n a n y

case, n o mater ia ls h a d been" t a k & n o u t o f Aku. S u r p r i s i n g l y ,

n o p r o m i s e s h a d b e e n made t o t h e p e o p l e a n d t h e y h a d n o

g r i e v a n c e s t o w a r d s a r c h a e o l o g i s t s who h a d w o r k e d i n A k u

i n t h e p a s t .

A t Amandinkwereke , M r , E z i k e i n t e r v i e w e d M r . Ibe Nwozo

who d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l t h e p r o c u r e m e n t of c h a r c o a l f o r

s m e l t i n g p u r p o s e s , T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w a s h a n d e d down t o

him by h i s g r a n d - f a t h e r , F i r s t a t u n n e l would b e d u g a n d

l o g s o f wood a n d c o m b u s t i b l e m a t e r i a l s are l o a d e d i n t o t h e

t u n n e l , The e n t i r e t h i n g was c o v e r e d w i t h f r e s h b a n a n a

leaves l e a v i n g t h e t w o e n d s o f t h e t u n n e l o p e n , From a n

e x p o s e d e n d , t h e t u n n e l would b e l i g h t e d a n d l e f t t o b u r n

f o r a p e r i o d o f t h r e e d a y s p r o d u c i n g c h a r c o a l w i t h o u t a s h ,

A t O w e r r e Mgboko ,kkunna A d i r i c h e e x p l a i n e d t h a t h i s

f a t h e r was a b l a c k s m i t h , H e had b e e n t o l d by h i s f a t h e r

t h a t t h e p e o p l e s m e l t e d i r o n i n t h e p a s t , H e a l s o a f f i r m e d

t h a t Aku was r e l a t e d t o O w e r r e L e j ja, A n o t h e r i n f o r m a n t

p o i n t e d o u t t h a t N i k e p e o p l e l i v e d w i t h them as smelters,

H e w a s a l so a b l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e s m e l t i n g p r o c e s s o f

A m a Uwani Ugwunani Aku,

On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e r e were some a r e a s w h i c h were

v i s i t e d and a l t h o u g h t h e r e w e r e c y l i n d r i c a l s l a g b l o c k s ' , , 4 . . , '

i n t h e p l a c e , they were c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r a n t o f t h e s o u r c e

o f t h e s e b l o c k s , A t Urnudimotue and Amadinkwereke, t h e y

w e r e w e l l a w a r e o f t h e v i s i t s o f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n t h e

p a s t and e v e n showed u s the -fbrmer e x c a v a t i o n t r e n c h which

h a s s i n c e b e e n f i l l e d u p ,

T h e s i t e a t Aku c o n t a i n e d so many p i e c e s o f i r o n

s l a g t h a t i t became clear t h a t n o t o n l y w a s Aku a n i r o n

s m e l t i n g s i t e , i t m u s t h a v e b e e n a n i r o n s m e l t i n g i n d u s t r y

i n t h e p a s t , A t A r n a e t i f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e r e w a s a h e a v y

c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l a g , c h a r c o a l , p o t s h e r d s ( s e e F i g .

a n d p i e c e s o f b a k e d a l a y w h i c h l o o k e d l i k e t u y e r e n o z z l e s

o f f u r n a c e w a l l s , I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e were h e a p s of i r o n

s l a g (see p l a t e 3-3 1, T h e p e o p l e e x p l a i n e d t h a t s l a g h a d

t o be c l e a r e d o u t o f t h e way w h i l e f a r m i n g t o p r e v e n t

b l u n t i n g o r b r e a k i n g e d g e s o f h o e s w h i c h are g e n e r a l l y

u s e d a s f a r m i n g i m p l e m e n t s ,

M r . E z i k e , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t who h a d d o n e e x t e n s i v e

work o n Aku, w a s c o n s u l t e d o n how f a r h e h a d g o n e to t r y

a n 3 i n v o l v e t h e p e o p l e o f ALu i n h i s work. H e e x p l a i n e d

t h a t h e h a d p r o m i s e d h i s p e o p l e ( t h e p e o p l e o f ~ k u ) t h a t any

of t h e i r c h i l d r e n who q u a l i f i e s i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y

e n t r a n c e e x a m i n a t i o n a n d w i s h e s t o s t u d y a r c h a e o l o g y w i l l

be g i v e n a d m i s s i o n i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t . T h i s p r o m i s e , h e ' $ 9 . . , '

i n t e n d s t o keep. On t h e i s s u e o f why h e d i d n o t u s e local

l a b o u r f o r h i s e x c a v a t i o n s , h e e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e n a t i v e s

may r u i n t h e work a n d h e o b s e r v e d t h a t h e c o u l d n o t s p e n d

t i m e a n d money t o e d u c a t e t h e m % e c a u s e t h e work w i l l n o t

b e r e l e v a n t t o them. 'Lhis i m p r e s s i o n h a d t o be c o r r e c t e d

b e c a u s e , c o n t r a r y t o h i s o p i n i o n , a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a -

t i o n s are f a r more i m p o r t a n t t o t h e i n d i g e n e s t h a n h a s b e e n

r e a l i s e d u p t ill now.

SITE FOUR

I S 1 UGWU OBUKPA

The b o u l d e r a t I s i Ugwu Obukpa w h i c h i s t h e r o c k

s h e l t e r e x c a v a t e d b y H a r t l e i n 1964 i s s t i l l i n t a c t ,

( s e e P l a t e 4-11. I t was v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o g e t a n i n t e r v i e w

f r o m t h e p e o p l e who l i v e i n t h e area s i n c e t h e y had n e v e r

b e e n i n v o l v e d i n a n y work a t t h e b b u k p a r o c k s h e l t e r .

They h a d n e v e r o b s e r v e d a n e x c a v a t i o n g o i n g o n t h e r e a n d

h a d n e v e r h e a r d t h e word a r c h a e o l o g y . Some a c k n o w l e d g e d

s e e i n g p e o p l e g o u p t h e h i 1 1 o n t o p o f w h i c h t h e r o c k

s h e l ter rests b u t were q u i t e u n a w a r e of a n y a c t i v i t i e s

t h a t had b e e n c a r r i e d o u t t h e r e .

E x d m i n a t i o l i of t h e r o c k s h e l t e r i t s e l f r e v e a l e d t h a t

t h e p l a c e had r e n l a i n e d u n i n h a b i t e d b y man f o r a v e r y l o n g

time. Some of t h e i n d i g e n e s l o o k e d s u r p r i s e d when t h e y

w e r e a s k e d whct ther t h e p l a c e had s e r v e d a s a r e f u g e f o r

p e o p l e d u r i n g t h e N i g e r i a n c i v i l war w h i c h l a s t e d f r o m

1965-1971. T h e y &abmed* t h a t i t w a s h i g h l y u n l i k e l y .

Some c r u d e l y f o r m e d s t o n e s were s t i l l l y i n g i n t h e

r o c k s h e l ter d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t s e v e r a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

h a d v i s i t e d the. s i t e i n , , t i p + p a s t . T h e r o c k s h e l ter s t i l l

s t a n d s b u t my o b s e r - v a t i c n i s t h a t t h e p e o p l e are g r o s s l y

i g n o r a n t o f the% a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s h e l t e r .

Q u i t e . a n e f f o r t : w a s made t o e d u c a t e t h e p e o p l e o n t h e

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r o c k s h e 1 ter. I t was, h o w e v e r , v e r y

d i f f i c u l t t o c o n v i n c e p e o p l e t o g o u p w i t h u s t o t h e

s h e l t e r b e c a u s e t h e r e w a s n o f o o t p a t h u p t h e h i l l .

SITE FIVE

U M U N D U

T h e s i t e a t U~nundu w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f a mound of i r o n

s l a q i s located a t Umu O g a l e k a v i l l a g e i n Umundu. S m e l t -

i r ~ g had b e e n d o n e i n t h i r t area t i l l t h e y e a r 1 9 2 5 ( ~ k a f o r ,

1 9 9 2 ) a n d t h e r e were numerous s m i t h i n q w o r k s h o p s i n Umundu.

T h e mounds o f i r o n s l a g ( I k p o A h u r u ) had b e e n n e g l e c t e d

so much t h a t p e o p l e were c o m i n g t h e r e to collect s l a q t o

p u t i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f h o u s e s , T h e mound had been over-

g rown by b u s h and l e f t i n a s t a t e o f d i s a r r a y (see P l a t e 5-11

Some members of Umundu communi ty who were p a t o f

t h e i r o n s m e l t i n g p r o c e s s a re s t i l l a l i v e t o d a y , Mos t

of them a r e v e r y o l d a n d ~ ~ o u l d n o t g i v e a u s e f u l a c c o u n t

of w h a t a c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d d u r i n g t h e s m e l t i n 9 o f i r o n . .' ,, . 4 w a . ,>. > * I + ,

T h e O n y i s h i (ch i ef o f Umundu), Odo I g b o k e , was c o n s u l t e d

s i n c e h e w a s one o f t h o s e who w i t n e s s e d t h e s m e l t i n g

i n d u s t r y of llrrxndu- The O n y i s h i i s q u i t e a g e d , 36 y e a r s , I t - .-

a n d y e t i s s t i l l q l ; i t e x t i h l l a t e , (see P l a t e 5 - 3 ) .

Our t eam p r e s e n t e d some i r o n s l a g p i c k e d f r o m t h e

mound a t Umuogaleka fo him a n d h e i m m e d i a t e l y p o i n t e d

o u t t h a t t h a t w a s a w a s t e p r o d u c t a n d n o t t h e b loom ( a g a )

w h i c h w a s u s e d t o m a k e i r o n i m p l e m e n t s , H e d e s c r i b e d t h e

bu i ld ing ,* :o f a f u r n a c e ( I t o r o ) t o u s and we u n d e r s t o o d ' * .

from h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t i t m u s t be t h e s h a f t f u r n a c e . t

T h e f u r n a c e m u s t h a v e b e e n a b o u t 1.4 m i n h e i g h t a n d o n e

metre wzde. I t w a s l o a d e d w i t h l a t e r i t e s o i l ( h a e r n a t i t e j )

from t h e h i l l s a r o u n d Umundu, F i r i n g m u s t h a v e l a s t e d

f o r u p t o 30 h o u r s , T h e r e w e r e two o p e n i n g s a t t h e base

o f t h e f u r n a c e , 'I'he f u r n s c e i s l i t t h r o u g h t h e o p e n i n g s

a n d s l a g a n d bloonr a l s o e s c a p e t h r o u g h t h e s a m e p l a c e a t

t h e e n d o f t h e s m e l t .

O t h e r r e s p o r l d e n t . ~ s u p p l i e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n p r e p a r a -

t i o n o f c h a r c o a l f r o m h a r d wood l i k e t h e o i l b e a n ( p e n t a -

c l e t h r a m a c r o p h y l l a ) , Bloom ( a g a was s o l d t o b l a c k s m i t h s

from Umundu a n d o t h e r p l a c e s a n d t h e y r e f i n e d t h e b l o o m

a n d f o r g e d i t into too l s w h i c h t h e y s o l d a t a h i g h p r i c e ,

Have a r c h a e o l o g i s t s w o r k e d i n Umundu and w h a t d i d

t h e r e s p o n d e n t s g a i n f r o m t h e i r c o m i n g ? we w e r e i n f o r m e d ,' ,,? 4 - 8 . 5 , . , . !* .

t h a t n o t o n l y h a v e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s come t o Umundu b u t t h e

p e o p l e of Umundu h a v e g o n e t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a

t o c o n s t r u c t a n d f i r e a f u r n ~ c e l o a d e d w i t h ore, c h a r c o a l

a n d o t h e r c o m b u s t i b l e rnatgri-a3s. What t h e y g a i n e d w a s

t h a t t h e y w e r e made a w a r e o f t h e f a c t t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e

s m e l t i n g i n d u s t . r y i s f a s t b e c o m i n g e x t i n c t , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

- s t i l l see a l o t o f i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e r e m a i n s of t h e

c u l t u r e w h i c h to them i s now c o n s i d e r e d obsolete.

. o n t h e i s s u e o f r e m u n e r a t i o n t o t h e m b y a r c h a e o l o -

g i s t s a n d f i n a n c i a l b e n e f i t s , w h i c h h a v e come as a r e s u l t

o f t h e d i s c o v e r i e s i n t h e i r l a n d , we w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t

t h e p e o p l e d o n o t e x p e c t a n y t h i n g from a r c h a e o l o g i s t s .

T h e y b e l i e v e t h e y s h o u l d g i v e them t h e s e r e m u n e r a t i o n s i f

t h e y h a d them, A r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e n e v e r made p r o m i s e s

t o them w h i c h t h e y c o u l d n o t f u l f i l l . T h e y h a v e n o

g r i e v a n c e s a g a i n s t t hem a n d w o u l d a l w a y s w e l c o m e them to

Umundu.

S ITE S I X

UNIVERSITY O F NIGERIA, N S U K K A FARM SITE

T h i s was one o f t h e most p r o b l e m a t i c sites d u r i n g

t h e i n t e r v i e w s * H a r d l y a n y o n e w o r k i n g a r o u n d t h e U n i v e r s i t y

o f N i g e r i a f a r m s i t e h a d a n y i d e a t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a d

v i s i t e d t h e s i t e s e v e r a l t i m e s i n t h e p a s t , T h e i n t e r v i e w

t u r n e d i n t o a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o n a r c h a e o l o g y a n d d i s c o - .' ,, . . r l . ,>. , ..'* ' .

v e r i e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n made i n t i m e s p a s t , T h e a t t i t u d e

was t h a t of k e e n i n t e r e s t i n o u r work b u t l a c k o f a n y

u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s i te, I t - .L

T h e p r e v a l e n c e o f t h i s . a t t i t u a e s u g g e s t e d a c o m p l e t e

l a c k o f i n v o l v e m e n t o n t h e p a r t o f r e s p o n d e n t s . I t a l so

made v e r y clear t h e f a c t t h a t a l t h o u g h s e v e r a l a r c h a e o l o g i c a :

e x c a v a t i o n s h a d b e e n carried o u t i n t h i s area, a t n o t i m e

w e r e t h e members o f t h e c o m m u n i t y i n v i t e d to w i t n e s s o u r

e x c a v a t r b n s o r i n f o r m e d a b o u t t h e f i n d i n g s made d u r i n g

s u c h f i e l d work.

SITE SEVEN

OKPE IGALA

The f o r t a t Okpe I g a l a i s i n a v e r y b a d s h a p e - Mos t

o f t h e e a r t h a t t h e f o r t had b e e n removed f rom t h e p l a c e ,

p r o b a b l y f o r b u i l d i n g h o u s e s , T h e c s n t r a l p a r t o f t h e f o r t

had b e e n t u r n e d i n t o a farrn and t h e r e were many c r o p s

p l a n t e d t h e r e e s p e c i a l l y c o r n ( Z e a mays) and c a s s a v a

( M a n i h o t u t i l i s i n a ) . Sorne p a r t o f t h e f o r t i s s t i l l

v i s i b l e from t h e E a s t s i t e a n d l o o k s l i k e a h i g h w a l l .

Most o f t h e p e o p l e i n t e r v i e w e d a t Ugwu Odenigwe d o

n o t r e a l l y have a n i d e a t h a t t h i s s i te was a n e v i d e n c e of

I g a l a d o m i n a t i o n o f Nsukka, I t was e x p l a i n e d to u s t h a t

t h e s i t e c o u l d h a v e s e r v e d t h e p u r p o s e which I had e x p l a i n e d

e a r l i e r b e c a u s e i t i s common knowledge a l l o v e r Nsukka a r e a

t h a t i n times p a s t t h e A t t a h o f I g a l a i n v a d e d Nsukka and

i n f l i c t e d heavy c a s u a l i t i e s on t h e p e o p l e and i f t h e A t t a h

c o u l d have done t h a t bhen i t o n l y s t a n d s t o r e a s o n t h a t .' ,, . . ~ 4 . ,t. , ' ,

h e c o u l d h a v e b u i l t a f o r t t o k e e p s l a v e s i n , They d i d

n o t know a b o u t P r o f e s s o r H a r t l e e s e x c a v a t i o n s i n t h e area

and were n o t informed about: t h e m i n i a t u r e p o t s d i s c o v e r e d I f - .-

t h e r e ,

On t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e p l a c e was a s h r i n e i n

times p a s t , o n e o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s answered t h a t I t i t mus t

b e e n h a v e L b e c a u s e t h e p l a c e w a s h e l d s a c r e d i n times p a s t

f o r r e a s o n s unknown to them.

One o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s who l i v e s n e x t t o t h e f o r t

a t Odenigwe, J o n a s by name, e x p l a i n e d t o u s t h a t a r c h a e o -

l o g i s t s are v e r y f o n d o f t h e f o r t , H e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t

f o r many y e a r s now, a r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e come a r o u n d t h e

f o r t to d i g t h e g round . D i d t h e y e v e r f i n d a n y t h i n g ?

H i s a n s w e r was i g n o r a n c e o f w h a t t h e y d i d , H e , however ,

a g r e e d t h a t t h e y ( t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s ) had t a k e n time t o

e x p l a i n t o him t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s i t e , He i s f u l l y

aware t h a t t h e fob t w a s s a i d to h a v e h o u s e d s l a v e s i n

t h e p a s t f o r t h e c h i e f o f t h e I g a l a b u t s i n c e h e i s n o t

a n i n d i g e n e o f t h e p l a c e , h i s i n t e r e s t ,was n o t a s k e e n

as i f t h a t were h i s own h i s t o r y , Had h e e v e r b e e n

i n v o l v e d i n t h e work? No, e x c e p t i f g i v i n g water t o

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s to wash t h e i r h a n d s i s b e i n g i n v o l v e d ,

We a s s u r e d him i t was n o t w h a t w e mean t , O t h e r q u e s t i o n s

w e r e a n s w e r e d i n t h e n e g a t i v e so t h e i n t e r v i e w s w a s

,' $6 ., 4 " 3 . ,t. , * ,4- . ~

t e r m i n a t e d , (see P l a t e & 7.1; 7.2; f o r s t a t e of s i t e ) .

SITE EIGHT

OR BA

A ' v i s i t t o O r b a r e v e a l & t h a t t h e mound o f i r o n

s l a g ( I k p o A h u r u ) which was e x c a v a t e d i n 1984 h a d b e e n

l e f t to over-grow w i t h weeds a n d p a r t of i t was b e i n g

u s e d a s a r u b b i s h dump- T h i s mound " I k p o Ahuruw i s

located n e a r t h e h o u s e o f M r . Aaron Madu who i s a t r a d e r

o f palm k e r n e l p r o d u c e . A r e c o n n a i s s a n c e s u r v e y o f t h e

area known as Amaoba showed as t h a t p e o p l e were n o t q u i t e

f ami l i a r w i t h t h e work o f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n t h e p a s t .

A g a i n , t h e team w a s f o r c e d t o a s k q u e s t i o n s o n l y a r o u n d

t h e mound o f irol? s l a g (see P l a t e 8.1).

The most u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n w a s f rom Onumonu Agbo,

t h e O n y i s h i o f Amube Orba. H i s a t t i t u d e was q u i t e

u n f r i e n d l y a n d h e made i t a l e a r to u s t h d t h e d i d n o t

see a n y r e a s o n to w e l c o m e t h e team. I t w a s la ter d i s c o -

v e r e d t h r o u g h p e r s i s t e n t q u e s t i o n i n q , t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

who came to t h e mound i n t h e p a s t would j u s t come and

s u r v e y t h e ared a n d l e a v e . A ~ c h a e o l o g i s t s had come s e v e r a l

times and t a k e n a l o t o f p h o t o g r a p h s , d u g t h e g r o u n d and

l e f t . The p e o p l e o f Orba h a d g a i n e d n o t h i n g f rom t h e

e x c a v a t i o n s a n d w o u l d n e v e r g a i n a n y t h i n g f r o m u s .

T h e team t h a t v i s i t e d O r b a made e v e r y e f f o r t to r e m a i n

u n d a u n t e d b y h i s h o s t i l i t y . A d i r e c t a p p r o a c h W ~ S a t t e m p t e d

when t h e q u e s t i o n " ~ ~ s " p ' u ~ to t h e O n y i s h i a b o u t how t h e i r o n

s l a g known as " e f u r u " was h e a p e d a t Amube, T h e q u e s t i o n

s u r p r i s e d him and h e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t no o n e knew how i t

came a b o u t , n o t e v e n hist fake-fathers. Did h e know how

t h e " e f u r u " w a s u s e d i n s m i t h i n g ? H e a n s w e r e d i n t h e

p o s i t i v e a b o u t s t o n e s b r o u g h t f rom t h e b u s h a n d s m e l t e d

i n t o "aga" bloom. How was t h i s done? H e e x p l a i n e d t h a t

a f u r n a c e was c o n s t r u c t e d and t h e s e s t o n e s ( h a e m a t i t e l

were poured i n t o t h e f u r n a c e t o g e t h e r wi th c h a r c o a l and

o t h e r c o m b u s t i b l e materials and set a b l a z e . After some

d a y s t h e bloom w i l l be s e p a r a t e d from t h e s l a g and the

bloom w i l l be u s e d for s m i t h i n g . Had h e ever o b s e r v e d

a s m e l t i n g p r o c e s s b e f o r e ? The answer was n e g a t i v e ,

How t h e n d i d h e know t h e s e d e t a i l s a b o u t s m e l t i n g ?

Amused, h e inforrned u s t h a t i t was common knowledge.

The w h i t e men

had made i r o n

smelters) had

who came w i t h i r o n d i d n o t know that t h e y

before them. H e b e l i e v e d t h e y ( t h e Orba

produced better q u a l i t y i r o n t h a n t h a t which

i s impor t ed today .

S m i t h i n g i s s t i l l c a r r i e d o u t i n Amube Ndi Uno i n

Orba a s w e l l as i n o t h e r a r e a s o f Qrba. A number of

s m i t h i rig w o r k ~ h p p had been c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h t h a t c h e d

r o o f s . They were r e c t a n g l r r h u t s w i t h t h e s i d e s open for

f r e e movemen t o f a i rT4* , , gnq, of. t h e workshops b e l o n g i n g ta

M r . C l e t u s Odo measured a b o u t 4.1 m l o n g and 3 m wide ,

The f l o o r was d u s t y w i t h s and and c o n t a i n e d a s c a t t e r

of a n v i l s , c h a r c o a l , a f o r g e a n d some b e l l o w s , ( e l a t e 8.2). I1 -. --

O n y i s h i Onumonu Agbo d e c r i e d t h e fact t h a t many young

p e o p l e h a v e d e s e r t e d t h e a r t of b l a c k s m i t h i n g for t r a d i n g ,

H e w i shed more a r c h a e o l o g i s t s would i n t e r a c t w i t h them

a n d n o t j u s t come and make e m p t y p r o m i s e s and g o away,

SITE NINE glF; wm' OWERRE ELU

O w e r r e E l u s i t e i s almost c o m p l e t e d e s t r o y e d b y t h e

timber s h e d w h i c h h a d b e e n e r e c t e d o n t o p of i t (see

P l a t e 9.2 1. Most of t h e p e o p l e we t a l k e d t o had n e v e r

h e a r d o f a r c h a e o l o g y , They d i d n o t a p p r e c i a t e t h e fac t

t h a t t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n a t h r i v i n g i r o n s m e l t i n g i n d u s t r y

o n t h e s i te or t h a t i t was a n y o f t h e i r b u s i n e s s . T h e

members o f t h e team showed them t h e s l a g and w h i l e some

showed s u r p r i s e a t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e were w a s t e from

srnel t i n g , o t h e r s were i n d i f f e r e n t to t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s .

T h i s s i t u a t i o n made i t p e r t i n e n t to t a l k t o t h e

i n d i g e n e s of O w e r r e E l u as most, i f n o t a l l t h e r e s p o n -

d e n t s a t t h e timber m a r k e t were n o t members of t h e c u l t u r a l

e n t i t y known as O w e r r e E lu . They w e r e m o s t l y t r a d e r s who

came to the timber m a r k e t t o buy a n d sel l t i m b e r ,

O z i o k o David (7f3"~$ai?S)' t h e O n y i s h i of Ndi Agu O w e r r e

E l u c o n d u c t e d t h e team to t h e s l a g h e a p s a t t h e b a c k of

h i s house . H e e x p l a i n e d t h a t God s e n t t h e s l a g to O w e r r e

E l u f o r t h e sole p u r p o s e of b l e s s i n g the l a n d . T h e Supreme

D e i t y had known t h a t t h e s o i l a t O w e r r e E l u c o u l d e a s i l y

be washed away b y t o r r e n t i a l r a i n f a l l and p r o v i d e d s l a g

t o grow o u t from t h e s o i l . H e , however , e x p l a i n e d t h a t

w h e r e t h e s l a g i s f o u n d i n a f a r m , i t is moved o u t of t h e

farm so as n o t to b r e a k t h e h o e o r any o t h e r f a r m i n g

implement , T h e s e h e showed u s s t a c k e d i n a h e a p (see

P l a t e 9.1). T h e w h i t e p e o p l e ( p r o b a b l y ~ u r o p e a n s ) who

o n c e came to O w e r r e E l u seem to h a v e r e c o g n i s e d t h e s l a g

b u t d i d n o t b o t h e r t o e x p l a i n t h e i r e x c i t e m e n t to him.

They b r o k e t h e s l a g a n d examined i t , T h i s made t h e p e o p l e

of O w e r r e E l u realise t h a t s l a g was i m p o r t a n t , b u t how,

t h e y d o n o t know,

A n o t h e r r e s p o n d e n t e x p l a i n e d t h a t s l a g was v e r y

i m p o r t a n t to O w e r r e E l u b e c a u s e t h o s e who make l o c a l g u n

powder u s e i t , H e warned u s t h a t t h e S l a g i n O w e r r e E l u

c o u l d expand and b r e a k t h e f o u n d a t i o n s of h o u s e s b u t t h e

s l a g collected f rom t h e h i l l c a n n o t expand , I n a d d i t i o n ,

h e s a i d t h a t i r o n s l a g ( a h u r u ) i s o n l y f o u n d i n Owerre E lu ,

T h i s v i e w was s u p p o r t e d by t h e c h i e f of Owerre E l u who

c l a i m e d t h a t a l t h o u g h I s i a k p u is a n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e ,

s l a g h e a p s c a n o n l y be f o u n d i n O w e r r e Eluo . ,I 2. 3

The team spen t*" l d n g t i m e e x p l a i n i n g to t h e r e s p o n -

d e n t s how s l a g came abou t . We also showed them some of

the e v i d e n c e of s l a g c o l l e c t e d from o t h e r areas and a s s u r e d

them t h a t I s i a k p u as w e l l I1as:a number o f p l a c e s i n o l d

Nsukka ~ i v i s i o n had s m e l t e d i r o n i n t h e p a s t , Most, i f

n o t a l l of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s had no c o n t a c t s w i t h a r c h a e o l o g y

or a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n t h e p a s t , They had n e v e r o b s e r v e d

them a t work a n d n e v e r p l a y e d a n y p a r t i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

e x c a v a t i o n s , I n a n y case, t h e r e h a s n e v e r b e e n a time

when e x c a v a t i o n s were h e l d i n O w e r r e E l u so t h e o t h e r

i s s u e s l i k e t h e i r b e i n g i n v i t e d t o see d i s p l a y s and w h a t

g r i e v a n c e s t h e y h a v e a b o u t t h e coming of a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

to O w e r r e E lu , d i d n o t a p p l y i n t h e i r case, C h i e f O z i o k o

D a v i d , however , i n f o r m e d u s t h a t t h e r e are b l a c k s m i t h s a t

Umuamoke a n d Umu I b a g w a which are n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e s .

SITE TEN

OGBODU ABA

T h e b u r i a l c h a m b e r s a t Ogbodu Aba are s t i l l t h e r e

b u t are i n a terr ible s t a t e of n e g l e c t . From o u r r e c o n n i a s -

s a n c e t h e team d i s c o v e r e d t h a t most o f t h e chamber walls

w h i c h h a d b e e n e x p o s e d t o t h e e l e m e n t s s i n c e 1 9 7 1 , w h i c h

is a b o u t s e v e n t e e n y e a r s a g o , h a v e b e e n damaged a n d soma

h a d c o l l a p s e d , I n most o f t h e b u r i a l c h a m b e r s , e c o n o m i c

trees l i k e p l a n t a i n , b a n a n a as w e l l as palm trees h a d b e e n ,' ,, ,, 4 w q . ,B. , . * > # .

p l a n t e d a n d had g rown irito a b u s h (see P l a t e 10,1) One

of t h e c h a m b e r s was located a t t h e b a c k of t h e h o u ~ e

b e l o n i n g t o M r . F i d e l i s O k w o r , a farmer, T h i s chamber

had a l so b e e n n e g l e c t e d a h d misused t o t h e p o i n t o f u s i n g

i t as a r u b b i s h dump, A n o t h e r chamber a t t h e r i g h t s i d e

of t h e compound a l so a t t h e back of t h e b u i l d i n g had b e e n

so c o m p l e t e 1 y c o v e r e d by e l e p h a n t g r a s s ( P e n i s e t u m

p e u p e r e u m ) as we1 1 as c a r p e t g r a s s ( ~ x o ' n o p h u s c o m p r e s s u s ) . 6

A mango tree ( M a n q i f e r a i n d i c a ) was g rowing i n o n e of t h e

chambers .

The s t a t e o f t h e chambe r s was so bad t h a t t h e team

had t o a s k t h e men who came t o r e c e i v e u s w h a t was t h e

c a u s e o f t h e n e g l e c t . I f t h e y c o u l d n o t m a i n t a i n t h e s e

c h a m b e r s , why c o u l d t h e y n o t leave them as t h e y were?

Why d e s t r o y t h e s e p r e c i o u s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l

r e m a i n s by t u r i n g them i n t o farms and r u b b i s h dumps7

Some of t h e r e s p o n d e n ts a c c u s e d t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

who had worked i n Ogbodu Aba as t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e

n e g l e c t . One of them p o i n t e d o u t t h a t h e was t h e r e when

o n e of t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s f rom Nsukka p romi sed t h a t a

museum w i l l be b u i l t o v e r t h e chambe r s and t h e a r t i fac t8

t h a t were r e c o v e r d d from them which had s i n c e b e e n t a k e n

to t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , would be b r o u g h t b a c k and

a r r a n g e d i n t h e chamber so t h a t p e o p l e c o u l d come and l o o k

a t them f rom many p a r t s o f t h e world. H e claimed t h a t

t h e a r t i f a c t s incl'clir&?'d,','%nong o t h e r t h i n g s , human s k u l l s ,

k n i v e s , a n k l e t s , p o t s , p r i m i t i v e s h a v i n g blades and i r o n

s l a g .

A n o t h e r r e s p o n d e n t ,cekckted t h a t i f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

. c o u l d n o t f u l f i l l t h e i r p r o m i s e t o b u i l d museums i n

Ogbodu A b a , t h e n t h e y were f r e e to f a r m i n t h e t r e n c h e s

a n d a l l o w t h e b u r i a l chambe r s to be messed up. A f t e r a l l ,

h e r e a s o n e d t h a t s i n c e t h e y needed l a n d t o fa rm close to

t h e i r h o u s e s , what better p l a c e t o s t a r t t h a n i n t h e

b u r i a l chambers which for some r e a s o n s seem t o be more

f e r t i l e t h a n o t h e r p l a c e s . Uroko (56 y e a r s ) mockingly

added t h a t o n c e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s come t o s t a r t t h e museum

b u i l d i n g t h e y c o u l d c l e a r t h e chambers i n a few h o u r s f o r

t h e b u i l d i n g t o be e r e c t e d , T h i s b r o u g h t a l o t o f l a u g h t e r

from t h e i n d i g e n e s p r e s e n t a t t h e meet ing .

Makata (50 p a r s ) , a member of t h e c h i e f $ c a b i n e t

who i s a l s o a f a r m e r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t Ogbodu Aba h a s a

l o n g t ime l i n k w i t h Umundu ( a n i r o n s m e l t i n g s i t e ) , H e

c l a imed t h a t h e was f rom a v i l l a g e known as Umundu i n

Ogbodu Aba who were d i r e c t d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e town, Umundu,

T h e s e peop le s m e l t e d and s m i t h e d i r o n i n t h e p a s t and t h i s

e x p l a i n s t h e v a s t q u a n t i t y of i r o n s l a g i n some areas i n

ogbodu Aba. H e c o u l d n o t , however, show o u r team where

t h e s l a g s were most abundan t ,

The indigenes . .agrece& t h a t t h e y were p a r t o f t h e

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l work d o n e i n Ogbodu Aba, They p a r t i c i p a t e d

i n e x c a v a t i o n s i n o n e way or t h e o t h e r , They d e n i e d t h e

r e c e i p t ' o f f i n a n c i a l r e m y n e r & t i o n s from a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

(which I d i d n o t a g r e e t o ) b u t t h e y a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e y had

l e a r n t a l o t f rom t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e b u r i a l chambers

i n t h e i r town. Have t h e y s e e n o r r e a d any p u b l i c a t i o n s

on t h e b u r i a l chambers? The answer was i n t h e n e g a t i v e ,

They a lso d e n i e d ever coming t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y t o view

any e x h i b i t i o n s ,

The team made s t r e n o u s e f f o r t s t o e x p l a i n t o t h e

i n d i g e n e s o f Ogbodu Aba t h a t t h e r e were a l o t of i s s u e s

i n v o l v e d i n o u r i n a b i l i t y t o b u i l d a museum i n Ogbodu Aba

or e v e n i n s e v e r a l o t h e r p l a c e s w h e r e t h e U n i v e r s i t y of

N i g e r i a , Nsukka h a v e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l sites, One o f t h e

major c o n s t r a i n t s was t h e i s s u e o f f i n a n c e s , I t had b e e n

v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o a t t r a c t f u n d s to b u i l d museums as w e l l

as m a i n t a i n sites w h i c h h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n a c q u i r e d , A t

t h i s , o n e of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s retorted t h a t s u c h p r o m i s e s

s h o u l d n o t b e made u n l e s s w e h a v e some s u r e s o u r c e s of

income, T h i s w a s t a k e n n o t e o f ,

On w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e r e g r e t s a b o u t t h e coming of

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s to t h e i r town, t h e y a s s u r e d u s t h a t d e s p i t e

t h e i r q r i e v a n c e s , t h e y had made new f r i e n d s , They had

e v e n g o n e a s f a r as b e s t o w i n g a t i t l e o n o n e o f o u r most

s e n i o r member o f s't't';iff "'f 8' t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A r c h a e o l o g y

a n d t h i s i s a t o k e n o f t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p a n d g o o d w i l l as

w e l l as a n a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e work d o n e by a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

i n Ogbodu Aba,

S p e a k i n g to

a n d t h e n e e d f o r

was a g r e a t need

, I I -L

D r . V,E. Chikwendu o n t h e "gbodu Aba s i te

b u i l d i n q a museum, h e a f f i r m e d t h a t t h e r e

to p u t u p a b u i l d i n g over t h e b u r i a l

chambers i n Ogbodu Aba to p r o t e c t and p r e s e r v e them

f o r p o s t e r i t y . D r . Chikwendu, who was o n e o f t h e

f i r s t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s to rescue t h e c o n t e n t s o f

t h e s e chambe r s i n 1979, e x p l a i n e d how h e had made

f r u i t l e s s e f f o r t s t o p r o c u r e f u n d s f o r t h i s . H e ,

however , p r o m i s e d t o make t h i s known to r e s i d e n t s

o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l sites i n t h e p l a c e , t o p r e v e n t UP

f u r t h e r b i t t e r n e s s b u i l d i n g / i n - t h e minds of t h e p e o p l e

4.2 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDS

Q u e s t i o n 1: Have you e v e r h e a r d t h e word a r c h a e o l o g y ?

~f SO wha t d o e s i t mean?

S i t e

L e j ja

O P ~

Aku

Isi Ugwu

Umu nd u

U - N m N m

Okpe I g a l a

Orba

Owerre E l u

Ogbodu Aba

Response

Y e s

Yes

N o i d e a

Yes

Yes

108

Q u e s t i o n 2: What a r c h a e o l o g i c a l materials are i n y o u r

Si te -

L e j j a

"p i

Aku

I s i Ugwu

Umundu

U.N.N.

Okpe I g a l a

Orbs

O w e r r e E l u

Ogbodu A b a

are a?

3

R e s p o n s e

C y l i n d r i c a l b l o c k s o f s l a g

D i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s l a g

S l a g , t u y e r e , p o t s h e r d s , f u r n a c e walls

We d o n o t know

S l a g a n d p r o d u c t s of b l a c k s m i t h s

No i d e a

Heard t h a t Hartle made some d i s c o v e r i e s

T h e s l a g h e a p seems to be of i n t e r e s t t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y .

No i d e a

B u r i a l c h a m b e r s , s k u l l s , p o t s a n d g r a v e g o o d s o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s

Q u e s t i o n 3: How were t h e y p r o d u c e d ?

L e j ja I A n c e s t o r s were i m n smelters

S i t e

Opi

Ak u

R e s p o n s e Tr-, ,

They g rew o u t of t h e g r o u n d ( n e g a t i v e )

They w e r e f i r e d i n a f u r n a c e b u i l t by o u r f a t h e r s 1 1 - -:

Isi. Ugwu I No i d e a

Umundu 1 S m e l t e d i r o n w i t h t h e i r f o r e - f a t h e r s

I U.N.N. Does n o t a p p l y

- -

site Response

I Okpe I g a l a I idea Orba

O w e r r e E lu

No o n e knows how t h e mound came i n to e x i s t e n c e b u t e f u r u ( s l a g ) i s produced

I t grows o u t from t h e ground and was p u t t h e r e by God a s a b l e s s i n g to O w e r r e E lu (The answer i s a s s e s s e d as n e g a t i v e )

Ogbodu Aba I No i d e a - - - - - - - - - - -

Q u e s t i o n 4: Have a r c h a e o l o g i s t s worked i n y o u r a r e a b e f o r e ?

L e j j a

O P ~

Aku

Isi Ugwu

Umundu

U.N.N.

'&pe I g a l a

Orba

O w e r r e E lu

Ogbodu Aba

Response - - - - -- - - -

S e v e r a l times

Yes, e s p e c i a l l y D r . Oka fo r

S e v e r a l times, w i t h s t u d e n t s too

We have s e e n p e o p l e c l i m b i n g u p t h e h i l l s b u t t h e y neve r d i s c u s s e d w i t h u s

Y e s

No i d e a

S e v e r a l t..bime3 s i n c e t h e t i m e o f D r . Chikwendu and D r . Anozie

Yes, they t a k e pho tographs and l e a v e

No

Yes, w e a& f k i l i a r w i t h them.

110

Q u e s t i o n 5 : when t h e y came, were you i n v o l v e d i n any way?

Lej l a

O P ~

Aku

l s i ugwu

Umundu

U o N - N o

Okpe I g a l a

Orba

O w e r r e E lu

Oqbodu Aba

Response

Y e s

Yes

Y e s

N o

Yes

No

No

N o

Does n o t a p p l y

Yes

Q u e s t i o n 6: What p a r t d i d you p l a y ?

S i t e

Aku

Isi ugwu

Okpe I g a l a

Response

We showed them where t o d i g

To& them round t h e a r e a s where t h e r e were s 1 ag., bJa@me .

Showed them where t o d i g b u t w e d i d n o t d i g w i t h them

Does n o t a p p l y

em on st rated atfie f i r i n g o f a f u r n a c e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a

Does n o t a p p l y

None 3

Owerre Elu I *One

S i t e

Orba

Response

None

Q u e s t i o n 7: What f i n a n c i a l remunerations were made t o yo

Ogbodu Aba

S i t e

P a r t i c i p a t e d i n d i g g i n g o u t some o f the b u r i a l chambers

Lej ja

O P ~

Aku

I s i ugwu

Umundu

U . N . N .

O&pe I q a l a

Orba

Owerre Elu

Oqbodu Aba

Response

None

None

None

None

None

Does n o t app ly

None

None

.' ,None > '* ' a

I

None

Q u e s t i o n 8: What h a v e you l e a r n t from b h o s e t h a t v i s i t e d

you i n t h e p a s t ?

Site

O P ~

Aku

Isi Ugwu

Umundu

U.N.N.

Okpe I g a l a

Orba

Owerre E l u

Ogbodu Aba

Response

T h a t o u r f o r e - f a t h e r s smelted i r o n i n t h e p a s t and Lej ja w a s a s m e l t i n g i n d u s t r y , The s l a g b l o c k s are v e r y old.

Nothing u n t i l t h i s your v i s i t

L e a r n t t h a t t h e s k i l l o f o u r f o r e - f a t h e r s are s t i l l v a l u e d till date

Nothing

T h a t t h e i r o n which w e produced i n t h e p a s t i s v a l u e d more h i g h l y t h a n t h e European i c o ~

Does not a p p l y

We l e a r n t t h a t some i m p o r t a n t d i s c o v e r i e s were made a t o u r p l a c e . T h a t t h e p l a c e you dug was a f o r t for t h e c h i e f o f I g a l a

No t h i n g

Noth ing

L e a r n t t h a t some p e o p l e must h a v e l i v e d h e r e before u s .' $ 5 ,, 4 m q . .*. . * I # ,

Q u e s t i o n 9: Did t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s make any p r o m i s e s

to you?

S i t e

Isi Ugwu

Umundu

U e N e N ,

Okpe I g , l a

" rba

O w e r r e E lu

Ogbodu Aba

Q u e s t i o n 10:

Response

Y e s , They promised to b u i l d u s a museum h o u s i n g s l a g f rom Opi and Aku, Promismd to s e n d p u b l i c a t i o n s and p h o t o g r a p h s

Yes. They promised t h a t any o f o u r s o n s who w a n t s t o s t u d y Archaeology w i l l b e a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a

No, t h e y d o n o t t a l k to u s

Does n o t a p p l y

Yes, They promised t h a t a museum w i l l be b u i l d o v e r t h e b u r i a l chambers to p r e s e r v e them f o r p o s t e r i t y

were. , t b s e . - > p r o m i s e s f u l f i l l e d ?

S i t e Response

I No

, I - .- Does n o t a p p l y

Aku I None o f o u r s o n s have i n d i c a t e d i n t e r e s t to s t u d y Archaeology

Isi Uywu EJoes n o t a p p l y

Site Response

Umundu

U - N m N *

Okpe I g a l a

Orba

O w e r r e E l u

Ogbodu A b a

Does n o t a p p l y

Does n o t a p p l y

Does n o t a p p l y

Does n o t a p p l y

I Does n o t a p p l y I

They were empty p romises which were neveC

I f u l f i l l e d

Q u e s t i o n 11:

S i t e

Okpe I g a l a

Orba

O w e r r e E lu

Ogbodu Aba

Have you seen p u b l i c a t i o n s o r p i c t u r e s o n

t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s made i n your

p l a c e ?

Response

Not o n t h e farm s i te b u t Archaeology i n g e n e r a l

No

No

No

Q u e s t i o n 1 2 :

Q u e s t i o n 13:

S i t e

Lej j a

O P ~

Aku

f

Isi Ugwu

Umundu

U.N.N.

"kpe I g a l a

Orba

O w e r r e E l u

Ogbodu Aba

Have you r e a d any p u b l i c a t i o n on t h e s i te

i n y o u r area, o r had p e o p l e r e a d them to you?

I f so, how many?

Response

Yes, Johnny ( t h a t is , M r . E z i k e ) t a l k e d a b o u t i t

N o

Not r e a l l y b u t w e h a v e a n i d e a

No

N o

No

No

N o

Q u e s t i o n 14: D o you h a v e any o f s u c h p u b l i c a t i o n s i n

your p o s s e s s i o n ?

O P ~

Aku

,,&., , , * s < , , t . , , . I + ' ,

Umundu I NO

S i t e

No 0 - -6

Yes ( T h i s was l i m i t e d to Igwe ~ a n u )

Response

S i t e I R e s p o n s e

Q u e s t i o n 15:

Orba

O w e r r e E l u

ogbodu Aba

S i t e

No

No

No

L e j j a

Opi

Aku

Isi Ugwu

Umundu

U.N.N.

Okpe I g a l a

Orba

O w e r r e E l u

Ogtiodu A b a

Have you e v e r b e e n i n v i t e d b y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

to see a d i s p l a y of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l materials

s t o r e d o u t s i d e y o u r town?

R e s p o n s e

No

No

N o

Yes, W e were i n v i t e d to U.N,N , i n 1976 a n d t h e r e we, were able to c o n s t r u c t a f u r n a c e w i t h c l a y . We also saw t h e d i s p l a y i n t h e museum

,' ,, ., 4 W T . . t ' , , )4-

No

Q u e s t i o n 16: D o you under-s tand t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e

S i t e

0 p i

Aku

Isi ugwu

Umundu

U , N , N ,

Okpe I g a l a

'Lkba

O w e r r e E l u

Oqbodu Aba

f i n d i n g s mad(: i n y o u r a r e a ? Response

Y e s . AS a r e s u l t o f t h i s d i s c o v e r y , L e j j a h a s become i m p o r t a n t i n t h e whole wor ld b e c a u s e w h i t e peoppe ( p r o b a b l y Eurppeans ) h a v e v i s i t e d u s s e v e r a l times i n t h e p a s t . Your ( U . N , N . ) r e p e a t e d v i s i t s m a k e u s aware o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s l a g b l o c k s

I r o n i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e o f t h e imp1 ements t h e y s u p p l i e d

No, w e d o n o t have any idea

I r o n made u s r i c h i n t h e p a s t

N o idea

The f o r t mus t have s u s t a i n e d p e o p l e i n t h e p a s t

No

We d o n o t know

The a t t e n t i o n g i v e n to t h e b u r i a l chambers i n t h e p a s t i s enough t o show i t s i m p o r t a n c e

_I

G u e s t i o n 17: ~ h a t " 6 2 h i ' e ' ' ~ o u g a i n e d by b e i n g a member of

t h i s community where a r c h a e o l o g i c a l work

was c a r r i e d o u t ?

~e j'j a

S i t e

W e have l e a r n t t h a t t h e s e s l a g b l o c k s were p u t h e r e by o u r a n c e s t o r s and n o t by t h e gods . We have made f r i e n d s from t h e U n i v e r s i t y and from o t h e r p a c t s o f t h e world

I, - .L

Response

S i t e

Ak u

Isi ugwu

Urnundu

U - N m N -

Okpe I g a l a

arba

O w e r r e E l u

Ogbodu Aba

R e s p o n s e

We h a v e b e e n a b l e to meet i n t e l l i g e n t p e o p l e ( l e c t u r e r s a n d s t u d e n t s from U N N )

~ k u h a s become i m p o r t a n t t o o t h e r p e o p l e

W e h a v e g a i n e d n o t h i n g

W e were i n v i t e d to v i s i t t h e U n i v e r s i t y

N o t h i n g

N o t h i n g

W e now know- w h a t happened i n t h e p a s t

N o t h i n g

W e h a v e g a i n e d k n o w l e d g e o f w h a t was i n I

e x i s t e n c e i n o u r p l a c e to w h i c h w e were I

i g n o r a n t i n t h e p a s t . We h e l p e d i n e x c a v a t i o n s a 1 t h o u g h t h e r e were no f i n a n c i a l r e m u n e r a t i o n s

Uues t i o n 18: w h a t are y o u r g r i e v a n c e s o r d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s

a b o u t t h e coming of a r c h a e o l o g i s t s to y o u r

p l a c e ?

+Aku

Isi uywu

Si te

The promises t h e y ( t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s make, t h e y n e v e r f u l f i l l

W e d o n o t t lbve- a n y g r i e v a n c e s

R e s p o n s e '

None

Does n o t a p p l y

U m u nd u None

S i t e Response

UeN-N. Does n o t a p p l y

Okpe I g a l a I None

Q u e s t i o n 19:

Orba

O w e r r e E lu

Oqbodu Aba

S i t e

No ne

Does n o t a p p l y

P r o m i s e s mus t n e v e r be made If t h e y would n o t b e k e p t

L e j ja

O P ~

Aku

Isi ugwu

h u d u

U.N,Ne

Okpe I g a l a

O r ba

O w e r r e E l u

Ogbodu Aba

Would you l i k e t o see them a g a i n i n y o u r

town?

Response

Yes, t h e y are welcome a n y t i m e

Of course

You have become p a r t o f US

We d o n ' t mind

Any t i m e

Well, i f t h e y h a v e a n y t h i n g d o i n g we w i l l be g l a d , t g I ,&*earn

You a r e a lways welcome

Y e s

We hope you w i l l come s o o n ( I - . - A

We a l r e a d y have a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h you p e o p l e , T h i s can n e v e r be d e s t r o y e d

Q u e s t i o n 20: Have you l e a r n t any new t h i n g from t h i s

p a r t i c u l a r v i s i t t h a t w e made t o you?

L e j j a

Opi

Aku

Is i ugwu

Umundu

U o N o N o

Okpe I g a l a

Orba

O w e r r e Elu

Response

Noth ing , e x c e p t t h a t you p e o p l e s t i l l remember u s

A l o t ( H e enumera tdd some)

Not much

kie a l w a y s knew t h a t t h e r e was some s i g n i - f i c a n c e to t h e b o u l d e r now you have con f i rmed i 4

A lo t , Most i m p o r t a n t l y i s t h e fac t t h a t d i s c o v e r i e s were made on t h e fa rm, smoking p i p e s , etc,

Nothing new e x c e p t t h a t i t i s good t h e way you are g o i n g round t o e x p l a i n t h e s e t h i n g s to u s

I t i s good t h a t you are s t i l l i n t e r e s t e d i n i r o n smel t i n g

We have l e a r n t a l o t from y o u r v i s i t , e ,g , o t h e r p l a c e s have s l a g , i t d i d n o t grow o u t of t h e g round , o u r 1 p e o p l e smel t e d i r o n i n t h e pqaat,' 4tc,

Yes, e,g. , i t w a s n o t d e l i b e r a t e r t h a t you h a v e n o t b u i l t t h e museum you had promised , We now u n d e r s t a n d t h a t you h a v e f i n a n c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s

, , I - .-

The f i n d i n g s d u r i n g f i e l d work w e r e t a b u l a t e d into

n e g a t i v e and p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s (see Appendix I) where

*'n" r e p r e s e n t s n e g a t i v e and t h e letter llp" p o s i t i v e .

The sites were c a t e g o r i z e d i n t o n e g a t i v e w h e r e 50% or

more of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s answered i n t h e n e g a t i v e . Where

50% or more answered a p a r t i c u l a r q u e s t i o n i n t h e a f r i r m a -

t i v e t h e si te i s c a t e g o r i z e d as p o s i t v e , whe re n ~ q @ r e p r e -

s e n t s t h e number of p o s i t v e a n s w e r s $n a s i te.

y r e p r e s e n t s t h e number of n e g a t i v e a n s w e r e s

N t o t a l number of q u e s t i o n s a s k e d

Twenty q u e s t i o n s i n a l l were u s e d f o r t h e i n t e r v i e w .

Two o f t h e q u e s t i o n s c a n n o t be u s e d to d e t e r m i n e t h e level

of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a w a r e n e s s which e x i s t i n t h e sites

v i s i t e d , Q u e s t i o n 19 - Would you l i k e t o see a r c h a e o l o -

g i s t s a g a i n i n y o u r town? T h i s q u e s t i o n was c o m p l e t e l y

answered i n t h e a f f i r m a t i v e i n a l l t h e sites b u t t h i s d o e s

n o t mean t h e y would a l l be g l a d to, The Tgbo c u l t u r e

( f r o m where a l l theYe3'@bh'$ents make a l i v i n g ) i s known

for t h e i r a b i l i t y t o welcome s t r a n g e r s i n t o t h e i r m i d s t .

"ven i f t h e r e i s no p a r t i c u l a r desire to see t h e s t r a n g e r ,

t h e answer m u s t be i n t h e a f f d r m a t i v e b e c a u s e t r a d i t i o n

demands t h a t i t s h o u l d be so, I n a d d i t i o n , t h e q u e s t i o n

does n o t r e a l l y show w h e t h e r p e o p l e are a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y

aware o r n o t , I t i s t h e r e f o r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e pe r cen -

t a g e .

Q u e s t i o n 20 - Have you l e a r n t any new t h i n g from

t h i s p a r t i c u l a r v i s i t t h a t w e made to you? The answer

to t h i s q u e s t i o n i s n o t p e r t i n e n t f o r t h i s s t u d y . I t

may b e i n c l u d e d i n a new s t u d y . The r e a s o n is t h a t t h e

p r e s e n t s t u d y i s a n a l y s i n g t h e work o f p a s t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

and t h e i r a b i l i t y as w e l l a s w i l l i n g n e s s to communicate

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s t o t h e p e o p l e t h a t l i v e near t h e

sites,

I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e ahove , o n l y q u e s t i o n s 1-18 are

i n c l u d e d i n t h e p e r c e n t a g e s ,

where N now r e p r e s e n t s 18 q u e s t i o n s which are p e r t i n e n t

to t h i s s t u d y ,

Using t h e above e q u a t i o n , p e r c e n t a g e s were worked

f o l l o w i n g sites:

1 0 p o b i t i x & g w w e r s

8 n e g a t i v e

i ,e , 56% p o s i t i v e ; 44% n e g a t i v e

6 p o s i t i v e , I - _-

12 n e g a t i v e

i.e, 33% p o s i t i v e ; 67% n e g a t i v e

Aku = 15 p o s i t i v e

3 n e g a t i v e

i,e, 83% p o s i t i v e ; 1796negative

Isi Ugwu = 0 p o s i t i v e

18 n e g a t i v e

i,e,. 0% p o s i t i v e ; 100% nega t i ve

Urnu ndu = 10 p o s i t i v e

8 n e g a t i v e

i,e, 56% p o s i t i v e ; 44% n e g a t i v e

UoNoNo = 1 p o s i t i v e

17 n e g a t i v e

i,e, 6% p o s i t i v e ; 94% n e g a t i v e

Okpe I g a l a = 5 p o s i t i v e

1 3 n e g a t i v e

i.e, 28% p o s i t i v e ; 72% n e g a t i v e

Orba = 4 p o s i t i v e

14 n e g a t i v e . -1. 3).

i.e. 22% pds~t ' i&; 78% n e g a t i v e

O w e r r e Elu = 0 p o s i t i v e

18 n e g a t i v e

i,e, 0% pos j kILve;-+ 100% n e g a t i v e

ogbodu Aba = 9 p o s i t i v e

9 n e g a t i v e

i ,e, 50% p o s i t i v e ; 50% n e g a t i v e

From t h e a b o v e c a l c u l a t e d p e r c e n t a g e s , Aku a c o r e d

t h e h i g h e s t number of p o s i t i v e a n s w e r s ( 8 3 % ) , w h i l e

Isi Uqwu Obukpa and Owerre E l u scored 8% r e s p e c t i v e l y .

A f t e r Aku, L e j ja and Umundu f o l l o w e d w i t h 56% w h i l e

Oqbodu Aba scored 50%. Op i , Okpe I g a l a and Orba s c o r e d

33%, 28% and 22% w i t h t h e U.N.N. f a rm s i te w i t h o n l y 6%

of p o s i t i v e a n s w e r s .

The case of ~ k u h a s a v e r y s i m p l e e x p l a n a t i o n .

D e s p i t e t h e f a c , t t h a t Aku f a l l s w i t h i n t h e e a r l y p h a s e of

i r o n s m e l t i n g w i t h r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s o f 2305 - + 90 B.P.

t o 2080 - + 8 0 B . P . , i r o n s m e l t i n g i n Aku l a s t e d for cen-

t u r i e s la ter and c o n s e q u e n t l y q u i t e a number of i n d i g e n e s

i n Aku c a n d i s c u s s t h e f i n d i n g s i n Aku v e r y i n t e l l i g e n t l y .

On t h e o t h e r hand , Aku p e o p l e had i n a d v e r t e n t l y g o t t e n

i n v o l v e d i n t h e g o i n g s o n b y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n t h e i r town.

I n Aku, o n e of t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s t h a t spent time

work ing t h e r e i s a n i n d i g e n e o f Aku. H e was v e r y f a m i l i a r ' , . . , , . '

w i t h h i s p e o p l e and waseable t o e x p l a i n q u i t e a number of

t h i n g s to t h e p e o p l e . They had s e e n p i c t u r e s of si tes

and q u i t e a f e w of them were p r e s e n t when t h e s t u d e n t s

c a n e o n f i e l d t r i p . Is _ .- .

L e j ja, a s i t e t h a t h a s b e e n w o r k e d o n s e v e r a l times

i n t h e p a s t h a s t h e g r e a t e s t number of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

i n f l u e n c e among a l l t h e sites. The p e o p l e were, however ,

v e r y n e g a t i v e i n t h e i r a t t i k u d e t o w a r d s a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

One r e a s o n f o r t h i s c o u l d be t h a t t h e p e o p l e are v e r y

m a t e r i a l i s t i c i n t h e i r o u t l o o k and i f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s are

n o t p r e p a r e d to s p e n d a l o t o f money o n them t h e y would

n o t be w i l l i n g to g e t i n v o l v e d i n w h a t t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

were d o i n g , 1 t was a l so a f ac t t h a t o v e r t h e y e a r s ,

v a r i o u s a r c h a e o l o g i s t s had made p r o m i s e s to them b u t t h e s e

p r o m i s e s were n e v e r f u l f i l l e d . T h i s was a l s o t h e case

i n Ogbodu Aba, w h e r e p r o m i s e s o f a museum had n e v e r been

f u l f i l l e d .

The case a t Umundu was h i g h l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e i r

v i s i t t o U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka, D e p a r t m e n t o f

A r c h a e o l o g y i n 1976 t o r e - e n a c t a s m e l t i n g p r o c e s s . T h i s

had created i n them a l a s t i n g a w a r e n e s s o f w h a t a r c h a e o -

l o g i s t s are d o i n g . T h i s e x p e r i e n c e n e e d s to be r e p e a t e d

s o o n a n d o t h e r s i t es o u g h t t o g e t i n v o l v e d .

O w e r r e E l u a n d Isi Ugwu Obukpa h a v e a p e c u l i a r case,

Not much a r c h a e o l ~ 6 g i c a l . , ~ o r k h a s b e e n d o n e i n Ower re E l u

Due t o l a c k of i n d e p t h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t h e area,

t h e i n d i g e n e s are n o t aware, o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a - 0 - .+

t i o n w h i c h i s i n a b u n d a n c e i n t h e i r a r e a . The s i t u a t i o n

c o u l d be r e d r e s s e d i n f u t u r e b y mapping o u t t h a t area as

a m a j o r c o n c e r n f o r more c o m p r e h e n s i v e work. The r o c k

s h e l t e r a t Obukpa i s a bit removed f r o m t h e p e o p l e ,

I t became clear to m e t h a t a l o t o f e x t r a e f f o r t had to

b e made to g e t t h e p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n wha t w e were do ing .

T h i s is a s a d s i t u a t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e c o p i o u s amount

of a r t e f a c t s which were r e t r i e v e d from t h e r o c k s h e l t e r

by P r o f e s s o r Hartle i n 3964, The site has s i n c e not

y i e l d e d more a r t e f a c t s and i s n o t q u i t e so p o p u l a r now.

The U n i v e r s i t y Farm s i te and Okpe I g a l a are s u r r o u n d e d

by n o n - i n d i g e n e s o f t h e p l a c e , They are n o t r e a l l y

r e f e r r e d t o i n t i m e s p a s t b u t t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s b e i n g

changed by some v i s i t s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s made i n t h i s

p a r t i c u l a r s t u d y , The s i t u a t i o n i n Op i and Orba are also.

v e r y similar, Most o f t h e p e o p l e were c o n t a c t e d i n o n e

way or t h e o t h e r b u t e f f o r t s w e r e n o t made t o e d u c a t e

them p r o p e r l y , ( F o r summary o f r e s p o n s e s , see ~ p p e n d i x I ) ,

I n a l l t h e sites, t h e p e o p l e were w i l l i n g t o g e t

i n v o l v e d i n t h e work o f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s b u t t h i s would

cost money, I n o u r own e x p e r i e n c e , most of t h e o l d e r ' ,,. am,. .>. > * L ,

p e o p l e w e r e r e l u c t a n t to answer t h e i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s

u n t i l t h e y realised t h a t t h e y would r e c e i v e some remunera -

t i o n s , A r c h a e o l o g i s t s would t h e r e f o r e n e e d s p o n s o r s before , I _ .- .

t h e y embark o n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s so t h a t t h e y

c a n s p e n d t i m e and money i n g e t t i n g t h e i n d i g e n e s i n v o l v e d

i n d i g g i n g a s w e l l a s v i s i t i n g d i s p l a y areas whe re t h e y

c a n compare v a r i o u s d i s c o v e r i e s f o r t h e i r own e n l i g h t e n m e n t .

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 DISCUSSION: A CASE FOR BETTER ARCHAEOLOGICAL COMMUNICATION I N NIGERIA

P r o f e s s i o n a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s are n o t r e a l l y

i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p e r c e p t i h n s o f t h e p a s t which t h e

p u b l i c h o l d . P u b l i c i g n o r a n c e is s u c h t h a t t h e y d o

n o t e v e n know t h e d i f f e r e n c e be tween a r c h a e o l o g y and

o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s . The a u t h o r was o n c e a s k e d why

s h e was i n a r c h a e o l o g y . T h e e n q u i r e r , t h e n made a n

o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t d i g g i n g p e o p l e s ' g r a v e s and d i s t u r b -

i n g t h e i r p e a c e w a s c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e bes t way t o

make a l i f e ' s c a r e e r . H e c o u l d n o t be f a r t h e r f rom

t h e t r u t h , Mer r iman (1988 : 7 1 0 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t "a

s a l u t a r y test o f t h e a d v a n c e s made i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n

o f a r c h a e o l o g y t o a n o n - s p e c i a l i s t a u d i e n c e i s to g o

i n t o a c h i l d r e n ' s book store and a s k f o r b o o k s o n

p r e - h i s t o r y . . , you w i l l almost c e r t a i n l y f i r s t be

d i r e c t e d to books o n d i n o s a u r s w , T h i s i s a p r o o f o f

w h a t t h e p u b l i c ,. , . . g c t , y a l . , l y b e l i e v e s a b o u t a r c h a e o l o g y .

I t is a f a c t t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

b e l i e v e t h a t w r i t i n g a r c h a e o l o g y i n t h e o r d i n a r y

m a n ' s l a n g u a g e f o r p u b l i c c o n s u m p t i o n i s a wa$te o f , I - .-

t i m e a n d p r e c i o u s r e s o u r c e s , P u b l i c a t i o n s are n o r m a l l y

made f o r a c a d e m i c s who are u s u a l l y a s s e s s e d f o r t h e i r

p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a n d i n g by w r i t i n g s c h o l a r l y a c a d e m i c

p a p e r s and n o t by p u b l i s h i n g p o p u l a r m a t e r i a l s (Sharer had

and Ashmore, 1987: 5 7 9 ) . Hodder ( 1 9 8 4 ) / a l s o - p o i n t e d out

t h a t " e x p e r t s " u s u a l l y would p r e f e r to p u b l i s h t h e i r

i n f o r m a t i o n i n @'h ighly f l y i n g academic j argonmQ.

T h i s c o n c e p t must be changed i f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s are

to d i s s e m i n a t e c u l t u r a l i n f o r m a t i o n , A r c h a e o l o g i s t s must

be p r e p a r e d to p u b l i s h l e a f l e t s which are i n t e r e s t i n g to

r e a d and even to an e x t e n t a b i t s e n s a t i o n a l , These

a r t i c l es s h o u l d be w r i t t e n . i n eve ryday 1 anguage, c o m p l e t e l ]

f r e e o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l j a r g o n and academic a b s u r d i t i e a r

I n e s s e n c e , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have to r e a l i s e t h a t i t IS evqn

more i m p o r t a n t f o r them to make t h e p u b l i c aware o f what:

t h e y a r e d ,o ing t h a n i t i s f o r them to d i g up a r t i f a c t s ar

make d i s c o v e r i e s . T h i s IS a f a c t b e c a u s e wha teve r s u p p o r t

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s r e c e i v e i n t h e i r work can o n l y come from a

p u b l i c who know what t h e y a r e d o i n g , P u b l i c a t i o n i s one

s u c h way o f communicat ing w i t h t h e p u b l i c ,

One s u r e way"Crf"'gi2Aerating i n t e r e s t i n t h e p r o t e c t i o n

o f o u r m a t e r i a l h e r i t a g e i s by r a i s i n g i t s v a l u e and makinc

s u r e t h a t t h e s e d a t a r e a l i s e d i n f i e l d work i s s p r e a d to

a l l . The v a l u e must be r a i s e d as i t is i m p e r a t i v e i n

communicat ing a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n forma t i o n to the p u b l i c

b e c a u s e what a man v a l u e s , h e p r o t e c t s , What i s u s e l e s s

and m e a n i n g l e s s to him, h e d e s t r o y s or a l l o w s t o wastar,

Some of t h e bonze m a s k s which were removed from Benin i n

N i g e r i a i n t h e 1895 B r i t i s h e x p e d i t i o n a r c v a l u e d so

h i g h l y o u t s i d e t h e c o u n t r y t h a t t h e y c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d

a s p r i c e l e s s , N i g e r i a and i n d e e d t h e A f r i c a n p e o p l e c a n

h e l p p r o t e c t t h e i r material h e r i t a g e i f t h e y t e a l i s c t h a t

to lose t h i s would mean t o l o s e t h a t which i n most cases

c a n n e v e r be r e c l a i m e d ,

T h e l a c k of a w a r e n e s s o f t h e N i g e r i a n p u b l i c may

r e a l l y be a r e s u l t o f l ack . o f e d u c a t i o n . I t d o e s a p p e a r

t h a t t h e N i g e r i a n p u b l i c i s g r o s s l y i g n o r a n t o f t h e g r e a t

s t r i d e s a r c h a e o l o g y h a s made d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t educa-

t i o n i n a r c h a e o l o g y h a s been r e s e r v e d f o r t h e few who wan t

to s t u d y a r c h a e o l o g y o n l y a s a p r o f e s s i o n . Okpoko (1986:

1 4 9 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e d i s c i p l i n e f o r

p r o f e s s i o n a l s o n l y c o u l d be as a r e s u l t of t h e O r d i n a n c e

o f 1958 which l e g a l i z e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n

N i g e r i a . T h i s O r d i n a n c e p l a c e d t h e w o r k o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e ~ . , a n , . p r o f e s s i o n a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s . T h i s

e x p l a i n s t h e n o k p r o f e s s i o n a l as well as t h e p u b l i c i n

g e n e r a l a n d c l o s e d t h e d o o r t o t h o s e v e r y p e o p l e who would

have p b l i c i z e d a r c h a e o l o g y .among t h e N i g e r i a n popu lace , 1 1 - ,-

To redress t h i s s i t u a t i o n , a m a t e u r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a s s o c i a -

t i o n s c o u l d be formed and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a r c h a e o l o g y

c o u l d be encouraged t h r o u g h v a r i o u s c l u b s and o r g a n i s a t i o n s

which c o u l d serve a s a d i r e c t l i n k o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

to t h e p u b l i c ,

T h e r e i s p roof t h a t a n i n c r e a s i n g number o f Univer-

s i t ies now o f f e r a r c h a e o l o q y a s a d i s c i p l i n e i n N i g e r i a .

I n s p i t e of t h i s , c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s mus t b e i n t e g r a t e d i n

t h e e d u c a t i o n a l c u r r i c u l u m o f t h i s c o u n t r y a t t h e p r imary

and s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l levels. Archaeology , if t a u g h t i n

s c h o o l s w i l l c a p t u r e t h e I m a g i n a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n a t 3 v e r y

e a r l y a g e and t h i s w i l l be i m p o s s i b l e t o e r a s e as t h e y

grow. I n B r i t a i n and F rance , a r c h a e o l o q y h a s been i n t r g -

duced i n p r imary a n d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s (Archaeology Review,

1986 Nos, 22 and 25; Da le , 1982: 2 2 ) . Afigbo (1986; 156)

e x p r e s s e d t h e v iew t h a t Archaeology s h o u l d b e t a k e n u p a t

t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t a g e , Teach ing a r c h a e o l o g y I n s c h o o l t

w i l l h e l p t o i n t r o d u c e t h e c h i l d r e n to t h e s t u d y o f t h e

p a s t an w e l l a s " c a p t u r e t h e a t t e n t i o n and i m a g i n a t i o n

o f t h e c h i l d r e n t * , D i s p l a y o f a r t i f a c t s i n c l a s s r o o m s

would b r i n g t o l i . f8e .+a31.4h 'a t t h e c h i l d r e n have learnt,

I n t r o d u c i n g a r c h a e o l o g y i n t o t h e c u r r i c u l u m o f T e a c h e r

T r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s w i l l h e l p p r e p a r e t h e i r t e a c h e r s to

t e a c h a t t h a t l e v e l . I ) _ .+

Educa t ing t h e c h i l d h a s Q t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n s . C h i l d r e n

have a f o r e c e f u l way o f d i s s e m i n a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o

p a r e n t s and t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c . They d i s c u s s , s i n g and

act o u t t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s i n s c h o o l and t h i s c o u l d g o a

l o n g way i n s e n s i t i z i n g t h e p u b l i c to t h e i m p o r t a n c e of

a r c h a e o l o g y i n e v e r y d a y l i v i n g , P e t e r S t o n e (1992; 14)

h a s p roved t h a t " c h i l d r e n c a n create t h e i r own p i c t u r e

o f t h e p r e - h i s t o r i c p a s t by s t u d y i n g t h e f r a g m e n t a r y

e v i d e n c e f rom t h e p a s t i f t h e y work w i t h i n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s

imposed by t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f ev idence" . H e made i t clear

t h a t s t u d y i n g t h e p a s t c o u l d be d o n e i n s u c h a n e n j o y a b l e

way f o r t h e c h i l d r e n t h a t t h e y would wan t t o c o n t i n u e

t h i s s t u d y e v e n i n adultho.od.

I t i s i m p e r a t i v e t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f e x c a v a t i o n s as

w e l l a s o t h e r r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s be p u b l i c i z e d , V a r i o u s

med i a c a n be u s e d t o c a r r y o u t t h i s o b j e c t i v e . The p r e s s

a s w e l l a s t h e e l e c t r o n i c m e d i a m u s t be i n v o l v e d , T h e

l a t t e r would be most e f f e c t i v e i n t h e Nsukka a r e a , The

u s e o f t h e r a d i o i s v e r y w i d e s p r e a d i n t h e r u r a l areas

o f N i g e r i a , I n Ghana f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s e i s a f i f t e e n -

mirdure r e p e a t r a d i o programme t i t l e d "Our C u l t u r a l F r o n t i e r s v

on t h e i r n a t i o n a l .radPbjl''ffetwbrk ( R a d i o 2) ( O s e i T u t u , 1990:

1121, T h i s i s u s e d to b r o a d c a s t t h e l a t e s t c u l t u r a l

i n f o r m a t i o n i n Ghana, One s n a g , however, i s t h a t t h e

medium o f commun ica t i on J S .the E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e and t h i s

' e x c l u d e s t h e p e o p l e w h o s h o u l d be r e a c h e d who i n mos t

c a s e s c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e E n g l i s h l anguage .

T h e N i g e r i a n r a d i o i s a p o w e r f u l means of p e a c h i n g

many par ts o f t h e r u r a l a s w e l l a s u r b a n areas, I f o n l y

t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t wou ld m a k e u s e o f t h i s m e d i a , a l o t of

i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be p a s s e d a l o n g to t h e p e o p l e w i t h o u t

much e x t r a e x p e n d i t u r e e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f

t h e c o u n t r y u n d e r s t a n d s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f d o i n g t h i s ,

I n most of t h e a r e a s v i : , i t e d b y t h e team who h e l p e d

a d m i n i s t e r t h e i n t e r v i e w , t h e r e was a l w a y s a r a d i o b l a r i n g

o u t m u s i c some w h e r e , R a d i o N i g e r i a a s well as t h e p o p u l a r

F r e q u e n c y M o d u l a t i o n S t e r e o r a d i o band c o u l d g i v e a d e q u a t e

i n f o r ~ n d t i o m i n t h e local l a n g u a g e and t h i s w i l l s s n s i t i z e

p e o p l e to a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , who t h e y a r e , w h a t t h e y are d o i n g ,

w h a t t h e y f o u n d a n d how t h i s w i l l be u s e d f o r t h e b e n e f i t

of t h e N i g e r i a n p u b l i c , T h e u s e of t h e t e l e v i s i o n a n d

f i l m s c a n n o t be o v e r - e m p h a s i z e d i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g a r c h a e o -

l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y to t h e p u b l i c l i v i n g i n

t h e u r b a n a r e a s a n d i n l i t e r a t e societies. T e l e v i s i o n

h a s a n i n f o r m a l approetch ,ko t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f i n f o r m a -

t i o n i n g e n e r a l . T h e N i g e r i a n T e l e v i s i o n A u t h o r i t y (NTA)

h a s t h e a b i l i t y to p e n e t r a t e a l l a r e a s o f N i g e r i a i n c l u d i n g

many p a r t s o f t h e r u r a l a r e a s . T h i s t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n - .+

h a s g r e a t p o t e n t i a l s f o r d i s s e m i n a t i n g a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

i n f o r m a t i o n i f t h e y are p r o p e r l y h a r n e s s e d .

T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r u r a l museums is o n e s u r e way

o f t a k i n g a r c h a e o l o g y t o t h e p e o p l e i n r u r a l areas,

I n p l a c e s l i k e L e j j a , Opi dnd Ogbodu A b a , t h e r e i s a v e r y

g r e a t need f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f museums. W h i l e i n t e r -

v i e w i n g t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s who h a n d l e d L e j ja and Ogbodu

Aba, i t became a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e need f o r museums i s a

g e n u i n e o n e which n e e d s to be a c c o m p l i s h e d soon . They ,

however , p o i n t e d o u t t h a t no o n e i s i n t e r e s t e d enough to

f i n a n c e t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e s e museums. The a u t h o r

b e l i e v e s t h a t when a r c h a e o l o g y i s p u b l i c i z e d a n d i n d i g e n e s

of t h e s e p l a c e s , who a r e i n g o v e r n m e n t or close enough to

them, r e a l i s e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o n s t r u c t i n g museums to

s a l v a g e w h a t t h e i r f o r e - f a t h e r s s p e n t t h e i r l i f e d o i n g

( i r o n s m e l t i n g , etc.) , t h e y w i l l i n e v i t a b l y make money

a v a i l a b l e to l i f t u p t h e i r immense c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e ,

When t h e p e o p l e u n d e r s t a n d , t h e governmen t g e t s i n v o l v e d

a n d t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s b e n e f i t f rom t h i s a w a r e n e s s .

F o r t h e s a k e of p o s t e r i t y , museums e s t a b l i s h e d b o t h

i n t h e r u r a l a s w e l l as t h e u r b a n areas c a n make r e c o r d -

i n g s of t h e o r a l WaWIt'fbn'~ o f p e o p l e a n d store them s a f e l y ,

T h e va lu ( ' ib1e o r a l t r a d i t i o n s collected from t h e t e n s i tes

v i s i t e d are o n l y r e c o r d e d o n t h e p a g e s o f a c a d e m i c p a p e r s

a n d h a v e n o t b e e n made ~ l v a i i a b l e t o t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n s

who a r e i n d i g e n e s of t h e s e a r e a s b u t h a v e had no o p p o r t u n i t !

t o l e a r n a b o u t t h e i r c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e . When t h e s e are

r e c o r d e d a n d d i s p l a y e d b y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , a g r e a t s t r i d e

would h a v e b e e n t a k e n i n t h i s e f f o r t to make t h e p u b l i c

aware o f w h a t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e accompl i shed . Macleod

( 1977: 6 3 ) claimed t h a t "goods w e l l d i s p l a y e d are goods L :

h a l f s o l d w , D i s p l a y of m a t e r i a l s c o u l d be s u c h t h a t i t

becomes w h o l i s t i c , T h i s s h o u l d be t h e p a t t e r n i n p l a c e s

w h e r e t h e museums are l o c a t e d i n areas whe re s i g n i f i c a n t

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s h a v e b e e n made i n times p a s t .

The u s e of p h o t o g r a p h i n t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n , i n t h e s e modern times c a n n o t

be over -emphas ized . I g e n e (1990) a r g u e s t h a t t h e most

e f f e c t i v e s y s t e m of c o m n ~ u n i c a t i o n c o u l d n o t e q u a l t h e

i m p a c t o f p h o t o g r a p h y on t h e p u b l i c . H e o b s e r v e d t h a t

It p h o t o g r a p h y i s t h e o n l y c h a n n e l of communica t ion t h a t

s a y s s o m e t h i n g by which s o m e t h i n g c a n be s a i d a n d shown

a t t h e same t i m e , P h o t o g r a p h immortalize a r t i f a c t s as

w e l l a s t h e p r o c e s s e s o f r e c o v e r i n g them, When t h e s e

are w e l l d i s p l a y e d i n local a s w e l l a s i n u r b a n museums .' $6. . w $ . .t' 5

t h e y would s e r v e as a s i ' l i e n t c h a n n e l o f communica t ion

to a l l who see them,

5-2 CONCLUSION

I n c o n c l u d i n g , t h e f a c t , r e m a i n s t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

i n N i g e r i a h a v e a b i g d u t y t o w a r d s t h e p u b l i c , They m u s t

realise t h a t u n l e s s t h e y communicate w h a t t h e y are d o i n g

to t h e non-spec i a l i s t a u d i e n c e , p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s c a n n o t

be mobilized, A r c h a e o l o g i s t s m u s t r e t u r n t o t h e sites

whe re t h e y had i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h e p a s t t o f i n d o u t how

much t h e y h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e members o f t h a t community,

Dur ing e x c a v a t i o n , t h e y h a v e t o a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e t h e

i n d i g e n e s , The g e n e r a l ; t i ~ b l i c a lso m u s t be b r o u g h t i n t o

t h e p i c t u r e to e n l i s t t h e i r s u p p o r t , i n t h e p r o t e c t i o n

o f o u r h e r i t a g e wh ich i s o f t e n d e s t r o y e d t h r o u g h l a c k o f

care , A r c h a e o l o g y h a s a po t e n t i a1 l y huge a u d i e n c e among

t h e members o f t h e p u b l i c a n d t h e s e p e o p l e w a n t t o be

i n f o r m e d i f p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h e n t e r t a i n m e n t as w e l l as a

b i t o f e x c i t e m e n t i n whdt we are d o i n g . " A t p r e s e n t , t h e

v a s t m a j o r i t y o f t h i s p u b l i c i s i g n o r e d M ( s t o n e , 1989: 2041,

The p u b l i c m u s t c e r t a i n l y g e t i n v o l v e d and t h e i r

i n v o l v e m e n t is t h e d u t y o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t , The ques -

t i o n r e m a i n s : why are w e i n t h i s d i s c i p l i n e 2 What are w e

d o i n g a n d how d o w e h o p e to a c h i e v e o u r efid? IS a r c h a e o l o g y

w o r t h d o i n g and i f so, why m u s t i t be p l a c e d above a l l .. ,, ., . w , . 3'. > ' ." .

other more p r e s s i n g needas t h a t o u r h a r a s s e d g o ~ e r n m e n t s

isre h a v i n g t o deal w i t h ? Why i s i t i m p e r a t i v e t h a t t h e

p e o p l e t h a t l i v e n e a r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l sites s h o u l d become

i n v o l v e d i n t h e w o r k o f t h a t p m f e s s i o n a l s e e i n g t h a t t h e y

are c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r a n t o f w h a t we are d o i n g a n d are

u n i n i t i a t e d i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l methodology? T h e a n s w e r s

to t h e s e q u e s t i o n s w i l l g o a l o n g way i n e n s u r i n g t h a t

t h e d i s c i p l i n e does n o t d i e or a t bast r e m a i n i n a sta.te

of a p o p l e x y ,

5.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

From t h e d i s c u s s i o n on t h i s r e s e a r c h , i t has

become a p p a r e n t t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n n e g l e c t e d i n t h e c o n d u c t o f

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t h e p a s t.

1, Having c a r r i e d o u t t h i s r e s e a r c h i n t h e Nsukka

area, w h i c h h a s a number o f v e r y i m p o r t a n t

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l si-test o t h e r p o p u l a r sites l i k e

Igbo-Ukwu a n d Ugwuele i n Okigwe come to mind,

T h e s e sites and o t h e r s which are i n I g b o l a n d

m u s t be l o o k e d i n t o b e f o r e t h e case o f a r c h a e o -

l o g i c a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n I g b o l a n d c a n be l a i d

to res t.

S i m i l a r sites o f n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t e

e x i s t a l l o v e r N i g e r i a , From Kano to t h e Chad

B a s i n , t h e M i d d l e N i g e r v a l l e y sites, sites i n

t h e Plateau-lar,e.rt , ' B e n i n R e g i o n , N i g e r D e l tea , Cross R i v e r B a s i n and o t h e r numerous z o n e s o f

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i m p o r t a n c e . T h e s e sites need to be

examined a n d a s , s e s s e d - -- . i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o under -

s t a n d t h e work which had been c a r r i e d o u t i n

t h e i r area.

2. I n a d d i t i o n to s t u d y i n g t h e s e areas a n d how f a r

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n e f f e c t f v e l y

communicated t o them i n t h e p a s t , t h e r e s h o u l d be

a p l a n to i m p l e m e n t t h e f i n d i n g s as a s o l u t i o n to

t h e e x i s t i n g p r o b l e m o f l a c k o f communica t ion . T h i s

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n would s e r v e as a test o f t h e e f f e c f i v e -

n e s s of some m e a s u r e s w h i c h would be u s e d a n d i n e f f e c -

t i v e n e s s o f o t h e r s .

3 , T h e r e i s a n e e d t o e x a m i n e t h e ro l e o f t h e p u b l i c ,

media and t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e f u r t h e r a n c e o f

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t h i s c o u n t r y . What p a r t

c a n t h e m e d i a p l a y ? Can t h e g o v e r n m e n t g e t i n v o l v e d

i n ally m e 5 n i n g f u l way?

4. A c l o s e l o o k a t a r c h a e o l o g J c a 1 c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n o t h e r

c o u n t r i e s i n t h e w o r l d i s a n o t h e r area o f i n t e r e s t ,

Is t h i s a p r i o r i t y to them? What p r o g r e s s h a v e t h e y

made i n t h i s a r e a and how h a v e t h e y u s e d t h e r e s u l t s *',,.."$. ,t. ,*.,* ' ,

to b e n e f i t t h e s t u d y o f a r c h a e o l o g y i n t h e i r coun-

tries and i n t h e w o r l d ?

I t - .- '

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adande, A,B,A, ( 1 9 9 0 ) Cu l t u r a l H e r i t a g e A r c h a e o l o g y a n d E d u c a t i o n i n West A f r i c a n J o u r n a l of A r c h a e o l o q y , V o l . 20,

A f i g b o , A,E, ( 1 9 7 8 ) Nsukka C o m m u n i t i e s f r o m Ear l ies t T i m e s t o 1 9 5 1 I n T h e Nsukka E n v i r o n m e n t ( e d , G,E,K, Ofomata , N i g e r i a : F o u r t h s h e r s , 9

A f i g b o , AIEI ( 1 9 8 1 ) s o f Sand : S t u d i e s i n I g b o is tory and C u l t u r e , c i a : U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a P r e s s , Nsukka,

A n e b i , J.0, ( 1 9 8 6 ) E a r l y I r o n Workinq i n ' O t u k p o , Benue S t a t e ( U n p u b l i s h e d B O A T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka,

A n o z i e , F,N,, Ch ikwendu , V,E, and U m e j i , AOC, ( 1 9 7 8 ) D i s c o v e r y of a Major P r e h i s t o r i c S i t e a t Ugwuele, U t u r u Okigwe, west A f r i c a n J o u r n a l o f A r c h a e o l o q y , V o l , 8.

A n o z i e , F,N. ( 1 9 7 9 ) E a r l y I r o n T e c h n o l o q y i n I g b o l a n d ( L e j j a a n d Umundu) i n West A f r i c a n Jourhri l - o f A r c h a e o l o q y , Vol, 9 , pp. 119-134,

A n o z i e , F N, ( 1 9 8 0 ) ~ n i u n a u I r o n S m e l t i n g I n d u s t r y , P a p e r Read a t t h e Workshop o n t h e F o u n d a t i o n s o f I g b o C i v i l i z a t i o n , O r q a n i s e d b y I n s t i t u t e o f A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , N s ~ k k a , q . . . , + .

A n o z i e , F N. ( 1 9 8 1 ) ~ a r l c I r o n T e c h n o l o g y i n I q b o : L e j j a a n d Umundu - An E x h i b i t i o n C a t d l o g u e , C y c l o s t y l e d , U n i v e r s i t y of N i g e r i a M i m e o .

A n o z i e , F.N., Ray, K.W. zihd H a s l a m , J, ( 1 9 8 3 ) P r e l i m i n a r y A r c h a e o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s o f E a r l y I r o n Smel L ing i n I g b o l a n d , S.E. N i g e r i a , P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e 9 t h C o n g r e s s of t h e P a n - A f r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n of P r e h i s t o r y a n d R e l a t e d s t u d i e s , 11-17 Dec, , 1983 ,

A w a c h i e , F O E o a n d Onwuka, N O D , ( 1 9 8 9 ) V a r i a b i l i t y o f S o l a r D r y i n q o f P i q e o n P e a i n Some Towns i n astern ~ i ~ e r ~ a , Niqeria6 J o u r n a l o f S o l a r E n e r q y , V o l , 8, pp, 87-96,

Barmby, J. ( 1 9 3 3 ) " I n t e l l i g e n c e R e p o r t o n E r r o r , Nsukka a n d Ibagwa Anit ' , N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s , l b a d a n (N,A, 11, C,S,O, 26/30537.

B e a l s , R-L., H o i j e r , H , a n d B e a l s , A.R, ( 1 9 7 7 ) An f n t r o d u c t i o n to A n t h r o p o l o q y , U.S.A. : M a c m i l l a n P u b l i s h i n g Co., I n c .

B e n j a m i n , W. ( 1 9 7 3 ) T h e * S t o r y T e l l e r : R e f l e c t i o n s o n t h e Work o f N i k o l a i L e s k o v I n I l l u m i n a t i o n s , F o n t a n a ,

A r c h a e o l o g y and t h e P u b l i c I n A r c h a e o l o q i c a l R e v i e w f r o m C a m b r i d g e , V o l . 2 , N o , 1, pp, 3-4,

B o s t o n , J.S. ( 1 9 6 0 ) Notes o n C o n t a c t B e t w e e n t h e I g a l a a n d t h e Ibo, J o u r n a l o f H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y o f N i q e r i a , Vole 11, N o . 1,

B o s t o n J , S . ( 1 9 6 4 ) ~ h c H u n t e r i n I g a l a L e g e n d s o f Origin, A f r i c a , V o l . x x x i v , N o , 2.

B r o m l e y , Y. ( 1 9 8 8 ) ~ t h n o g r a ~ h ~ a n d i t s P r p s o e c t s : S o v i e t V i e w , Moscow S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , US:;It Academy o f S c i e n c e s J o u r n a l ,

Ch ikwendu . V E , ( 1 9 8 1 ) Exhi -b i t i o n o n t h e Ogbodu Aba B u r i a l

N i g e r i a n A r c h y , Assoc, C o n f e r e n c e , U n i v e r s f t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka,

Ch ikwendu , V - E , ( 1 9 8 2 ) - . . A r c h a e o l o g y i n I q b o l and': P r o b l e m s a n d P r o s p e c t s i n S t a t e o f 1;bo s t u d i e s , I n s t i t u t e o f ~ f r i c a ; S t u d i e s S e m i n a r S e r i e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f Nigeria, Nsukka,

~ r c f i a e o l o q ~ a n d Society, S u f f o l k : T h e C h a u c e r P r e s s L i m i t e d ,

C l e e r e , H. ( 1 9 8 4 ) A r c h a e o l o q i c a l A p p r o a c h e s to o u r H e r i t a q e , Cambridge: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

D a l e , F., ( e d . ( 1 9 8 2 ) ~ r c h a ~ o l o q ~ i n t h e P r i m a r y S c h o o l , S e r i e s f o r t h e T e a c h e r s , P u b l i s h e d by t h e C.B,A,

D a n i e l , G, ( 1 9 6 2 ) T h e I d e a o f P r e h i s t o r y , Harmonsworth: P e n g u i n Books,

D e S w a r d t , A - M , J , a n d C a s e y , 0.P. ( 1 9 6 3 ) The coal R e s o u r c e s o f N i g e r i a : G e o l o q i c a l S u r v e y o f N i q e r i a B u l l e t i n , No. 28,

Dixon, J , ( 1 9 3 4 ) ' l I n t e l l i g e n t R e p o r t o n t h e E k e t e k e t e G r o u p o f Nsukka D i v i s i o n , O n i t s h a p r o v i n c e 1 ' ( N . A . ~ ) , C.S,O. 26/29603,

Ekechukwu, L.C. ( 1 9 8 8 ) I r o n Workinq i n Ukehe-Idohq, U n p u b l i s h e d M,A, T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka.

Embola, 0 . K . ( 1 9 8 9 ) ~ . ~ t u d y o n t h e B i o d e g r a d a t i o n o f C u l t u r a l O b j e c t s i n Musewn I n t e r i o r s , Urll,ubli shed M.A, P r o j e c t , U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka,

The I n t e r e s t i n q N a r r a t i v e o f t h e L i f e o f O l a u d a h E q u i a n o or G u s t a v u s Vassa t h e A f r i c a n (ed.) , P a u l Edwards , Keinemanri.

Eze-Ugwu, L,E_ ( 1 9 8 6 ) ~rchaeol6qical.~~~~~~s'"iri Nsukka and E n v i r o n s and t h e i r I m p l i r a t i o n s f o r E a r l y S e t t l e m e n t s i n t h e Area Nsukka, U n p u b l i s h e d BOA. 'r~~e:jis, U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka,

E z i k e , J O N , (1989) T r a d i t i o n a l I r o n Smel --. ttng a n d R l a c k s m r t h i n q i n Aku, ~ n p u b l i s l ~ e d M.A. Tlkc ,s is , : -Univers i ty o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka.

I n f o r m a t i o n o n Manaqement and D i s s e m i n a t i o n i n O r a l l y L i t e r a t e s o c i e t i e s . - i n West A f r i c a n J o u r n a l o f

-

A r c h a e o l o a , V o l . 20,

F o r d e , D m a n d J o n e s , G.1. ( 1 9 5 0 ) T h e Ibo and l b i b i o S p e a k i n q P e o p l e s o f Sou th- E a s t e r n N i q e r i a , L o i d o n .

F r o s t , J, ( 1 9 8 3 ) A r c h a e o l o q y and t h e Media , U n p u b l i s h e d U n d e r g r a d u a t e D i s s e r t a t i o n , I n s t.i t u t e o f A r c h a e o l o g y , London,

G i t k i n , T. ( 1 9 7 8 ) Media S o c i o l o g y : T h e Dominant P a r a d i g m , I n T h e o r y and S o c i e t y , V o l . 6 , pp. 205-253.

Goody, J. ( 1 9 7 7 ) - -

T h e D e m e s t i c a t i o n of t h e S a v a q e Mind, Cambridge: Carribridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

G r a d y , M.A. ( 1 9 7 7 ) S i g n i f i c a n c e E v a l u a t i o n a n d t h e O r m e R e s e r v o i r P r o j e c t i n C o n s e r v a t i o n A r c h a e o l o g y , A G u i d e fo r Cul t u r a l Resource Mdnaqement S t u d i e s ? e d . 1 , M.B. S h i f f e r and G.J . Gumerman, New York: Academic P r e s s .

G r e g o r y , A, ( 1 9 8 3 ) T h e I m p a c t of M e t a l D e t e c t i o n o n A r c h a e o l o q y and t h e p u b l i c , A r c h a e o ! rbq ica l Review from ~ a m b ; i d . I , V o l e 2 , NO. 1, ppm 5-00

G r o v e , A a T m ( 1 9 5 1 ) L a n d u s e a n d Soi l C o n s e r v a t i o n i n arts o f O n i t s h a a n d O w e r r i P r o v i n c e s , G e o l o q l c a l s u r v e y o f N i q e r i q , B u l l e t i n , V o l . 21.

H a a l a n d , R m ( 1 9 8 5 ) l r o n Workinq,,,,.Lt=i , S o d o - C u l t u r a l C o n t e x t a n d Eco lo- g i c a l ~ m ~ l i c a t i o n s ; I n A f r i c a n I r o n W o r k i n g (ed .1 , R, H a a l a n d and P. S h i n n i e , uslo: Norwegian U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , pp. 50-72.

Hartle, 0.0. ( 1 9 6 7 ) A r c h a e o l o g y i n E a s t e r n . N i g e r i a i n N i g e r i a M a q a z i n e , NO. 9 3 , ppm 134-14'3. - --,

H a r t l e , D,D. (1968) R a d i o C a r b o n Dates, WAAN.

Hartle, D.D. ( 1 9 7 2 ) A r c h a e o l o g y E a s t / t h e N i g e r - A Review of C u l t u r a l H i s t o r y D e v e l o p m e n t s - C y c l o s t y l e d M i m e o , U n i v e r s i t y of N i g e r i a , Nsukka,

Hartle, D,D, ( 1 9 7 8 ) A r c h a e o l o g y i n t h e Nsukka Area i n The Nsukka E n v i r o n - m e n t ( e d . 1 , G,E.K. Ofomata , Ben in : F o u r t h Dimens ion - P u b l i s h e r s ,

Hart le , D.0, ( 1 9 8 0 ) ~ r c h a e o l o g y E a s t o f t h e N i g e r : A ~ e v i e w o f C u l t u r a l Historical D e v e l o p m e n t I n B,K, S w a r t z ( e d , ) , - West A f r i c a n C u l t u r e Dynamics, T h e "ague: Jr, Mouton P u b l i s h e r s ,

Hawkes, C, ( 1 9 5 4 ) A r c h a e o l o g i c a l T h e o r y f rqm t h e O l d World i n Vol. 56, pp. 155-168,

Hawkes, J. ( 1 9 6 8 )

and Method: Some S u g g e s t i o n s Amer ican A n t h r o p o l o q i s t ,

T h e proper S t u d y o f " ' a n k i n d i n A n t i q u i t y , Vol. 42 , pp. 255-262.

Hazell, J.R,T, ( 1 9 5 5 ) T h e Enugu I r o n s t o n e Udi D i v i s i o n , O n i t s h a P r o a i n c e , G e o l o q i c a l S u r v e y o f N i q e r i a , R e p o r t , 1 9 5 8 f o r 1955, pp. 44-58,

H e n d e r s o n , R - N , ( 1 9 7 2 ) T h e K i n 4 i n E v e r y M a n , E v o l u t i o n a r y T r e n d s i n O n i t s h a I q b o S o c i e t y and C u i l u r e L London: Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,

Hoare, K , ( 1 9 8 3 ) A r c h a e o l o q y , t h e P u b l i c and t h e Media , U n p u b l i s h e d U n d e r g r a d u a t e e is sera ti on, U n i v e r s i t y o f E d i n b u r g h ,

H o r t o n , W,H,G. ( 1 9 5 4 ) T h e o h u S y s t e m o f S l a v e r y i n a N o r t h e r n Ibo V i l l a g e Group , A f r i c a , V o l , 2 4 , No. 4,

I t - Hoque, M. and Ezepu:, M.C. ( 1 9 7 7 )

P e t r o l o g y a n d a l e o g e o g r a p h y o f A j a l i S a n d s t o n e , J o u r n a l o f Mininq and G e o l o q y , Vol. 1 4 , pp, 16-22.

Hudson, K , ( 1 9 7 9 ) Museum f o r t h e 1 9 8 0 s . A S u r v e y o f World T r e n d s , London: M a c m i l l a n Press,

I b e a n u , A.M. ( 1 9 8 9 ) Ogbodu Aba B u r i a l Chambers : P r o b l e m s a n d Prospects, Paper P r e s e n t e d a t t h e 8 t h A n n u a l A r c h a e o l o g i c a l C o n f e r e n c e i n Minna 1 5 t h J u n e , to 1st J u l y ,

9

I f e m e s i a , C ( 1 9 7 8 ) S o u t h E a s t e r n N i q e r l a i n t h e N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y : An I n t r o d u c t h r y Anal ysis, U.S.A. : N8k P u b l i s h e r s I n t e r n a t i o n a l ,

I f e m e s i a , C.C ( 1 9 7 9 ) ~ r a d i t i o n a l Humane L , iv inq Amonq t h e I q b o - An H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e , Enugu; N i g e r i a : F o u r t h D i m e n s i o n P u b l i s h e r s .

I g e n e , BOO, ( 1 9 9 0 ) T h e Use of P h o t o g r a p h y f o r I n f o r m a t i o n R e i n f o r c e m e n t i n West A f r i c a n J o u r n a l o f A r c h a e o l o g y , Vol. 20, pp. 63-72,

I g b o z u r i k e , M.U, ( 1 9 7 5 ) Yege t a t i o n T y p e s , N iger ia i n Maps: E a s t e r n S t a t e s ( e d . ) G,E,K, o f o m a r t , B e n i n - C i t y , N i g e r i a : E t h i o p e P u b l i s h i n g House ,

I g b o z u r i k e , U,M. ( 1 9 7 8 ) - T h e V e g e t a t i o n o f Nsukka A r e a I n T h e Nsukka E n v i r o n - m e n t ( e d , ) , G,E,K, Ofo rna ta , Enugu, N i g e r i a : F o u r t h K n s i o n P u b l i s h e r s ,

I k i m e O b a r o ( 1 9 8 0 ) f e d s . ) Groundwork of N i q e r i a n H i s t o r y , N i g e r i a : Heinemann.

l n y a n g , P, E.B, ( 1972.).,.wf.+. iS1* ' . C l i m a t e a n d ~ h n n ~ e ' i n Nsukka Area: Nsukka P r o b l e m s o f C h a n g e a n d c o n t i n u i t y , I n s t i t u t e o f A f r i c a n S t u d i e s S e m i n a r , U r l i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka , pp, 72-79,

I n y a n g , P..E.B, ( 1 9 7 8 ) T h e C l i m a t e f ~ s u k k i ' a n d - ' ~ n v i r o n s I n T h e Nsukka Env i ron rnsn t Ted. ) G.E,K. O f o m a t a , Enugu ; N i g e r i a : F o u r t h D i m e n s i o n Pub l i s h e r s .

l s i c h e i , E l ( 1 9 7 6 ) A H i s t o r y o f t h e I g b o P e o p l e , London: M a c r n i l l a n P r e s s .

J o n e s , G .1 , ( 1 9 6 3 ) The T r a d i n g S t a t e s o f t h e O i l R ivers , O x f o r d *

L a y t o n , R , ( 1 9 8 9 ) Who Needs t h e P a s t ? I n d i q e n o u s V a l u e s and A r c h a e o l o q y , One w o r l d A r c h a e o l o g y - 5,' London: Unuin Hyman L t d ,

L i p e , w.D. ( 1 9 7 7 ) A C o n s e r v a t i o n Model f o r A m e r i c a n A r c h a e o l o g y i n C o n s e r v a t i o n A r c h a e o l o q y , A G u i d e f o r ~ u l t u r a l R e s o u r c e Management S k u d i e s ( e d , ) , M.B. S h i f f e r a n d G.J . Gumerman, New York: Academic P r e s s .

L u l l , J , ( 1 9 8 8 ) ( e d . ) , World F a m i l i e s Watch T e l e v i s i o n , Newbury P a r k , C a l i f o r n i a : S a g e ,

'"acleod, D, ( 1 9 7 7 ) P e d d l e o r P e r i s h : A r c h a e o l o g i c a l M a r k e t i n g f rom C o n c e p t to PICoduc t ~ c l i v e r y - i n C o n s e r v a t i o n Archaeo- l o q y , A G u i d e f o r C u l t u r a l R e s o u r c e F'fanaqement S t u d i e s ( e d . ) , M.R. S h i f f e r a n d G , J . Gumerman, New York: Academic P r e s s .

~ a l i n o w s k i , B, ( 1 9 5 4 ) Myth i n P r i m i t i v e P s y c h o l o g y I n M a q i c , ~ c i e n c e a n d R e l i q i o n ( e d , 1, B. i ' : l i l inowski , Doubleday : N e w York,

McWhirr, A ( 1 9 8 0 ) G i v e ;t a n A i r i n g ! P o P u l a r A r c h a e o l o a , Vol. 1, No. 8.

~ t h n o q r a p h i c R e p o r t o n t h e P e o p l e o f t h e Nsukka Division, O n i t s h a P r o v i n c e , U n p u b l i s h e d i v l a n u s c r i p t , - p. 74, .' ,, . . * t . .*. > L .

Merr iman , N, (1988) P r e h i s t o r y f o r K i d s i n A n t i q u i t y , Vol. 62 , pp, 710-713,

M i l ler , D a n i e l ( 1 9 8 7 M a t e r i d l C u l t u r e and Mclss Consumpt ion , O x f o r d : Basil B l a c k w e l T L t d ,

Monanu~,, P.C, ( 1 9 7 5 ) T e m p e r a t u r e , S u n s h i n e and R a i n f a l l , I n Maps: E a s t e r n S t a t e s ( e d . ) , G,E.K, P u b l i s h i n g House , Benin-Ci t y ,

Newcornb, H.M. a n d H i r s c h , P.M. ( 1 9 8 4 ) T e l e v i s i o n as a C u l t u r a l Fomm: I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r R e s e a r c h i n I n t e r r e t i n q ~ e l e v i s i o n : C u r r e n t R e s e a r c h Perspectives*i.I). R o l a n d a n d 8 , W a t k l n s , C a l i t o r n i a : S a g e Pub.

Ngwu, S,N. ( 1 9 8 3 ) ~ n - ~ c o n o r r ~ i c is tor o f U r b a f r o m 1 9 0 0 to t h e P r e s e n t , U n p u b l i s h e d i3.A. ~ p - ~ l s , U n i v e r s i t y of N i g e r i a , ~ s u k k a .

Njoku , M.O. ( 1 9 6 8 ) '&adi t i o n d l 1 on w o r k i n g .-.... - i n ~ k u , U n p u b l i s h e d &A, $reject, U n i v e r s i t y o t N i g e r i a , Nsukka,

Nwachukwu, S - 0 . ( 1 9 7 2 ) T h e T e c t o n i c E v o l u t i o n o f t h e S o u t h e r n p o r t i o n o f t h e Benue T r o u g h , N i g e r i a , G e o l o q i c a l M a g a z i n e , Vol. 5 , NO. 109, pp. 411-419.

Nzewunwa, N. ( 1 9 8 3 ) A S o u r c e book f o r N i q e r i a n A r c h a e o l o g y , N i g e r i a : S t a n d a r d P r i n t e r s a n d Pub. Co.

Q f o m a t a , G-E-K. ( 1 9 7 2 ) he p h y s i c a l B a c k q r o u n d of Nsukka Area, Msukka - k r o h l e m s o f Change and C o n t i n u i t y , I n s t i t u t e o f A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y of Nigeria, Nsukka, S e m i n a r .

o f o m a t a , GoE.K- ( 1 9 7 5 ) N i q e r i a i n Maps - E a s t e r n S t a t e s , N i g e r i a ' E t h i o p e P u b l i s h i n g House.

Qfornata , G,E,K. ( 1 9 7 8 ) T h e Nsukka Environm.enby Nigeria: F o u r t h D i m e n s i o n - P u b l i s h e r s

Oguaqha, P.A. ( 1 9 8 2 ) The C o n q u e s t H y p o t h e s i s i n I g b o / I g a l a Re1 a t i o n s :

A R e - e x a m i n a t i o n , West A f r i c a n J o u r n a l of A r c h a e o l o q y , V o l . .12.

, I - .-

Oguagha, P.A. a n d Okpoko, A.I. ( 1 9 8 4 ) H i s t o r y and E t h n o a r c h a e o l o g y i n E a s t e r n N i g e r i a : A S t u d y o f I g b o / ~ g a l a R e l a t i o n s w i t h S p e c i a l R e f e r e n c e t o Anambra V a l l e y , B.A.R. S e r i a l 9 5 , pp. 1 9 7 , 236-237.

Okafo r , E W E , ( 1984) A - s t u d y of I r o n Working i n Orba - Nsukka, Unpub l i shed B,Am .mesis, U n i v e r s i t y o f Ibadan.

Okafo r , E,E. ( 1 9 8 8 ) More I r o n Working S i t e s i n Nsukka, Nyarne Akuma, No. 30, pp. 29-30. . -

Okafo r , E.E, ( 1 9 9 2 ) E a r l y l r o n Srnel t i n q I n Nsukka - N i g e r i a : I n f o r m a t i o n - f rom S l a q s and R e o i - 9 u e s Unpubl i shed Ph,D, . l .hes i s , u n i v e r s i t y of S h e f i l e l d ,

Oka fo r , E E, and P h i l l i p s , P. (1992) N e w ?-14 Ages Prom Nsukka, N i g e r i a and t h e O r i g i n s o f A f r i c a n M e t a l l u r g y , A n t i q u i t y , V o l . 66 , pp. 686-688.

Okiqbo, B,N. ( 1 9 8 0 ) ha j i o k u L e c t u r e , M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n , C u l t u r e , y o u t h and S p o r t s , owerri,

Archaeology E d u c a t i o n i n N i g e r i a I n West A f r i c a n J o u r n a l of Archaeoloqy , V o l . 16.

OkpokO, A.1. ( 1987) E thnoa rchaeo logy o f Mor tua ry Customs i n P a r t s of I g b o l and, E a s t e r n N i g e r i a : I m p l d c a t i o n s f o r Archaeo- l o g i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of F u n e r a r y Remains, - Nsukka J o u r n a l o f Human i t i e s , No, 1, pp. 1-13,

I r o n WOrkinq i n Eha-Alumona and Opi , Nsukka, Unpubl i shed & ,A, k;c-o j e c t , U n i v e r s i t y of N i g e r i a ,

Osei-Tu t u . Be ( 1990) ~ornmGnica t i o n o f C U ~ t u r a l I n f o r m a t i o n i n West A f r i c a n J o u r n a l of Archaeology , Vol. 20, pp. 110-114.

P l e i n e r , R e (1978) I ) - . - . Comments o n t h e C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of I r o n S m e l t i n g F u r n a c e s , Norweqian ~ r c h a e o l o g i c a l Review, V o l . 11, No, 1, pp. 37-39,

P l e i n e r , R ( 1980) ~ a r l y ~ l r o n M e t a l l u r g y i n Europe, I n The Cominq of the Age of I r o n ( e d s , ) T.A. wertime and D.J. Muhly, Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , London, pp. 375-415.

Reymen t , ROAD ( 1 9 6 5 ) A s p e c t s of t h e G e o l o q y o f N i q e r i a , N i g e r i a : U n i v e r - s i t y o f I b a d a n P r e s s .

Samba. P.M. ( 1 9 8 9 ) 6 ra l T r a d i t i o n a n d t h e A f r i c a n P a s t i n Who Needs t h e P a s t ? One W o r l d A r c h a e o l o q y -- - 5 ( e d . ) , a. L a y t o n , London: Unwin Hyman L t d .

S c h i f f e r , M.B. a n d Gumerman ( 1 9 7 7 ) c o n s e r v a t i o n A r c h a e o l o g y , A g u i d e f o r C u l t u r a l R e s o u r c e Managemen t S t u d i e s , New York : A c a d e m i c Press*

S h a n k s , M. a n d T i l l e y , C _ ( 1 9 8 7 ) R e c o n s t r u c t i n q ~ r c h a e o l o q ~ , T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e , C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , G r e a t B r i t a i n .

S h a r e r , R . J . a n d Ashmore , W. ( 1 9 8 7 ) A r c h a e o l o g y : D i s c o v e r i n q o u r P a s t , M a y f i e l d P u b l i s h - i n g Company.

Shaw T, ( 1 9 6 8 ) 9

~ a d i o c a r b o n D a t i n g i n N i g e r i a , J o u r n a l o f is tor ical s o c i e t y o f N i g e r i a , Vol. 4, N o . 3 , pp. 453-465.

Shaw, T - ( 1 9 7 0 ) - 1 g 6 o - ~ k w u : An A c c o u n t o f A r c h a e o l o g i c a l ~ i s cove r i e s i n E a s t e r n N i g e r i a , 2 Vols., F a b e r a n d F a b e r , London.

Shaw, C.T. ( 1 9 8 1 ) T h e P r e h i s t o r y o f West A f r i c a ( e d . J. Ki -Zdrbo , UNESCO G e n e r a l ~ i s t c j r . y o f A f r i c a I , He inemann , C a l i f o r n i a .

S h e 1 t o n . A J. ( 1968.), , . . ,$. .>. a

0 n 6 j o * 0 ~ b o n i , - ~ o u r h a l o f A m e r i c a n F o l k l o r e , V o l . 18, N o . 3 2 1 , 1 9 6 8 .

S h e l t o n , A . J . ( 1 9 7 1 ) T h e I q b o - I g a l a B o r d e r l a n d , N e w York.

11 - .- . S t o n e . P.G. ( 1 9 8 6 ) i r e t h e P u b l i c R e a l l y I n t e r e s t e d i n D o b i n s o n , C. a n d K. G i l c h r i s t (eds, ) , A r c h a e o l o g y , P o l i t i c s a n d t h e P u b l i c , O c x a s i o n a l p a p e r s series; D e p a r t m e n t of A r c h a e o l o g y , York , pp. 14-21.

S t o n e , P,G, ( 1 9 8 9 ) I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and Uses of t h e P a s t i n Modern B r i t a i n a n d E u r o p e , Why A r e p e o p l e I n t e r e s t e d i n t h e P a s t ? D o t h e E x p e r t s Know or C a r e ? A Plea f o r f u r t h e r S t u d y I n Who Needs t h e P a s t ( e d , ) , R e L a y t o n , London: Unwin Hyman, pp , 195-205,

S t o n e , P, ( 1 9 9 2 ) T h e Magnif i c i e n t S e v e n : R e a s o n s f o r T e g c h i n g a b o u t P r e h i s t o r y i n T e a c h i n g H i s t o r y , T h e H i s t o r i c a l Associa- t i o n Number 6 9 , pp. 13-18,

-9

Swann, L o r d ( 1 9 8 5 ) E d u c a t i o n fo r A11,The R e p o r t o f t h e C o m m i t t e e o f I n q u i r y i n t o t h e E d u c a t i o n o f C h i l d r e n f r o m E t h n i c M i n o r i t y G r o u p s , London, HMSO.

T h o r n t h w a i t e , C,W, ( 1 9 4 8 ) . An Approach t o w a r d s a R a t i o n a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f C l i m a t e , G e o q r a p h i c a l Review, Vol, 38, pp, 54-94,

Ucho, P,J, (1969) E t h n o g r a p h y a n d A r c h a e o l o g i c a l l n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f F u n e r a r y ~ e m a i n s , w o r l d A r c h a e o l o q y , Vol, 1, pp. 262- 280,

U k p a b i , S,C, ( 1 9 7 1 ) Nsukka Before t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f ~ r i t i s h Adminis- t r a t i o n , s, N e w S e r i e s , No. 6.

U m e j i , A,C, ( 1 9 8 0 ) T e r t i a r y P l a n a t i o n S u r f a c e s o n t h e C u e s t a i n S o u t h - E a s t e r n N i g e r i a i n J o u r n a l o f M i n i n q and G e o l o ~ , Val, 1 7 , NO, 2 , pp , 109-118,

,' ,, ., 4 < $ , .*. , . a * ,

U z o e z i e . L,C ( 1 9 7 2 ) ~ c q r i c u l f u r a l L a n d u s e i n Nsukka D i v i s i o n , Nsukka: The P r o b l e m s o f C h a n g e and C o n t i n u i t y , I n s t i t u t e of A f r i c d n S t u d i e s S e m i n a r , U , N , N , , pp, 42-50,

Wesler, 'K, ( 1 9 9 0 ) I ) _ .. . C u l t u r a l R e s o u r c e Management i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , I n West A f r i c a n J o u r n a l o f A r c h a e o l o g y , Vol, 20.

W h e e l e r , M e ( 1 9 5 4 ) A r c h a e o l o q y f r o m t h e E a r t h , Harmondsworth : P e n g u i n B o o k s ,

APPENDIX I

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ADMINISTEREiD AT THE SITES VISITED

Have you e v e r h e a r d t h e word A r c h a e o l o g y ? I f s o ,

w h a t d o e s i t mean?

What a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s are i n y o u r a r e a ?

H o w were t h e y p roduced?

Have a r c h a e o l o g i s t s worked i n y o u r p l a c e b e f o r e ?

When t h e y came were you i n v o l v e d i n any way?

What p a r t d i d you p l a y ?

wha t f i n a n c i a l r e m u n e r a t i o n s were made to you?

What h a v e you l e a r n t : f rom t h o s e t h a t v i s i t e d you

i n t h e p a s t ?

Did t h e y make a n y p r o m i s e s t o you?

Were t h e s e p r o m i s e s f u l f i l l e d ?

Have you s e e n publications o f p i c t u r e s o n t h e

a r c h a e o l o g i . c a 1 d i s c o v e r i e s i n y o u r p l a c e ?

Have you r e a d any of them o r had p e o p l e r e a d them

to you? .. ,, ..$. ,$. , ,+

I f so how many?

D o you h a v e a n i n y o u r p o s s e s s i o n ?

Have you e v e r b e e n i n v i t e d by a r c h a e o l o g i s t s t o 11 - .I

see d i s p l a y s o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s o u t s i d e

y o u r town?

Q.16. D o you u n d e r s t a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e f i n d i n g s

made i n y o u r area?

U.17, What h a v e you g a i n e d b y b e i n g a member o f t h i s

community whe re a r c h a e o l o g i c a l work was c a r r i e d o u t ?

Q, 18, what are y o u r g r i e v a n c e s o r d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s a b o u t

t h e coming o f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s to y o u r p l a c e ?

Q.19, Would you l i k e to see them a g a i n i n y o u r town?

Q.20, Have you l e a r n t a n y new t h i n g f r o m t h i s v i s i t ?

C C C C C C C C C E C C C C

a a r n c c c a c c c c c c

c c a c P

c c c c a a

a a a c a c

c c c c a a

d+>* rXW M.

Y Z

i c + S3 ,r<&O E Z E

4 r*

\ R A I Enugu*+

r' I I ' ~ z i k e a

06 f I /' ** \ / / ' /; / ''k X

. I t / 1 ( '\ \ G~ \ " m ~ n d "

2' UNN \ .Orb, d \ \ N S ~ K K A \ b ~ ~ s i ~ a ~ o \ , ,

\ +-+Iv \ @ 0 w e r r e Elu \

0w \ \ , O D ~ I

* Ogbodu Aba

1

FIG. 1.2 NSUKKA AREA SHOWING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL

S I T E S STUDIED. ( odopted from Ofomata 1978 12 1

lkem 4

\ +

f-- m L W M 4 - - u \ ----A .r-* t.

\ +' I 1 IS1 U Z O f 0 I @ A k u I x J'

. I $ I IGBO ETlTl I s 3 I /

@ " I ' b,. " O g b e d e 1 v / t-'

$

%Q / \ \ / --

\ \

u,' 3 /' + - - -d#b* \ ' I . I F

U D I L . G . A ' . L-,,-.f

" / Umulokpa/ a I 'I N ~ A ' N U L. G . A

: I q 1 --6 .P 2 I I

I' M -<< b. 10 0 10 20 Km8 I -./+ .' ,, . 4 * q . ,*. % * ,* 1 I I 4 0 / {--

I

A ,t

r* zx

/

1' 1

/ '

S T A T E B O U N D A R Y

L O C A L , , GOYERNMENT

(L.G. A ) BOUNDARY .a,

L.G.A H E A D Q U A R T E R S

ARCHAEOLOGICAL S I T E S

F i g . 2 : 1 Nsukka and her nei hbours: (Adapted from road map of ~ i ~ e r i a , e .. Feqeral Surveys, Lagos).

,

-1 Imo shale

4 Nsukka Fnr.

Marnu Fn.

3 Nkporo Sh.

Fig. 2.2. Geological lnqg - of .. Nsukka division (adapted from Umeji, 1980: 1 12).

Ukehe Oklgwe Surface sur face (550-600rn) (270-300rn) - -

F i g . 2 : 3 Planation surfaces in Nsukka Division: (?,dapted from Umeji 1980:112). . .

. . . . . . . . , ... :. . .. . .. . . . . + . Coostol foresf and mangrove ., .; .,'. '. . . . ..... ..... . ... . . . . . . . . . . . + - .' . . . * . . d * ., . Deltaic swamp forest11 - - . , . b

Swamp forest/ W o o d e d

Mixed leguminous

Forest sovonna mosaic

Moist lowland forest - --

State C a p i t a l s

Fig, 2 . 4 Vegetat ion Mop of South Eastern Nigeria (adapted . A . . A rr . .--. \

Scale 0 I 2 3 4 5 Km.

@ a

.

Aku Town .. Major Roads

Neighbouring Towns & Villages Other Roads

, I I

L C3 A Boundary River -- - -... . .. --*.. r ' iy. 3:aS A K U T O W N A N D H E R N E I G H B O U R S

K E Y + Smelting Site

0 1 Smithing Site . - I Village Name

Main Roads

Hills

SMITH1 NG S I T E S . -

POT SHERDS FROM AMETI-AKU

NDI ACU NDI

Area: 22 L 3 . rq.rnelres

UNO AMA ORBA

\' ACU AMA ORBA \'

Area Surveyed

' I Minor Road 1 Contour Llnc ea : 2187 sq rnelres

SCALE

20 0 20 4 0 60 80 100nretrcs t - - - - t = t ~ - - - - t _ZL*

TOTAL AREA: 4 L31 ;q metres - F i g . 3 : ~ O I I J ; I eally iron srnellirlg sites: (colllour lines are in feet). 7

' 4 "1. .I ! . * ' (source: Okafor, 1992).

OWERE - ELU EARLY IRON SMELTING SITE

/ /

- - .' OWERE ELU HILL. E N U G U SCARP - \

OUTLINE OF 1 / IRON SLAG

OCCURANCE

AREA COVERED BY SMELTING

-REsI WES.

OPEN LAND I-

Fig. 3.5. Owerre Elu iron smelting sites (source: Okafor, 1992).

RECONSTRUCTION OF T H E S H A F T A N D C H A M B E R G R A V E

IS1 UZO L . G . A

P l a t e 1.1: C o l l e c t i o n o f S l a g B l a c k s at Lejja

Plate 1.2: P a r t i a l V i e w of Masquerade House (udo) -.L T , 3 i . 1 3

n' """Ti ... ' I " 0 . ; -

Plate 1.3: Slag Blocks as S e a t s at Lejja

p l a t e 2.1: O u t l i n e of O l d F u r n a c e a t V i n c e n t Abonyigs C o m p o u n d , O p i

L

--

~ ~ l a t e 2 . 2 : S lag Blocks a s Sea t s a t Opi

Plate 2.3: C l o s e - u p on Slags at Odinanso, Idi Opi

Plate 3.1: ANu S l a g Sdrnr~le

L1ldte 3.2: Cylindrical Slag Blocks Turned into a Shrine at Amadinkwreke, AkU

P l a t e 3 . 3 : Close-up on Heap of Slag

A t + Aku P l a t e 3.4: Examinirlg S l a q R e m a i n s and P o t s h e r d s

Plate 4.1: Taking S h e l t e r a t Isi Ugwu Obukpa Rock S h e l t e r

i l l a t e 5 . 1 : The Cannfhal ized Archaeological Site, Umundu

' - : Kemalns ot l k p Anuru ( S l a g ) Heap at Umuogaleka, Unlu8rdu

C

Plate 5.3: Onyisi (Chief) Explaining Some Salient P o i n t s

P l a t e 6 .1: A V i e w o f the Farm Site, U n i v e r s i t y o f Niger ia , Nsukka

P l a t e 6 . 2 : Recent Excavation a t Farm S i t e , U . N . N . (1995)

P l a t e 7.1: A View of the Forte a t Okpe Iga la

P l a t e 7 . 2 : T h e Disus t : d S t a t e of the S i t e

P l a t e 8: 1: Present S t a t e of Ikpo Ahuru (S lag Mound) at Orbr

p l a t e 8.2: A T y p i c a l lacks smith's wbrkshop, Orba -

P l a t e 9.1: Slag Samples from Owerre Elu

P l a t e 9.2: Timber Shed Erected on t h e S i t e at . Owerre Elu

J P l a t e 10.1: Neglected Burial Chamber a t Ogbodu Aba

P l a t e 10.2: Close-up on a Burial Chamber at f l n h r \ . i . . h h -