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University of Nigeria Research Publications
CHIKANI, John Martins A
utho
r
PG/Ph.D/90/9066
Title
Equality in the Distribution of Educational Resources
in Enugu State Secondary Schools
Facu
lty
Education
Dep
artm
ent
Education
Dat
e
November, 1997
Sign
atur
e
EQUALITY IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES IN ENUGU STATE SECONDARY
SCHOOLS
CHIKANI, JOHN MARTINS (Rev. Fr.)
PGIPh. Dl9019066
being
DOCTORAL THESIS ,.. PmSENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF . 4 EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIA, N S U m
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE A WARD OF THEo.DEGJZEE. OF DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION (ADMIN. AND PLANNING). d It _....
NOVEMBER, 1997
I !
\
EQUALITY IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES IN
ENUGU STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
CHIKANI, JOHN MARTINS (Rev. Fr.) PGlPh. Dl9019066
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY "OF' NIGERIA NSUKKA
NOVEMBER 1997
APPROVAL PAGE
This thesis has been approved for the Department of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
+, L., UPERVISOR
,+&AN OF FACULTY
u HEAD OF D E P A R m
iii
CERTIFICATION
CHIKANI, JOHN MARTINS (Rev. Fr.), a postgraduate student in the Department of Education with Registration number PG/Ph.D/90/9066 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for the course and research work for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Administration and Planning. The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or in full for any other Diploma or Degree of this or any other University.
D;. P.A. Ezeocha Supervisor
Prof. J.I.N. 0 k p l a Head of Department
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to people with hidden
talents sfruggling to see the light of day.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT All praises and honour go to ~ o d who proffers his gifts to man who
must use them for the services of his fellow human beings.
I am very grateful to my Bishops: Rt. Rev. Dr. M. U . Eneja and Rt.
Rev. Dr. F. E. Okobo. They believe with conviction that others have talents
which they cherish, even though this escapes the attention' of inattentive
minds.
I am most grateful to my supervjsor Dr. P. A. Ezeocha, whose 1 > I .
guidance, cooperation and en~oura~en~en't 'sustained me thrwgh my rather
prolonged doctoral programme. .
I sincerely thank Dr. D. N . Eze, Professor A. U Akubue, Professor
J . N. Okpala and Dr. B. G. Nworgu for their encouragement and support
throughout the period of the study. My gratitude further extends to Mr. and
Mrs. Emma Agbo of MANIS G ~ o q of Companies PLC for their
sponsorship. I also wish to express my gratitude to Mr. 0 . S. Abonyi and
Engr. E. S. Obe for .their assistance during the period of data collection,
assemblage, analysk and expert touch during the formatting of the type set . .
work,
In the same way I cannot thank enough Messrs Alpho. 110, Dom. Eya
- both are tutcrs at St. Teresas' Coil.ege+(STC), 'Nsukka, Mr F.O. Ekere of
Dept. of Education, Moses Asogwa, Chief typist of STC, and Richard 1
Enudu, chief driver of STC Nsukka.
Finally I wish to acknowledge the sacrifices of my brother Januarius.
0. Chikani and our wife Mrs. Nonye J.c': Chiksni during the progress of
the work.
TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
APPROVAL PAGE
CERTIFICATION
LIST OF TABLES
ABSTRACT ........... vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION :
Background of the study
Statement of the problem
Purpose of the study
Significance of thc Study
Scope of the Study
Research questions
Hypothesis .*,,.,.. 1 . " . , . . a * .
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Equality in Education: A ConcepMal Overview
Administrative Models for Implementing ,,educgtional programmes
Factors Influcncing government Policy on Equal opportunity
Educational Resources: Nature and Dimension
I
Roles of Resources Material in Teaching and Learning
Related research Studies
Summary o f the Review
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD
7
Design
Area of Study
Population of Study
Sample and Sampling procedure
Instrument for data collection
Validity of the Instrument
Reliability of the Instrument
Method of data Collection
Method of data analysis
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Research Question I ....... "C .I.... XC .
Research Question I1
Research Question 111
Research Question IV
Research Question V
Research Question VI
vii
......... 45
Research Question VII
Hypothesis 1 . 7
CHAPTER FIVE: INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
esearch Questions I . VII
Hypothesis 1 . 7
Conclusion
Educational Implications of the Study. . "1 i :
Recommendations . Limitations
Suggestions for further Research
Summary
REFERENCES i-
APPENDICES
Appendix I: School resource provisi0.n assess.ment inventory 1. . . . '.'* .......
Appendix 11: Scliod I-csourcc provision asscssmcnt scalc
Appendix 111: Cronbach alpha test for the School resgurce provision assessment scale .. _.-.
Appendix IV : Test-retest reliability for the School resource provision assessment scale
Appendix V: List of school used for the study
LIST OF TABLES
I: Proportion of facilities and equipnlent supplied-by gowrnment. . . . . . . 62
11: Perceived adequacy of the facilitieslequipment supplied to Scfwc?l by the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . government. 64
111: Factors and theiiextent of consideration in distribution of resources to Secondary Schools in Enugu state. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
IV: Extent of adequacy of tutorial and non tutoriai staff in secondary schools in Enugu State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
V: Factors considered in posting of teachers and the extent of their . . consideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
VI : Proportion of ~'aciliticslcquipn~ent supplicd to schools according to school types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 8
VII: Percentage mean proportion of distribution of facilities in Urban and Rural Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
VIII: Chi square test results on supply of physical blocks to schools by '
school location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
IX: Chi square 'test results on supply of library materials by school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . location. 7 1 x
X: Summary of the extent to which gw,ern~ncnt supplies of science .,,". 1." . equipment is dependent on school location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
XI: Extent to which supply of sporting equipnient is dependent on school location.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . 73
XII: Extent to which prbvision of physical bloCks is'dopcndont on school type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 .
XIII: Extent to which supply of library materials , condary schools i s dependent on school type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5
XIV: Extent to which the provision of laboratory equipment to secondary schools is dependent on school type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
ABSTRACT
This study was designed to investigate the extent of equality ilz the
distribution of ,educatiorzal resources in Enugu State secondary schools. This
study specijically exmnined the proportion of .facilities provided to secondary
schools and.factors considered in the provision of such facilities to schools. The
sample cor~~prisecl qf orie thousarzd two hundred and sixty six (1,266) research
subjects drawrz from sixty secondary schools, tile zonal education offices and the
govestzing body of the Post Primary School Mmagemerqt Boards of Enugu Smte.
Seven research questions and sever2 hypotheses guided the research. A
School Resource Provision Assessment Inventory (SRPAI) and School Resource
Provision Assessment Scale (SRPAS) were used to collect datasfor the study. The
ti~tcl wcjr-e arialyzed using sirrzple percentage proportion, I , standard
deviation and Chi Square test of independence.
The researcher observed that the major fncilities/equipment supplied to
Enugu state secondary schools are plzysical blocks, classroorn/ofj%'ce facilities,
science laboratory equipment, introductory technology equipment, library ., ,, . . " 5 . +. - 9 <-,* . '
materials, sporting equipment and basic utilities like water and electricity. The
study. also revealed that major considerations in resource allocation to schook
are school location, school type, political influence, dynamism of the school's " 7 ' --
imtr,e(iicite etrvironmet,t orirl pri,r;cipu17i 'degree of public relutio~rs. Tlze extent
/'- to which these fitclors are considered in the resource distribution however,
depended on the resource or facility/equipment in question. Consideration of
tlzese~factors contributed seriously to inequalities observed in resource allocation
to seconclury sclzools ill Erzugu State.
The researcher, therefore, recommended that government should establish
strict and well ~~ io~~ i to red guidelines for resource distribution to secondary
schools in tlle stute. Resources should also be provided to secondary schools in
proportions. That is to say that school population should guide resource
allocation to schools. Tlze researcher further recommended that observed
imbalance in the provision of educational resources to some schools should be
corrected by providing more resources to schools where they were seriously
lacki~ig to e~zsure equtrl opportu17ity~for all the students i17 the state.
CHAPTER ONE
Background of the Study
The Federal Governnlent of Nigeria in her National Policy on Education
(1 98 1) among other things emphasizes equal educational opportunities at the
primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education. Specifically, the policy
promises among clthel-s the provision of an increasing number of primary school
pupils with the opportunity for education of a higher quality, irrespective of sex,
social, religious or ethnic background.
Furthermore, in the National Development Plan (F.M.E. 1975 -
1980:244) the Federal Government regretted that one of the major problems
facing education was the imbalance in the geographic spread of education and
in training facilities in the country. It would, therefore, seem that equal
educational opportunity was highlighted by that existing imbalance. It was
further stressed ill the National Development Plan (F.M.E. 1975-1980:244) that:
consideration ~fpis t ike '%~d e'quity de~nand equalization of such opportunities such that every Nigerian child should have comparable opportunities for self development and fulfilment irrespective of where he lives and the economic and .social circumstances into which he has been born. - "
ac- Thus it can be seen that the Federal Government's declaration both in the
National Policy on Education and the National Development Plan appears to be
responsible for the increase in the enrolment in our secondary schools. Within
decades of operation of the National Policy, records from available statistics
(Anambra and Enugu State Ministries of Education, 1995) show a remarkable
increase in student enrolment in secondary schools.
With this discernable trend, governments responsibility for ensuring equal
educational opportunity was further challenged. This challenge demands a fair
distribution of educational and training facilities to schools in the country. The
Nigerian National Policy on Education appears to be silent on the method of
distribution of these facilities and it was [eft to each state of the Federation to
use her discretion in ensuring equality and fairness in the process of
implementing the National Policy on equal education opportunity with regard to
School building, science laboratory equipment, introductory technology
equipment, qua1 ified teaching staff, library materials, sporting equipment and
other educational facilities.
Considering Yle basic aimsof-secondary school education, equality is
sometimes taken to mean government discrin~inatory provision of school
input resources with an aim to producing equal educational outcomes for all
in the school system. The discrin~inatory provision of these resources has to
take into conside'ration some factors like parental background of students, '
.regional factors like urban areas, socio-economic status of the students,
manpower supply and overall con~position 01' the school. Musgrave (1994)
argued that these powerful forces related to other social structures
intervening between the children and success at school. His conclusion was
that these factors be taken into cons~deration during the distribution of
educational opportunity for the achievement of equal econonlic opportunity.
Morish (1992) observed that inequalities in opportunity for educational
development could arise out of such factors as econon~ic class or regional
factors. Studies such as those produced by Davis (1994), Mays (1992),
Coleman (1991) and Bryne (1988) confirmed that environmental factors have
a tremendous effect on children's school perforn~ance and educational
attainment especially when such environmental variables have some ..,,... (.d. ..-'a . .
influence in the provision of equal opportunities in schools. According to
Oguntoye (1989) the critical issue in education is not only the magnitude of
resource allocation but also how the9,e rupurces are distributed to ensure
equitability . . ' I (, '
Oguntoye (1 989: 15) further observed that the
education is placed on the distribution of educationa
''recent emphasis' on
way as to maximize the objectives set for education"
1 resources in such a . .
He further emphasized . , .
that if education is to maximally ,achieve goals such as economic growth,
social mobility and an improvement in social and political attitudes, then
.resource allocation policies should be geared towards these goals.
Consequently the investment policy should deliberately be based on the
principles of equity and efficiency at whatever level the deckions on .
resource allocation are being made. Okobia (1989) rightfully observed that
for the individual to claim the right to education, helshe should be provided
with not only the facilities, but more a!so the equal opportunity. Such equal
opportunity, according. to Williams (1975) demands that:
(a) Everyone has the right .opportunity to benefit from the economic -
advantage conferred by education
(b) Everyone has a right to the- personal satisfaction derived from
(c) Everyone has the opportunity to develop his aptitude in his own /
direction. \
The pefceived derivations from edllcation have created two concurrent
orientations- equal provisions and discriminatory provisions. In as much as , .
5
students have an array of aptitudes and talents of varying degrees, .
differential treatment may be a prerequisite for equality. Musgrave (1994)
also proposed that equal educational opportunity should be discriminatorily
provided to achieve equal economic opportunity. They observed that equal
educational opportunity was originally seen to be the situation in which all
children had the same access to education.
The philoSophica1 position embodied in the definition of equal
, educational opportunity in terms of discriminatory treatment of the students 9
of different abilities and aptitudes to achieve equal educational performance
can best be understood by examining Rawal's (1 990) difference principle.
For Rawal, socially valued services such as liberty and education ought to
be distributed unequally unless an equal distribution is to the best advantage
- of the least favoured so that outcomes rather than inputs become the
important criterion for the assessment of equality in educational opportunity.
The deduction from Rawal's(1990) difference principle is that socially
valued goods and 'services ., ,, must. .. .'(. -I *, be ,I* distributed equally only on the ground
that the original position of the beneficiaries were equal. In other words, / -
unless environmental factors, socio-economic factors and regional factors 4
that would influence students' performance at school were equal, it could
nQt be said that the students received equal educatioo opportunity if they
were treated equally.
Since it may not be achievable to equalize prior environmental factors
to ensure equality of outcomes, some researchers (Halsey 1991;Flowden
1990) have hinted on compensatory education to be considered as an
adoptable administrative mechanism. For instance, Halsey (1 99 1) suggested
that primary and secondary schools should try out a wider range of
compensatory 'education in areas marked by a great need.
In Enugu State, for instance, a lot of errors may be associated with
the classification of the subsections of the state into areas of great need in
terms of .educational opportunity or classification of individuals accoruing
to perceived compensatory needs. In no way also has the State Ministry of
Education indicated a need for compensatory education in any part of the
state or for any group of individuals in the state secondary schools. In view
of this fact therefore,. this study has assumed that neither compensatory
education nor any form of positive discriminatory provision of education and
training facilities or resourGgs.l;g. the best advantage of the least favoured I:;
practiced in. Enugu State secondary schools.
It must be observed that although the-Federai Government in her / t.
National ~ o l i c ~ on Education (F.M .E,.:I 98 1) stated that equal educational
opportunity be to all its citizens irrespectivk of sex or culture, there.
is no clear guideline on how the facilities are to. be distributed. This lack of
guidelines on how the facilities are to be distributed is a serious omission
and poses a great challenge to the education ministries of the various states .
of the Federation, Since all states of the Federation have started to
implement the National Policy on Education and since there is the absence
of defined guidelines in the method of distribution of educational resources,
there is a need to assess and evaluate the extent of equality in the
distribution of educational resources in Enugu State secondary schools.
Statement of the Problem.
The increasing differentials in the of students from
varying school types, and locations is an issue of great concern to the entire
society. This situation coupled with msrginal differences in school standards '
tend to generated a deep gulf between schools within the same system. This
+- accounts for the emergence of such odd terms as mushroom schools, first,
second and third generation schools. -, ,, . . "1. .?. , . o+ * .
The use of such terms in describing the status of schools tends to /
generate doubt as to whether these schools are under the management of the \.
same education ministry. In fact it raises questions as to vhy some schools , I - .-
under the same education ministry should be more privileged than others.
Research efforts geared in this dimension
differences in inter-school standards (Enacho
were unable to resolve the
1988; Fafunwa 1 984).
Although the Federal Government in her National Policy on Education
(F.M.E. 1981) provided for equal educational opportunity for all her citizens
irrespective of environmental, biological, economic or social circumstances
into which the] had been born, the guidelines for its implementatior~ were
not provided in the policy thereby leaving the decisions on methods of its
implementation to the discretion of individual states. It was highly speculated
that the differences in schools performance and inter-school standards stem
from the differences in the educational opportunities provide to students in .
the various schools. This widespread speculation is however not backed by
any research evidence in which case, therefore, the extent to which
Enugu State Government has been able to achieve the objectives of
National poiicy on Equal Educational Opportunity is highly in doubt.
the
the
This study is now posed with the problem of evaluating and establishing the
extent to which the Enugu State Government haso been able to achieve .$ , , . . A " ( * 7,. ., * + I >
equity in educational resource allocation to her secondary schools. /
Purpose of the Study
This study examined the extent to which the Enugu State Goverment has
been able to achieve equity in resource allocation to her secondary schools. This
study specifically explored.
(a) The various facilities and equipment supplied to secondary schools i n
Enugu State; I ,/
(b) Extent to which the facilitiks a i d tquipnlent are supplied;
(c) Factors taken into consideration in distribution of educational resources
to schools in Enugu State secondary scl~ools
(d) Iiltluence of school type and school location in educational resource
distribution. - (e) The differences in facilities/equipment supplied to school in relation to
is . school 1oc;ition.
Significance of the Studv
The desire for equity in educational provisions in line with the National ., ,,. 4 " f . ,I. *,-*++- .
Policy 011 equal educational opportunity and National Development Plan invoked
the need for this study. Oguntoye (1989) and Okobiah (1989) obsesved that no
significant educational research efforts have been directed towards objective 11 + . I .
assessment and evaluation of the extent of implementation
of the policy' on equal education opp:,r:unity in the various states of the
Federation in as much as the policy statement on equal opportunity failed to
specify the criteria and modalities for the allocation of facilities/equipments
to schools at the national or state level. Since the individual state are left to -.
implement the policy at their own discretion, the extent to which the
individual states have been able to implement the national policy remains
highly in doubt. In the light of the above background, it has become very
important to explore the extent to which the Enugu State Government has
been able to implement the National Policy on equal educatioml opportunity
in the state secondary schools by ensuring equity in resource allocation to
her schools,
The findings of this study will have some significance for the
education ministry which will be informed on the extent to which some
schools are deprived in resource allocation and the urgent need to .
compmsate such schools so as to establish uniform standard among all
. - secondary schools in the state. The findings will reveal to the Government
.$ ,,.... <. .*. , ,,!* .
the methods adopted by the State Ministry of Education in resource
allocation to schools. As such the discriminatory practices of the Ministry .
will be exposed so that the Governqpnt -may begin to decide on corrective
measures to adopt so as to ensure the full realization of the . objectives . of the
National Policy on equal educational opportunity in the state. Such measures
may include the provision of strict and well monitored guidelines for
' resource allocation to secondary schools in the state. This study will also be .
important in informing the Federal Government on the extent to which its
.National Policy is being observed in some states and therefore provide a
basis for policy implementation evaluation at the national level.
Scope of the Study
This study was limited to investigating the extent to which Enugu
State Government has been able to achieve equity in resource allocation to - L-u.e. fA&&G eI@~zL-j o d . - r - ~ p ] r . & 'a- Enugu State secondary. The scope of cov::rage is three dimensional, namely
p.
(a) The various educational resources supplied to schools and the
proportions in which they are provided to individual schools.
(b) Methods employed or factors considered in the distribution of the
resources.
(c) Differences in resources . . ,, ., . . pr0vide.d . .t *, . L a @ with relation of school location and
school types.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study.
What facilities and equipment are supplied by the State Government to secondary schools in Enugu State ? ,.. To what extent are the facilities supplied by the governinent to secondary scl~ools in Eilugu State adequate ?
What factors are taken into consideration by the Ministry of Education in the distribution of educational facilities to Secondary schools ?
To what extent are secondary scl~ools in Enugu state adequately staffed ' 1
What consideratio~ls guide the posting of teachers to Secondary schools in Enugu State ?
To what extent does school type influence government distribution of facilities to secondary schools in Enugu state ?
In what ways does School location influence government distribution of facilities to secondary schools in Eilugu state ?
Hypotheses . 4 ,,.,."(. +. , ..,.+ ' .
HO,: The proportion of physical blocks provided to scl~ools does not significantly depend on school location.
HO,: The proportion of Library materials supplied to Secondary schools in Eilugu state is ,pot-~~jgnificantly dependent on school location.
HO,: The proportion of science laboratory equipment supplied to Schools is not significantly dependent on school location.
HO,: The proportion of sporting equipment supplied to Secondary schools in Enugu State is not significantly dependent on School location.
HO,: The proportion of physical blocks provided to secondary schools in Enugu State does not significantly depend on School type.
. . HO,: The proportion of library materials supplied to secondary
, . Schools in Enugu State does not significantly depend on school tY Pf=
HO,: The proportion of Science Laboratory equipment supplied to Schools in Enugu state does not significantly depend on school type.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter presents a general review of literature that relate to
equality in Educational Opportunity, for the purpose of this study (on thg
extent of implementation of the National Policy on Equal Educational
Opportunity in Enugu State Secondary Schools) the following areas are
' reviewed:
Equality in Education: A conceptional overview
Administrative models for implementing educational programmes
Provisions of the National Policy on Secondary Education
Factors influencing the Policy on Equal -Education opportunity
Educational Resources i Nature and Dimensions
Roles of Resource Materials in Teaching and Learning
Related research studies.
Summary of the Review+. ,,.l* ' .
Equality in education: A Conceptual overview
Nduanya (1981) writing unaer-th'e caption, "Equality of Educational
Opportunity in Nigeria", maintained that an educational opportunity can be
seen as a favorable combination of educational circumstances whereby the
individual is enabled to engage in a process of developing his capabilities
through acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values both for his
own benefit and for the benefit of his society. A close look at this definition
should reveal four dimensions corresponding more or less to the concepts
underlined in the definition. First, a favorable combination of educational
circumstances has to be created; secondly it has to be made possible for the
individual to avail himself of the favorable circumstances created; thirdly the .
individual has actually to engage in the process'of utilizing those favorable
circumstance anlj fourthly,the process has to yield the desired benefits to the
individual and the society.
Equalization of such an opportunity for an individual citizen implies,
therefore, providing for that individual citizen a fair level of privileges vis-a-
vis those provided for his fellow citizens in respect of each of the above
four dimensions of the given educational opportunity which includes a four
level of privileges with tespect.,tc;r: a
1. Provision of favorable educational circun~stances,
2. accessibility of the favorable circumstances created, and
3. actual utilization of the availabk and accessible circumstances,
Fairness in levels ,of privileges made available to &.he individual vis-a-vis
those made available to his fellow citizens with respect to the four
dimensions of educational opportunities implies that in the allocation of each
privileges the individual is needs and capabilities are taken into
consideration, a consideration that involves equal but proportionate
allocation.
Green (1980) posited that the traditional views of equal educational . .- \
. . . opportunity has to do with equal access to schooling. This view is attained
when there is equal opportunity for different segments of the population to
compete for the benefits of the educational system. The minimum
operational condition for this view is that some kind of school should be
I provided. for every person in the society. Such schools should have
- comparable curricular facilities, staff, and management. Therefore, children
- who have no schools to attend do not have equal educational opportunity
with children who attend schools. Two elements are significant in the
traditional view of'equal educational opportunity. The first element is that
there should be access to school for any one who wishes to attend. The . < , , . . " t . % l , * d , *
second element is that the available schools should have approximately equal
input in terms of the n u ~ b e r of teachers, materiais and faci!ities.
The contemporary meaning of .?equality of educational opportunity"
is expressed by Garms (1990) to be a function of three element, namely: -7
17
Equal access to education: This assumes that the provision to
students with a minimum level of school resources will ensure
equality of educational opportunity. It is pertinent to point out that
the equality of services provided in the school comes into play. The
policy translation of equality of services provided is .that the state
should guarantee a minimum education expenditure level.
Equal Education Treatment: This element recognizes that learners
have varying abilities and needs. It therefore follows that available I
school services should
Applying the principle
resources above to this
minimally adequate for
Y
be tailored to the needs of the students.
of provision of minimum level of school
definition, it therefore, shows that what is
one school may not be enough to put some
students in another school on the starting line. Hence there should be
efforts 1.0 provide compensatory special education services to the
physically and mentally e G ,, handicapped . . .<. .t , d+ students.
Equality of ~ducational Outcome: Academic achievement should be
observed.to be crucial to personal Success by the proponents of this - element. Therefore equal student learning in terms .of minimum skills
is a measure of the equality of educational opportunity. For example,
every student who graduated from any secondary school should be . .
able to perform at a given grade level in reading, mathematics and . , .
English. Schools are responsible for such minimal outcomes
irrespective of resources available. The equal outcome concept was
further extended to mean the use of school resources and services in
a way as to give any student the opportunity to compete with any
other student in another school.
In Nigeria, either from a genuine concern about questions of poverty
and social inequality or as a result of political expediency, there has been a
growing trend towar'ds the provision of a greater measure of equality in the
distribution of educational opportunities (Adewole, 1982). In a study carried
out by both Avoseh (1990), and Onwuka (1991) it was discovered that the
relationship between economic, political and educational development is
more complex than was thought not too long ago. According to them, it is
realized that schooling would not reduce the factual differences among * < , ' . . * l . t ' , . " C ' .
students. One of such differences is the quality of family backgrohnd which
influences the qualities of schools which individuals attend. .Some of the new
civilian and military administrations in Nigeria have formulated and are I t - . - .
implementing development policies designed to bring about a :;lore equitable
distribution of opportunities. To the. extent that the present social and
.- economic relations among and within social groups are not drastically
changed, any number of changes within the school system wil l result in a
mere tinkering with the system.
Studies done in other countries in similar situations tend to support
this. For instance, there was a study carried out on the Dutch and Swedish
educational system by Pescher (1978). In that study it was concluded that
after many years of educational reforms, inequality of educational
opportunity had not diminished appreciably. Before Pescher, Ulich (1961)
had done extensive study on the problem of equality of educational . - . .
opportunity. He inexorably came to the conclusion that "selection according ',
to the parents' status is wasteful of time and talent". This is because some
children with better ability to learn are not selected due to the fact that they
are from parents who are not influential in the society. Where this is the
case, it means that most children who are talented have less chances of
being selected for admissi~~..int4,.Eederal schools. The outcome of this is
that children who are from low parental background are forced into the /
sectors of the economy where they languish and waste their brains. This is b.
what Ulich (1961) 'meant when hetasscifted that "it deprives intelligence of
the chance to work for its own and the nation's profitl'.
20
This is also applicable when selection is done according to birth since
it is a sort of "collectivism". It is so because it accords primacy to group
belongingness rather than to individual rights. These practices (viz
discriminatory selection into the schools and so on), remain perpetuated due
to the inability of the policy makers to foresee the imminent dangers
evolving from such policies before implementing them. Hence, many nations
in one form or the other, have neglected against innocent children because
of the state or social status of their parents.
This concept of equality of educational opportunity has actually
generated no small dissension in recent years. The reason is not far-fetched
and in this respect two concepts that readily come to mind in order to
effectively define equality of educational opportunity are: "equality of out
put" and "equality of input" in school resources. Equality of output means
a situation where every person who is admitted into a school must pass out
with an equal amount of learning. For instance, if 50 students are admitted
from each catchment area both from advantaged and disadvantaged ones, .,,,.>. h < . , l ~ . , ~ ~ ~ * ' .
it is'expected that all should come out with the same grade. But to think
about this is like having an earthly paradise. This is because there are a lot
of factors ranging from environmental I ) _... differences, family background,
educational attainment of the parents, social status of the parents, religious
inclination etc , which are responsible for differences in human nature and
development.
Equality of input .in school resources means a situation where every
child is given exactly the same attention in a school (Rawals 1990). For
instance, in Nigerian admission policy, the same number of children will be
admitted from every catchment area. Nduanya (198 1) emphasized that there
.is a need for categorization into advantaged and disadvantaged con~munities. ,
Besides, all the children so admitted must be taught by the same teachers,
must have exposure to the same facilities and so on. He maintained that
when equality is considered, no child should be given more attention than
any other .whether the child is handicapped or not. But this is also
- impossible as it is both wasteful and impracticable. Even if the same number
of chi!dren were admitted to school by common entrance from every
catchment area, they could not-attend the same school, how such less taught
'by the same teachers. But if all these things must take place, nobody will
have the right to deny any ., child ,#. . e r r ,I t h , ~ e . . school resources in favour of the - other. Looking at the above reasoning it can be deduced that equality of
/ educational opportunity cannot be defined in terms of equality of output or i
equality of input in school resources. 0rk will be constrained to pose the
question: what is the meaning of Equality of Educational opportunity ?.
..- For the researchers (Coleman 199 1, Darling 1966; Halsey 1991) this
concept cannot be realized. This is because bearing in mind all the
difference in human nature, there is no way in which every person can have
the same opportunity for education. Justifying this, Coleman (1991 :25) saw
education as a means to an end itself. He declares as follows':
I believe that the concept of equality of education opportunity is mistaken and misleading concept. It
is mistaken because it locates the equality of
opportunity; and thus focuses attention on education as an end in itself rather than a means to end, achieved in adulthood. It is misleading because it suggests that equal educational opportunity is achievable while it is not.
Another scholar who conducted extensive research on equality of educational
opportunity is Eysench (1990). According to him there is no equality of
opportunity when all children are treated equally. Equality OL opportunity,
if the term is to have any meaning implies that conditions are'optimized for
each particular child, given his own particular personality, patterns of .',, ."I.
.+'
ability and general -biological make-up. This is ii very difficult aim to
achieve. The issue at stake here is that there is no basis for reasoning to the -
effect that a dull or lazy child, with Jife. patterned after mischief and . .
atrocities, would become involved in a scholastic enterprise as-a determined
and hard working child- a child with very high zeal for achievement and
development of the intellect. There is no political or social pressure which
can remove all the differences in human nature in order to ensure "equality
of educational opportunity". To suggest that could be regarded as cynical
and cruel. This may likely be the reason why the Nigerian govgrnment may
not easily claim alibi in the matter of introducing and implementing the
concepts of "educationally disadvantaged".
Some critics (Enacho 1988; Enoh 1981 ; Lele 1990) see educational *
equality as a strategy put in place to stall the progress of the so called ,
advantaged states so that in no distant fufure those from disadvantaged states
may 'catch up with them educationally. The only way in which equality of
educational opportunity can be achieved according t o Eysenic (1990) is
through what he called the method procrustes - "cut off the feet cf those
who are too tall to f i t on your bed; and stretch on a rack those who are too .
small". According to him, it follows that many modern educational policies
are counter productive and do not serve any useful function. The practice
of the policy of educationafly.'"ai~id;anta~ed is one of such counter
productive polices. This is because children differ not only in temperament
or in intelligence but also in motivation for education. Eysench's(l990) , - . I
reason is that it would not be out of place to draw attention here to the fact
24
that even though Marx (1920) advocated egalitarianism, nowhere in the
world is the meditocratic principle more in evidence than in schools of
Russia, Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Enacho (1988) emphasized
that there is nothing wrong in giving a child the opp~rt'unity to go to school,
.. - but the opportunity may not be enough. In some cases a child may refuse
to go to school, the parents pressure notwithstanding. When issues of
equality are considered, one is forced to ask: At what level can we say that
a child has got the equal opportunity to ' be educated as a right?. In
attempting this question, one may likely say that everyone has an equal right
to get as much education as he wants and also has a right to equality of I
opportunity if he so desires. This has equally been echoed by Warnock
(1993), who observed that "whether he (the child) actually gets
depend upon his inclination , upon the amount of the commodity
*and the kind of competition involved in getting i t " . Emphasizing
more will
available, . more, she
argues that if the commodity is not scarce then equality of opportunity
simply means that everyone can have as much as he likes, and the right to
have it means that no one can rightful1))Y''everk him. But if the commodity
is scarce, then
- cmipetition.
all a child may have as of right, is the chance to enter the (
Administrative Models for Implementing Educational Programmes
School administrati'on was conceptualized as the management and
direction of the school with special emphasis on such matters as discipline,
availabilities of supplies, care of building and physical comfort of members
of the sc'hool community (Sayer 1990; Carter 1930). According to Sayer
(1990) a good administration is either to enable the school look after
them'selves or to ensure that individual learners develop their aptitude and
skills in their own direction and according to their own pace. Educational ' '
administrstion has major roles to play in achieving educationai programs.
Implementing policies and programmes that have been determined and
accepted:
..- These roles are:
adopted by school administrators. These include:
Ensuring the provision and prudent use of all the available human and
material resources for the achievement of the objectives of the system
Pointing the direction, inspiring and encouraging others working in
organization to achieve goals. ..,,.. * l . " . , " ' C .
Providing alternative development plans for individuals or groups with /
special develbpment needs \
In playing these roles, there are aenumber of models that can be '+
I t _ . -
i. Cyclic-action model . . 11 policy execution model ... 111 system theory approach
iv personality model
v Generalization model
The cyclic action model of secondary school administration proposes
that the management or administrative process is a cycle of action which
includes such activities as decision making, programming, communicating,
controlling and reappraising (Asch 1994; inchf field 199 1). Linchfield (1 99 1)
pointed out that this patter11 of action is found in various foriris in all phases
of administration. These activities occur in policy area, it is essential to '
personr;el, finance and other types of resource management; and it is to be
.- found in the executive function' as well. The specific activities and the cycle
as a whole provide the mechanism by means of which all of the separate
functions of school administration are carried on. In an idealized form, it
occurs as a logical sequence in which there is a progression from the making -., ,, .> 4 "<. ,, . -,+ . .
of a decision to the interpretation of the decision in the form of specific
programmes, to the communication of that programmed decision, to the
establishment. of controls for the realization of the decision and finally to a , I - ..
re appraisal of the decisions as programmed, communicated and controlled.
The grouping of the activities is made cyclical by the presence of the activity .. -
of re-appraisal, for this brings the sequence back to substantial the point at
which it began. Yet while it completes a full cycle, the sequence does not
necessarily lead again to identical action. If the original decision is precisely
re-affirmed, the sequence of the five activities is no more than a revolution
around a constant axis. However, if the original decision is modified in the
light of evidence presented in the re appraisal, the axis may move and the
cycle takes on a cycloidal form. The application of this approach to
implementation of the policy on equal education opportunity is found in its i
idealized form-making of decision on whether to adopt discriminatory, , .
compensatory or equal provisions, interpretation of the decision in form of
specific programme (eg the universal primary education meant to achieve
equity in educational provisions in the country), communication of that
programmed decision in the form of awareness campaign against illiteracy
and education denials, establishment of controls through the inauguration of
control agents and boards and finally the reappraisal of the decisions as . $ ,# .> 4 . f. ,t' >, d * .
programmed, communicated and controlled. This reappraisal often takes the /
form of research. . \
The second model depicting I ! _ . . . the nature of secondary school -
administration in terms of the implementation of policies and programmes
is the policy execution model. This model assumes that the secondary school
administrative process functions in the area of policy, resource and
execution. That is to say that the administrative process functions in the area
of policy, resource
and execution. That is also to say that the administration process starts with ,
policy formulation and ends with the execution of the policy. Wiener (1990)
defined policy as the definition of those objectives which guides the action
of a whole enterprise or a significant portion there of. It is thus .
distinguished from the general term "decision" which may guide action I I .
without reference to such objectives. He further enumerated the resource of ( I
management as people, money, authority and materials and described
execution as a function- of integration and synthesis which is intended to
achieve a dynamic and total orbnism. Execution divorced from policy is
aimless. Similarly, the policy function tends to become remote and sterile
unless associated with resource execution. This model of administration is
highly relevant to the issue,.,&,,st&e. -. impiementation of the federal , ,
government policies on equal opportunity in educational provisions. The
survival of any policy depends solely on its execution. Oguntcyz (1989) -
noted tmt although the policy on equal opportunity is quite interesting and I
." - commendable, its utility lies on 'the extent to which .each state of the I
federation can ensure its total-execution. He emphasized that one thing is to
formulate policy and the other is to execute it in spite of all intervening
variables.
The third model explaining the nature of secondary school
administration in relation to program implementation is the system model.
ThiS model assumes that secondary school administration is carried on in the
context of a larger social action system, the dimension of which include the
management process, the individual performing the management process, the
total enterprise within which the individual perform the administrative .
process and the ecology within which the enterprise function. Looking at - I
this model we thus have a concept of a system containing four dimensions,
each of which has a structure comprising a number of variables which .
interact upon one another. At one point the impact of the individual
administrator may be decisive and at another time relatively consequential
(Asch 1994; Brunetti 1993). Thus in a highly articulated bureaucracy, the
variations among administrators will affect the way in which the process is .$ $ 8 .. . " t . 7,. ., , ' I + .
performed to lesser extent than in a new organization which has been less /
rigidly structured. In other words there are not only variables within each \
dimension but .there is variation in fbe relative roles among the dimensions
in this total action system.
According to
proposition and the
30
Asch (1994) there are significant parallels between the
broad aspect of Talcott's (1987) theory of action. He
. postulates three system of action -personality, social and culture. He further
maintains that these are "reciprocally interrelated" and suggest the existence
of roles within
implementation.
personal, social
systems. This model is also relevant in programlpolicy
Since 'this models demands that attention be paid to -
and cultural variables, it tends to suggest the adoption of
compensatory or diserminatory practices in educational provisions. It must
be observed that personal, social and cultural variables in the country varies
a lot and since each individual deserves a special attention relevant to his
needs, discriminatory practices in resource allocation could be the best
option for the achievement of equality.
The personality model assumes that while constant in basic structures,
the administrative process will vary in important aspect deper:;ling upon the
personality of tht: person performing it. As Simon (!983) stressed, the cycle
of administrative action and the function of the management process are .,,,... il.,l..,"'* ' .
constant regardless of who performs them but the manner in which the /
actions are taken and the functions accomplished, however, will vary with . i
the characteristics of the individual. These variations in the manner are as , I -.-.
important as the constancy in structure. Different individual administrators
have radically different effects upon the whole organization. This model
explains that although policies or programs may be well stipulated and
generally agreed upon, the mode of its implementation will always vary with
individual implementers. In Nigeria, although the policy statement on equal
education opportunity is universally accepted throughout the- country, the
manner in which the implementation may proceed in the various states of the
federation will vary depending on the policy implementation organs of the
states.
Finally the model of school administration in relation to program
implementation has been conceptualized from the generalist's perspective.
The generalist's model assumes that secondary school administration and the
administrative process occur in substakially the same generalized form in
industrial, commercial, civil, educational, military and hospital organization.
The concept of universality of secondary school administration and of the
management process has been implicit in the mcch which has been
discussed. It has now been made explicit in a separate proposition . This is '
.$ ,,'.. 1 . 4 ' ,.'I* .
particularly important both for the classification of existing knowledge and /
as a hypothesis for subsequent investigation. The cyclic development of t
administrative action, beginning with I ) decision -.. making and moving through
reappraisal, occur in all types of organizations. Similarly each of them is
served by management through the accomplishment of the same basic
hnctions in the area of policy, resource and execution. Again the process
' is no less organic in a hospital that it is in a manufacturing establishment. .
Finally the process is but a proportion of a longer action system whether
.that system occurs in all the department of the interior or in general. The
process becomes a whole as administration when performed by an individual
within an enterprise functioning in its own ecological setting.
In every case there is a constancy in fundamental properties. The
differences which exist from one field of application to another are
differences which result from the factors suggested in the discussion of the
four dimensions constituting actions in program policy implementation in I
secondary schools. These are the fundamental differences; the variations in -
instructional application are derivatives when thus analyzed, however, the
more fundamental differences are seen to be but variations in the way in
wliich a constant process is performed or accomplished. They do not argue
against a basic universality. ., ,,. ."1. 4. *...IS .
So far, five models depicting the nature of program implementation /
in secondary schools have been discussed. The propositions have been, \ calculated to view the whole secondarr school administrative process and the - .*
whole of mana1:ement rather than any one or less-than- whole combination
33
of its parts. These propositions about the nature of secondary school
management or school administration in relation to policy implementation
attempted to relate the process of administration to a larger concept of action
system. Of all the five models, the policy execution model is more relevant
and more adaptable to this study. It incorporates policy formulation with
. ' resource provision and execution. .
Provisions of the National Policy on Secondary Education. . . Nwuzor (1977) stated that any educstional policy reflects a country's
political option, its traditions and values and its conceptions of the future. *
In other words the policy on Secondary Education is an embodiment of the
Nigerian way of life, including her aspirations and the way she intends to
fashion her youths in secondary school careers. It has been vehemently
pointed out by Ozumba (198855) that "the dream of every student should
be the clear democratic notion that all children, whatever their physical, - intellectual limitations, be helped to become the very best kind of person".
.* $1 . .il. \I. * r .-I* .
In effect, it is the utmost aim of the National Policy on Education to
provide for both youth and adults the best that can be achieved from a
functional educational system. I f + . I .
Lloyd (1990) pointed out that wh&.preparing children for a swiftly
changing economy, they need more general education, giving them the basic
skills and a grasp of basic principles that they can apply in a number of
jobs. That also implies that the acquired skills should be used for purposes
of self reliance. In the light of the above observations, one can see the
rational bahind the two main objectives' of the National policy on education.
..- (F.M.E 1981 : l6) stated as:
(a) Preparation for useful living and
(b) Preparation for higher education
In specific terms therefore, secondary education is expected to: ,
1. Provide a3 opportunity for a reasonable .number of primary school I
pupils to attend secondary school; I
2 . diversify the curriculun~ to care of the differences in talents;
3. equip the students with appropriate potentials to live effectively in modern age,of scienie and technology;
4. develop and project Nigerian culture, arts, and languages;
5 . raise a generations of p e ~ ~ l e , . y h o .can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings of others and the dignity of labour;
I
6. foster Nigeria unity and; i
7. inspire 'the students with the .dksire for achievements and self improvement within and outside the school.
.r - Nwagwu (1987) observed that there should be about 40% primary to
35
- secondary transition rate, a maximuin of 35 students class size for the junior
secondary, the involvement af local artisans to teach technical subjects and
about 1 :23 teacher-'student ratio. These are all suggestions on how best to
achieve the above listed secondary school objectives. These provisions on
secondary education also reflect the overall philosophy of Nigerian education
which according to the National Policy on Education (F.M.E. 198 1 :7) is:
based on the integration of the individual into a sound and effective citizen and equal educational opportunity for all citizens of the nation at primary, secondary and tertiary levels both inside and outside the formal school system.
Such an integration cannot be carried out in the .absence of a total overhaul
of both the system and the individual. On the point of the individual the
ebullient adolescents according to Mgbodile (1 986: 12) are to be "initiated .
into or get going on the activities and forms of thought which they
eventually come to master".
Such activities may i n c l u d . ~ , ~ . ~ o n ~ others the inculcation of national
consciousness and national wiity, right type of values and attitudes for the /
individual and the nation and acquisition of skills, abilities, and \
competencies both mental and physical. - a-
On structure, the system provides two tiers of secondary education of
36
three years each. In j ~ n i o r secondary, i t is to be pre-vocational and
academic with some chances of apprenticeship for its graduates. The second
tier is for those able and willing to be comprehensive and rounded up by an
external examination in conjunction wiih continuous assessment. Both tiers
have broad-based educational programines which give an~pls opportunity to
every student to realize himself or to achieve his goals.
There is also the aim of producing students who will be self-employed
as well as ensuring the technological take off of the country. The '
development of the three domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor I, I
I probably on ecual footing is also emphasized. As Enacho (1988) I
emphasized, the broadened curricular programme will eventually require an
enlarged time table, extension of the school day and mid-day meals to
sustain the students. Most secondary schools are to be operated in ways that
enable maximum utilization of the scarce resources and also in a way that I
ensure equity in the resource utilization. Bearing in mind the various
objectives of secondary education andealso considering the fact that facilities
for the attainment of such objectives are obviously scarce, the education I/ ministry, local education authority and secondary school principals are faced \
with the great challenge of managin'g theresources in ways that does not
provide rooms for discrimination in the resource allocation. Although the
National Policy on Equal Education Opportunity did not make any clear
pronouncement on procedures for resource allocation, it is assumed that '
equality in its general context should mean a uniformity in educational
provisions. An attempt to deviate from this procedure especially in states
like Enugu State where discriminatory educational provision is not in
practice, will be a complete deviation from the national objective; Secondary
education in Nigeria therefore, must ensure that every Nigerian child in
secondary school be given comparable opportunities for self development .
and fulfillment irrespective of where he lives and the economic and social
circumstance into which he has been born.
Factors influencing the Government Policy on Equal Opportunity
Research studies (Enacho 1988: Bryne 1988; Aubrey 1988; Adewola
' 1982; Jeneks 1982; Murphy 1981 ; Omatseye 1981.) have revealed certain
factors which influence the policy on equal opportunity in various parts of
the world. These factors include physical, soeio-political, religious and .,, Y ' . . l . r \ t . . . . - i * ' .
economic factors. Omatseye (1981), also presented a crucial appraisal of the
historical trends in Nigeria's educational inequality which i s highly related i to the work of Enacho (1988). According - .. to Enacho (1988) a major factor
in resource distribution is the school: location. In his study titled "Resource
distribution in Nigerian Secondary- schools: Issues of u rban-~ura l
inequalitiesv, he noted that rural schools are often neglected in resource
allocation. He maintained that distribution of such facilities as science
laboratory equipment, sporting materials, introductory technology materials
and other essential resources for effective teaching and learning are highly
concentrated in urban schools. This factor was also implicated in
Andewole's (1982) study of Nomadic Education. Until recently, government
has paid 'deaf ears to the need for equitable provision of educational .
opportunities to nomads simply because of their nature of settlement. The
nomads settle in remote areas where cattle can graze effectively and in often I
cases, the government tends to forget them when educational policies are
formulated. This creates a galloping inequality both in educational
opportunity and over all development. The complete disregard of the rural
people in resource allocation raises the doubt as to whether the rural people
are also a part of the country for whom the policies are formulated .
Darling (1986) discussed inequality of education opportunity in .(, I . t . ~ t . . ~ . . I . ~ ~ E .
relation to income. He noted that a major source of inequality in educational 8
/ opportunity is inequality in income. According to him the middle and upper-
\ class families can use theii. wealth to obtain the best out of school
, - .I
.- educational facilities for their children. Consequently their children's
exception4 or at least. high level performance in school can influence
curriculum planning to expect higher academic performance for all children.
Since children of the low or poor income groups may not have congenial
home -school educational facilities, it is unlikely that they will achieve high
as to equalize in the Meritocrat's view, with the children of the upper or
middle class.
Besides, it is the upper or middle class that excel in academic work
and thus 'Meritoriously' maintain their places in higher positions that '
determine the educational objectives of the state. The schools plan the
curriculum to re.'lect these high class determined objectives. More often than
not the requirement of the system is above.normal competitil;e units of the
low income group or the lower class. Even in the face of compulsory
universal education, inherent difficulties of class distinction will remain
unsolved.
Westergard (1984) further argued that "although class inequalities in
access to academic have decreased a little in recent years, they remain very . I , Y ' * " l . \l. * r "'* ' .
sharp; the change
workers children
ui~iversities than
is marginal". According to Westergard
were still, in the early seventies, less
children of profe,ssioqaI and technical
(1 984) manual
likely to enter
officers. The
contention hereis that class distinction.(socio-economic factors) also militate
- against total achievement of equal educational opportunity. Gutfreund (1979)
and Coleman (1988) equally pointed out that some factors such as class
distinction and segregation,environment, sex and school type have serious
influences on the individuals educational attainments.
School type was also studied in relation to equality in educational - opportunity and provisions. Considering the social influence of school type
on the equality issues, Alexander (1978) argues that disparity in school type
creates inequalities where non existed previously. In this way, educational
and socio economic inequalities are made a reality.:Braddock (1981) also
s!lpported the work of Alexander. He emphasized that the female schcols are i I , neglected in the supply of certain materials like sporting equipment,
introductory technology equipment and some other resources for instruction
in fields that have been mistermed Masculine . Equality in educational
provisions dema~ds equal access to both male and females and does not in
any way advocate unfair treatment in the provision of these resources.
Political factors were also discussed in relation to inequalities. In .<,*.., b l . , t . * , . . ' * . .
Nigeria the politics of North and South results in a complete manifestation
of inequality. The quotapystem, for example is a manifestation of inequality . /'
because it demands that some groups have to wait for others to arrive. In I f - .I
that respect individual's abilities are neglected in the provisions of
educational opportunities. The universal primary education scheme was a
grandiose educational venture in Nigeria to equalize educational opportunity - for all citizens. It was a political interpretation of the concept with a view
to satisfy the legal and formal notions attached to the constitutional right of
all citizens to equal and adequate educational opportunities at all levels.
Akinkpelu (1990) however, observed that even magnanimous efforts, such
as supplying all books and stationery to students may in fact not result in the
imagined equitable and fair objective envisaged.
A number of reasons account for Akinkpelu's pessimistic speculation.
One is the political factor which at the end will result in discrimination in
the distribution of the resource, and another is, personal greed which results .
in partial fulfillment of government policies. . .
Educational Resources : Nature and Dimension
Onyejemezi (1 98 1.) defined resource materials as any device, method
or experience used for teaching ., ," . purpcpe, f. ,I including textbooks. supplementary
reading materials, audiovisuals and other sensory materials used for effective
teaching and .learning. It includes all materials and equipment used in ..
connection with the teaching of a lesson and not just for production
purposes. According to Onyejemezi (1 98 1) educational resources refer to all
42
materials /equipment that enhance effective teaching and learning. These
. materials embrace both the locally made ones and the imported materials.
Hartman (1989) classified resource materials into two major groups
: single channel and multiple channel resources. He explained that single
channel resources are'teaching aids that are administered singly while the
multiple channel materials comprise more than or,e resoarce material.
Hartman (1989) in his review suggested that multiple channel educational
resources are more effective than single channel educational resources
provided that the task of comprehension and retention use the same channels
employed in the presentations. The major types of educational resource
materials were enumerated by Onyejemezi (1981). They include projected
and non-projected aids. According to her the non-projected aids encompass
boards of various kinds, pictorial aids, three dimensional aids and printed .
matters. She a1:io listed the projected aids as the television, and films of
various sorts. Olaitan (1981) emphasized that other materials which could
be used for learning are materials that, can appeal to the senses of hearing, . c ,>.,. "<. \*. % ' # ' *
touch, sight and imagination.
These educational resources, however, exhibit some functional
attributes. These functional attributgs ark :
(i) Diffused - focal
(ii) Fleeting - Persistent
- - (iii) Concrete - Abstract
The diffused focal, are physically the audio visual axis. This is
because most diffused stimuli are in fact sound stimuli while most focal
stimuli are visual. According to Hartman (1989) diffused srtimuli are all-
rmnd, non-directional warning and alerting system causing the focal systems
of sight, touch and taste to be brought to bear for. detailed exploration.
These are particularly well-equipped for the exploration and perception. of
spatially organized materials such as maps, pictures and real objects where
the important aspects are shapes, sizes, relative position, texture and . . %
, comparisons.
Though this dichotomy is true in a general way, the axis is seen as a
continuum, not as separate poles: Hence a graduation exists and visual
stimuli may be used in a relatively diffused way, and audio visual in a
relatively focal way. For instance, a very wide screen (circloroma) has
. diffused aspects, being capable of collecting attention and bringing it in to ", , , . . .A. *, .
a point. .Media which have very high diffuse characteristics are, therefore,
optimal for attention attracting and recalling and for causing learners to
'home in' on the leaking communicatiog. . ;-.
The next functional attribute of educational resources is the axis 'b'
otherwise called the fleeting persistent. This relates to whether or not the
display changes with time. Prime examples of this are to be seen in sound -
stimuli in movie film or television and in sensorimotor skill situations : all
of these being temporal in character and non-persistent. Touch and smell
both tend to fade rapidly as sensations, hence they have fleeting
characteristics also. For example, people who have taught chemistry or have
searched for a gas leak will know that the sense of smell is soonsatiated and
that only the initial contact with the stimuli is reliable. Eysenich (1988)
observed that one of the most important aspects of tleeting stimuli is their .i
alerting nature. Changes in display especially in conjunction with diffused , I
attributes tend to alert, stimulate, and attract. Motion changes in colsur,
shapes, position, angle or even of space and style may be seen as I
stimulation, working against boredom. 1 I
The third functional attribute of educational resource is the axis 'c' I
otherwise called concrete abstract-dimensions. An elaboration of this axis in .
terms of ~ r u n i e r ' s (1986) enactive,-iconic and symbolic inodes of thinking
seems appropriate. Here is an obvious meeting point between teaching
strategies, their media and physiological concepts. It is not difficult to see
that educational media eg. 'words' - present
effectively. Other media eg. charts present more
abstract symbols more
specific' images, yet other
45
media eg. stimulators, produce inactive learning.
The nature and dimension of the educational resources in terms of
their functional attributes determine the effectiveness for . a given
instructional unit. they also determine the categories of learners they can
. serve. For example, pupils with hearing impairment are known to.respond
better to resources that convey symbols and images. Bearing this in mind
and considering the fact that schools are filled with learners of varying
physical and psychological characteristics, it would be recommended that
educational resources 'with varying functional attributes and dimensions be
provided to schools to take care of all the learners. . .. ,
Roles of Resource Materials in Teaching and Learning
Continued efforts toward the improvement of learning have been made
by educational technologists. These efforts were mostly geared toward the
provision of resource materials which have been described as the most
indispensable instruments in aJg$f~,i.ng situation (Onyejemezi 1981 ; Ryan
1986; Dwyer 1987; Olaitan 1987). The roles of resource materials in /
learning have been described by several researchers (Osuah 1987; Gross
1980; Nalue 1987). According to Osuala :(1987) there is an emergent shift- I (
in emphasis and orientation toward a more functional approach to primary
and secondary education; which better fulfils the socio-economic needs of
the nation. he stressed that the emphasis involves the effective utilization of '
local resources in designing instructional materials and subsequent use of
these materials for the achievement of a higher educational pay off.
Therefore, schools are encouraged to emphasize the use of instructional
materials for teaching and learning especially in areas of science, technology
and craft.
Onyejemezi (1981) pointed out that instructional materials when used
. adequately by an experienced teacher help to ensure faster understanding and
higher retention of the units of instruction being taught. She stressed that an
iniportant factor in the use of the instructional material is the relevance of
the materials to the instructional units. Oranu (1988) stressed that the use of
the instructional materials / educational resources - both print and non-print,
hard and softwares would be a step forward in providing for individual
differences when the pupils are permitted and encouraged to use
instructional materials at the time when hdshe has the need for them. ., ,*. . "<. ,t' ., ' 4,- I .
Hegen (1984) observed that the use ~f instructional materials in the i teaching-learning situation not only save time and stimulate students interest
but also increase retention of knowledg? since most students remember what
they see, hear and feel longer than what they read alone. .This point was
47
buttressed by Nalue (1981) when he stressed that the use of resource - materials make for a clearer, more vivid and easier understanding of ideas.
He also added that educational resource materials increase the pupil's ability
to b.e alert to the flood of ideas to which they are continually exposed and
the ability to respond intelligently to such situations..'
According to Olaitan and Agusiobo (-1981) a nice way of maintaining
a good attitude toward subject matter is through a carefully planned
instruction around the subject matter that is of high interest to the pupil and
teacher. They also emphasized that the most convenient way of achieving an
interesting lessoil is by the use of resource materials. They further .
emphasized that in whichever case, the resource material that will be used
has to be relevant to the lesson and warned that teachers should also be
careful not to be pressured into using resources that are not relevant to the
lesson. Resource materials are useful and dependable in capturing pupil's
imagination if used correctly. According to Tonne (1991) pictures often
succeed in putting an idea across * I ,,.... when $... ' . . I * w,ords fail. Therefore, visual devices
are efficient tools in the hand of a good teacher. Onyejemezi (198 1) supports
this assertion by emphasizing that resource materials result in more effective
l~arning of factual information and oki1ls.h less than mere verbalization.
The various roles of resource materials were summarized by Onyejemezi . .
(1981) as follows :
(a) They promote activity-based learning and sharing of experience;
.(b) They supply a concrete base for conceptual learning and by doing this
they reduce meaningless responses of chi!dren;
(c) They make learning more permanent and interesting;
(d) They develop continuity of thought in students;
(e) They help the teacher to do a number of things such as provision of -
information, introduction of interest compelling activities which can result
in wide variety of activities;
(f) They help the teacher overcome some knowledge deficiency in providing
the subject matter and delivering the goods effectively..
She further stressed that a classroom which confines learning to
written and verbal symbols unduly shelters pupils and narrows their
perspectives of reality. She added that audio-visual materials help break the I
h n d which impedes the mind's natural thrust. Supporting the above view,
O'laitan and .Agusill>bo (1981) maintained that when resource materials are . , ,, .. . "1. 6. *, . L'C . .
effectively utilized by a teacher, they help stimulate the interest of the
pupils, reduce the number of verbal responses, make learning more / \.
permanent and provide experiences not easily secured in other ways. When I t - .*
effectively used, resource materials offer a reality of experience which
stimulates individual activity and motivate pupils to investigate or explore ' . .
thereby increasing voluntary reading i.n pupils. ',
:Related Research Studies
Several research efforts have been expended in the area of equality of
educational provisions. These research efforts are categorized based on the
dimension of variables they explore. Such sub-categories include equality
in relation to nomadic education (Adewole 1982)' sex (Aubrey 1988;
Oguntoye l989), racial and ' socio-economic variables (Boudon 1980;
Browman 1975) and regional factors (Enacho 1988).
Adewole (1982) studied 'Nomadic education: Issues on equality and
reliance". The study exposed the complete negligence of nomads in the
nation's educational plans, and provis-ions of educational resources and
incentives. He emphasized that equality per se only connotes one fact. He
emphasized that in situations where the background:of the learners is not i
similar, equality can ~nly.~,,~~,~$isc,ussqd in relation to compensatory
provisions or discriminatory practices. Adewole (1982) observed that the
nomads are highly disadvantaged in areas of education and as such demands
a compensatory treatment in educational iesource provisions. - i.
The issue of sex and equality in educational opportunities was also
50
explored. Aubrey (1988) in his own research encounter explored "equal
opportunity for men and women". He observed that sex discrimination is
prevalent in school resource distribution in most part of the world. He
observed that unnecessary attentions are paid to gender roles and gender
related issues in resource distribution to schools. It was observed that some
facilities (sporting, science and technical equipment) are provided more to 3
male than to female schools. Although such policies contradicts national
objectives, its practice is continuously perpetuated in the school system.
Aubrey recommends that both boys and girls be given equal opportunity to
develop their skills and talents. There is no point restricting females from
developing their talents in technical fields or other areas of knowledge that
has been misconceived as masculine.
Studies on rural and soc'io economic variables related to equal
education opportunity express gross racial discriminations in educational
provisions (Boudon 1980). Boudon (1980) studied "inequality of educational - opportunity in Western Europe". The study revealed marginal inequality in
. 4 , . . . . . l , , t . .,.,, ,
distribution of educational facilities to schools in Europe. He recommended
that if education must achieve its objectives, these gaps created by
discriminatory'practices must have to be. bridged. Bowman (1975) studied I * - .-
some economic perspectives in relation to equality of educational
opportunity. He noted that economic background of students ,influence
equality at the secondary ,school level. Bowman (1975) observed that
children from high income groups are provided with higher facilities at
home for academic growth. Such children tend to perform better than those
from poor classes. An uncritical look at their level of performance may
force teachers and education authorities to classify them as gifted. As such
more opportunities are given to them in the school than their colleagues
from poor parents. . , .
Enacho (1988) in another research development studied regional
factors that influence equality of educational opportunity. His study of
resource distribution to Nigeria secondary schools centred mainly on urban-
rural inequalities. He explored the difference in provision of educational
resources to urban and rural schbols. He observed that a sort of
. unpronounced discriminatory practice exists in resource distribution to
schools. In the study, the research found that rural schools are marginalized
in resource allocation. He r e c 6 q ~ g ~ e g ~ g i ~ h a t equal attention be given to both
urban and rural schools to ensure that students coming from rural schools
can compete favourably with their counterparts from urban schools in all
academic and social endeavours. I t _ _.. - i
Summary of the Review
So far, this review has explored the concepts and factors in equal .. -
educational opportunity in general. Although issues pertaining to equality
have not been settled, the researcher has assumed that since in Enugu State
no compensatory education is pronounced, equality, therefore should be
taken to mean uniform distribution of resources irrespective of any likely
deficiency among some groups of people in the state. The .review also
explored the provisions .of the national policy on secondary education.
Although the Federal Government made several pronouncements on equality
of access to education, there was no precise mode stipulated by the
government for such resource distribution in which ease, therefore, each . * .
state government decides on the modalities for resource allocation in her
schools. Each state may therefore decide to implement the policy their own
way. The review further analyzed the models of educational administration
rdevant to policy/program implementation in secondary schools. The nature
of programme implementation was perceived from various models which .,,,..*I.+. % * a * . .
were finally related to equality of provisions in secondary education. The
review, though not quite copious, covered areas necessary for widening the
researchers focus on the current study on extent of equality in distribution 11 - .-
of educational resources to Enugu State secondary schools.
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter describes the general procedure used in the study. This
includes the design, area of study, populations of the study, sample and
sampling procedure, instruments for data collection, validity of the
- instrument, reliability of the instrument, method of data collection and
.method of data analysis.
This study is a su.rvey on the extent to which the Enugu State
Government has been able to achieve equality in resource distribution in her
secondary schools.
Area of Study
This study was c o n d u c t e d , . ~ ~ , . ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ education zones of Enugu state.
The two zones are Enugu and Nsukka Education zones. The study explored
schools in both urban and rural areas of the two education zones.
Population of the !itudy
The population for this study consisted of all secondary schools within
the two education zones of Enugu State. There are two hundred and 'forty-
eight (248) secondary schools in Enugu State. A total of one hundred and
forty-seven (147) secondary schools are located within Enugu Education
Zone while in Nsukka Education Zone, there are one hundred and one (101)
secondary schools
Sample and Sampling Procedure.
The sample for this study comprised of four (4) members of the
Governing council of the Post Primary School Manageldent Board, two chief
supervising principals, sixty principals, six hundred teachers and six hundred
students drawn from sixty secondary schools u h g a combination of .-
probability and non probability sampling procedures. In each of the two
education zones, thirty schools (10 male schools, I0 female sch'ools and 10
co-educational schools) were .$ drawn ,,.... (. ., ., ..!+ through a simple stratified random
sampling. During the sampling of the schools, the study also stratified the
schools into urban and ru:-a1 schools so that out of :he. thirty secondary
schools drawn frbm each of the educational."one, fifteen schools were from
urban while the other fifteen were drawn from rural areas. in the zone. .
. - In drawing research subjects four members of the Governing Council
of the Post Primary School Management Board were selected for the study.
They were : the acting chairman, Member I, I1 and 111. These are the top
most ranking officers of the board. The two chief supervising principals for
Enugu and Nsukka education zones were also purposefully included in the
sample because as the head of the two zones, they are among the decision
making body as far as secondary schools are concerned. Sixty principals
(all principals for the schools in the sample) were also drawn for the study.
In each school ten teachers (5 science and five arts teachers including games
master) were drawn using simple purposive sampling approach. The 9
researcher used purposive approach in selection of teachers to enable him ,
select teachers who are conversant with most of the faciiities being
investigated. Ten students were alsoadrawn judgementally from each school
used for this study. The ten students (5 science students and 5 arts students
- including games captain) were drawn from SS I11 classes only. The decision .
- to draw students from SS I11 classes is because having stayed for quite a . , , , . . . < . . t ~ . , % a 3 * ' .
long time in the school, they are better acquainted with facilitieslequipment /
available in the school. i In all, therefore, .a total of one thousand two hundred and sixty six
research subjects were used for this study (4 members of the council, 2 chief -
supervising principals, 60 principal, 600 teachers and 600 students). The
study centered within the sixty secondary schools drawn frcm the two
education zones of the state.
Instrument for Data Collection .-
Two instruments were used to collect data for this study:
(a) School Resource Provision Assessment Inventory (SRPAI)
(b) School Resource Provision Assessment Scale (SRPAS)
The School Resource Provtsion Assessment Inventory is an inventory
developed by the researcher to assess the facilitieslequipment .provided to
schools. The inventory is designed to assess the quantity of resources
provided to schools in relation to school population (ie number of users) and
standard criteria of usage in terms of the standard numbers of users per
itemlfacilityl equipment as provided by conventional rules guiding the .
. . utilization of the various resources. From this the researcher determined the
proportion of f ac i l i t i e s / equ ip~~ t . (r.l;saurce provided and the proportion
lacking or yet to be provided. The instranlent is divided into seven sections
namely: physical blocks, classroom/office facilities, science laboratory
equipment, introductory technology~,equipment, library materials, sporting
equipment and basic facilities like water and electricity. Data collected with
57
this instrument are not based on opinions but rather from school inventories
and school statistics including the number of students enrolled for the
various subjects requiring the facilities.
The School Resource Provision Assessment Scale (SRPAS)'developed
by the researcher is a 36-item 4-point Likert-type instrument comprised of
six sections. The first section deals with factors considered by the'
government in the distribution of the various facilities and equipment. The . .
sec.ond section contains items that investigate the extent of consideration of P
school types in the distribution of educational resources; the third section
deals with consideration of location in school resource allocation; the fourth
section contains items that explore factors considered by the government in , I
posting of staff of schools; the fifth section deals with the adequacy of the
- facilitiesiequipment while the last section explores the adequacy of human
resources provided to secondary schools in Enugu State.
Sections A-D of the instrument were not administered to the students
used for this study. T h e memb,g,,l;~.pf,J)e. Governing council of the Post
Primary School Management Board, Chief Supervising Principals and
teachers were asked to respond to these sections of the instrument. Sections
E-F were meant for principals, teachers and. students only.
Validation of the Instrument
The instruments were face validated by experts in research and school
administration. Their useful input contributed a lot to the modification and < .
improvement of the instrument. In the instrument, conflicting, ambiguous '
and irrelevant items were removed based on the recommendations of the
'experts during face validation. Intensely exploring and simple sentence
structures were included in the new draft of the instrument. The initial draft
of the instrument before face validation is shown in appendix V. .
Reliability of the Instrument
The School .Resource Provision Assessment Scale was assessed for I
reliability using the test-retest procedures and the Cronbach alpha. Because
the instrument is a non dichotomously scored (Likert-type) instrument the -
researcher considers Cronbach alpha more appropriate in assessing the
internal consistency of the instrument. Using the Pearson's product
movement correlation coeffi&pt,,,~e instrument yielded a retest reliability
coefficient of 0.98. A test of internal consistency using the Cronbach alpha ,
/ was conducted for each of the six sections of the instrument. Section 'A'
k,
yielded an alpha of 0.83, section 1'~'-iielded an alpha of 0.87, section 'C'
an alpha of 0.80, section 'D' an alpha of 0.88, section 'E' an alpha of 0.71 -
59
and section 'F' and alpha of 0.81: These high reliability coefficience
indicate that the instrument has high internal consistency. Details of the
reliability tests are presented in appendices 111 and IV.
Method of Data Collection . .
Both the School Resource Provision Assessment Inventory and the %
+ . School Resource Provision Assessment Scale were used to collect data for
this study. In each school used for the study the researcher personally
.demanded the school resource inventory from the school authority. From the
school inventory the researcher filled in the appropriate columns in the
Inventory Assessment Scale. In this respect the researcher did not solicit for
anybody's opinion on the quantity of resources available. but rather on
concrete evidence as can be seen and quantified from the school resource
inventory. The proportions of resources available were computed in relation
to number of users and standard criteria of usage. From this the researcher
was able to quantify for each school the proportions of the various - . * , " . . . L , t . * , . * l r ' .
resources/facilities /equipment provided and the proportion lacking or yet to /
be provided. \
For theschool Resource Proyisio~ Assessment Scale, the respondents
to the relevant sections were asked to indicate their'responses with a tick in
the appropriate column corresponding to the items of their choice. Scores of the
responses for each section werei recorded separately so that six groups of scores
were obtained to represent scores of the various respondents for the six sections
of the instru~i-~ent. f
Method of Data Analysis
Research questions were answered using simple percentage proportions,
mean and stand deviations. Hypotheses 1 - 7 were tested using simple chi square
test of independence. Chi square test was used because it is a more appropriate
11011-parametric method for assessing significance of dependence.
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
This chapter presents the results of data analysis based on the seven
research questions and seven hypotheses that guided this study. The results
of the analysis are presented in order of the research qiestions and
hypotheses for the study.
- Research Questions
Research Question 1
What facilities and equipment are supplied by the government to Secondary Schools in Enugu state?
Data on research question I were collected with section 'A' of the I
School Resource Provision Assessment Scale and analyzed descriptively
using proportion and the findings reported in table I. The data were analyzed
to arrive at the proportion through the following procedures. . * , , .. . .t. .*. ?, . -3 + ' .
i. The total number of a given facility1 equipment for a given school was recorded (ie from the school inventory).
. . 11. The total number of users of each of the facilities were also recorded
(from school statistics). ( I _ .-
. . iii. The conventional standard criteria of usage (ie number of.students
supposed to use a particular item) was also recorded.
iv.
v .
vi.
vii
For a g i v x facility the number depicting standard criterion of usage (sa) 5 students per item ) was used to divide the total number of users of that particular item.
The score so obtained was used to divide the total number of a given facilitytequipment noted in i.
The score so obtained was converted to percentage to represent the percentage proportion of equipment/facility for a given school.
This process was carried out for the sixty schools. The mean for the sixty schools studied represents the proportion supplied as shown in Table I.
Facilities /Equipment Proportion supplied in %
1. Physical blocks 2. Classroom /office facilities 3. Sci~nce Laboratory equipment 4. Introductory technology equipment 5. Library Materials 6. Sporting equipment 7. Basic utilities (water & electricity)
Table I : Proportion of facilities and equipment supplied by government.
-
5
Proportion not supplied in %
13 79 26 34 82 78 54
As shown i n lable I the facilitiestequipment provided by the government to /
secondary schools are physical blocks (administrative blocks, classroom blocks, \,
Library and dormitory), classroom/office facilities (chairs lockers; tables, cabinet, ,I _,..
shelves), sciences laboratory equipment (Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Agric
science equipment), Library materials (books, periodicalsand reference materials),
sporting equipment (footbaWgames area, spoits kits) and Basic utilities (water and
electricity). The proportion computed was based on quantity supplied in relation
to number of users and standard criteria of usage.
Research Questilm I1
To what extent are the facilities supplied by ~ I M J govrrtittietit to secotidaty schools in Enugu State udequure ?
Section 'B' of the instrument which is a 4 -point Likert type scale was used to
assess the extent to which the materials supplied are adequate as perceived by the
respondents. Since the instrument is a 4-point scale, the researcher adopted the I
following criteria of judgement:
0.1 -1.0. = Very inadequate
1.1 -2.0 = Inadequate
2.1 -3.0 = Adequate I
3.1 -4.0 = Very adequate C
Summary of the extent of adequacy as perceived by the respondents is shown in .$,#.... <..*-..>'* ' .
table 11.
64
Table 11: Perceived adequacy of the facilities/equipment supplied to School by
Results in table I1 shows that of all the facilities1 equipment supplied to secondary
the government.
schools in Enugu State only physical blocks were perceived to be very adequate
,
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
with a mean adequacy of 3.48 on the 4-point scale. The table also reveals that the
supply of science laboratory equipment is adequate while the mpply of basic , . I
utilities like water and electricity is inadequate. Also revealed in the table is that I
I
the supply of library materials and sporting equipment are very imdequate. The
Facilities
Physical blocks Classroomloffice facilities Science Laboratory equipment Introductory technology equipment Library materials Sporting equipment Basic Utilities (water & electricity
supply of classroom/office facilities is also very inadequate.
Research Question I11 ..,#, .... <. .t' .,.a+
What factors are raken rnto consideration by the Minivlry of Education in the distribution of educational facilities to secondary schools ?
Rema1 its
Very Adequate Very Inadequate Adequate Adequate Very Inadequate Very Inadequate Inadequate
Mean adequacy
3.48 0.84 2.96 . 2.64 0.72 0.88 1.84
Section 'D' of the instrument explored factors and extent they are considered in
Standard Deviation
1.64 . 2.22 1.74 1.06 2.06 1.98 1.49
distribution of resources to secondary sehaols in Enugu State. The general
guideline for the interpretation of the data is as follow:
0 -1 is very rarely, 1.1 - 2.0 is rare, 2.1 -3.0 is often, while 3.i -4.0 is very
often. Summary of the analysis and remarks are shown in table I11
Table 111: Factors and their extent of consideratiort in distribution of resources -
School location School type Political Influence Dynamism of the school immediate environment Special appeal Principals' degree of public
, relation
to Secondary Schools in Enugu state.
very often often very often often
Rarely often
Summary of results in table 111 show that factors considersd by the Ministry of
Remarks FACTORS
Education in resource allocation to secondary schools are school location, political .
influence, school type, dynamism of school immediate environment and principals'
level of public relation.
Mean extent of considEration
Research Question IV . .< ,,.... f.+..,..3C . .
Standard Deviation
To What extent are Secondury Schools in Enugu State adequately staffed ?
The researcher collected data for this research question through a /
- i comprehensive listing of teachers in all,,schoals - ... used for this study and classifying
them according to areas of specialization, qualification, and acquired skills. The
66
extent of adequacy was computed in relation to number of students or quantity of
job to be done. Summary of the analysis is presented in table IV
Table N: Extent of adequacy of tutorial and non tutorial staff in secondary schools in Enugu State.
Categories of staff proportion proportion available .Lacking
Qualified Science and technical teachers
2 Qualified Arts and humanities teacher 8 8 12
3 Qualified skilled non tutorial 68 3 2 staffs(typists; lab assistants & Drivers).
Efficient unskilled non- tutorial staff. (Labourers,Messengers, and cleaners) 1 98 / O2
Remark
poorly staffed very well staffed moderately staffed very well staffed
Table IV shows that Secondary Schools in Enugu state are poorly staffed
with qualified Science and Technology teachers. The table also reveal that . .
Secondary Schools in Enugu State are well staffed with qualified skilled non-
tutorial staff and very well staffed with unskilled non-tutorial staff.
Research Ouestion V
What considerations guide the posting of teaclzers to Secondary Schools in Enugu State
Section 'G' of the instrument contains items that explore the various factors
that are considered in posting of teachers and the extent of consideration of such
factors ir, staff posting. Data collected from the 4-point Likert-type scale were
analyzed using mean and standard deviation. Summary of results obtained after the
analysis is shown in table V.
Table V: Factors considered in posting of teachers and the extent of their
political consideration and marital consideration are the factors considered in
consideration.
posting of teachers in secondary schools. The tablevhowever reveal, that routine
rationalization of teachers and church intervention are the least factors considered "
in posting of teacherslstaff to secondary schools.
Remarks
-- rarely considered very often considered very often considered very often considered rarely considered very often considered
Factors considered mean extent Standard
deviation
Research Ouestion VI:
Summary of data in table V show that punitive measures, special requests,
- 1 2 3 4 5 6
Routine rationalization exercise Punitive Measures Special request Political undertone Church Intervention Marital consideration
1.18 3.28 3.16 3.22 1 .07 3.49
2.22 1.46 1 .09 1.15 2.1 1 1.74
Research Question VI:
To what extent does school type influence government distribution of facilities in Secondary Schools in Enugu State ?
Data collected on extent of distribution of facilities and equipment to Secondary
Schools were classified according to school type. The proportions computed
were also based on quantity supplied in relation to number of users and criteria
of usage.
Table V I : Proportion of facilitieslequipmerzt supplied to schools according to sclzool types.
Mcan % proportion o f facilitics supplied
FACILITIES I MALL SCHOOL
Physical Blocks Ciassroom/office facilities Science Laboratory equipment Introductory technology equipment Library materials Sporting equipment Basic utilities (water and electricity):
GRAND MEAN , . . . ,
Results in the table above generally show that more facilities especially science, \
FEMALE SCHOOL
98 10 70 24 25 10 64
43 53.4.
technology and sporting facilities are provided to boys' schools. Physical Blocks, , t -..
CO-ED
7 8 4 69 7 6 12 2
27
38.3
library materials and basic utilities are p~~ovided more in girls' schools. The results of
the analysis also reveal that co-educational schools are marginalized in the distribution
of' facilities. Su~l~ina-y of the analysis as can be seen in the co~nputation of the grand
mean generally show that facilities and equipment are supplied more to boys' schools.
The over all mean proportion of supply of facilities for boys' schools is 53.4, that of
girls' is 43 while the co-educational schools havc a grand mean of 38.3
Research Ouestion VII:
I I I what ways does school location influence government distribution of jircilities in Secondary Sclzools in Enugu State ?.
Data collectcd on the extent of distribution of facilities and equipment to
secondary schools in Enugu State were classified according to school location (urban
and rural). Thc pn)portions computed Sol: cech ticilityicquipmc~lr werc hascd o n I
number of users and standard criteria of usage. ,
I i
Table VII: Percentage mean proportion of distribution of facilities in Urban and i
Rural Schools.
/
k.
I 2 3 4 5 6 7
FACILITIES
Physical Blockt .+,,.... l . d . . . ~ < ~ . I . . .
~lassroonlloffke facilities Science Laboratory equipment Introductory technology Equipment Library inaterials Sporting equipinent ,
Basic Util~lics , I - . -
GRAND M E A N
% distribution of facilities
URBAN SCHOOLS
96 30 94 68 2 1 36 74
59.9
RURAL SCHOOLS
78 12 54 64 15 8 18
35.6
Summary of results in the table above shows that rural schools are marginalized
in every respect in tlic distribution of facilities and equipment. A Grand Mean supply
01' 59.9 was obtained for urban schools while in rural scl~ools the grand mean
proportion 01' supply is 35.6.
Hypotheses .;I i n ,
HO,: The /~roportiotz o f physical blocks provided to schools does not significantly depend on sclzool location.
Data with respect to HO, was subjected to chi square (x2) test of independence.
The findings rcported in a 2 x 2 contingency table is shown in table VIII.
Table VIII: Clzi square test results oiz supply of plzysicul blocks to sclzools by ,
Data in table VIII show that the calculated x2 value (14.32) is greater than the critical i
scIzo~I Location. I
value (3.84). he rcsearcher, therefore, r&cts thc null hypotl~esis and concludes that
School Location
the proportion ol' physical blocks provided to schools depends
76 proportion provided I I % proportion
not provided
I
URBAN
RURAL
I
I
V
x2-cal
96 (87)
78 (87)
a-level
4 (1 3)
22 (13) . . ,, . . .<. .?. *, ', +
x2-crit
14.32
.
Decision
0.05 3.841
Reject null hypothesis
significantly on schools location.
HO,: Tlie proportion of library materials supplied r o schools is not significantly dependent on school location.
. .
, . The researcher also tested this hypothesis using the Chi square test of
independence. Summary of results obtained after the analysis is presented in table
IX .
~ g b l e I X : Chi square test results on supply of library muterials by school location.
Data in table IX show that the calculated value (1.22) is less than the critical
value (3.84) at 5% level of significance. The researcher, therefore, accepts the null -
hypothesis and concludes that the proportion of library materials supplied by " < ,, . *<. .e. , . .>* ' .
government to schools does not significantiy depend on school location.
/
SCHOOL '
LOCATION
URBAN
RURAL
,-
X?-cal
1.22
% Proportion provided
2 1 (18)
15 (18)
a-level
0.05
% proportion not provided
79 (82)
85 - (82) -
x2-crit
.
3.84 1
Decision
Uphold null hypothesis
72
I : T/le proportion of Science Luhorurory Equiptllent supplied to schools is not signiJicuntly dependent on sdiool location. *
The proportion of science laboratory equipment supplied to secondary schools and
proportions not provided were grouped separately for uiban and rural schools. A . .-
Chi Square (x2) test of independence was used to ascertain whether government
supply of science equipment is significantly dependent on schobl location.
Summary of results of data analysis is shown in table X.
Table X : Summary of the extent to which government supplies of science
Table X shows that the caiculated valued (41.58) is greater than the critical
value (3.841) at an alpha level of 0.05~.~Si~fce*rhe' calculated value is greater than
equipment is dependent on school location.
the critical .value, the study rejects the null hypothesis and concludes that the
proportion of Science Laboratory Equipment supplied to schools is significantly
I
I i
dependent on school location. ( I _...
SCHOOL %proportion % proportion I .OCA'TION provided not provided
IJ RBAN 94 6 (74) (26)
-
RURAL 54 46 (74) (26)
a-level
0.05
X'-cal
41.58
x2-crit
3.841
1
Decision
Reject null hypothesis
HO,: The proportion of Sporting Equipment supplied to secondary schools In Enugu state is not signijicantly dependenr on school location.
Data collected in respect of this hypothesis were subjected to chi square (x2) test
of independence. Summary of data analysis is presented in table XI.
Table X I : Extent to which supply o f sporting equipment is dependent on school location.
SCHOOL LOCATION 1 URBAN
%proportion provided
% proportion not provided
Decision
hypothesis
Result in table XI above shodthat the calculated value is greater than the critical
value at 5% level of significance. In view of this fact; the study rejects the null -
hypothesis and concludes that the proportion of sporting equipment supplied to
schools is significantly dependent on school location.
., ,, . . .<. .*' ,> . .,* * . HO,: The proportion of physical blocks provided to schools does not
signijicantly depend on school type.
School types were classified into three: Girls', Boys' and co-educational Schools.
The proportion provided and those not provided were categorized according to
school type and data collected in relation to these categories were subjected to a
test of independence. The summary of results of data analysis is presented in table
XII.
Table X I I : Extent to which provision of physical blocks is dependent on school
The calculated value, as can be seen from table XI1 is 18.55 while the
ope .
critical or table value at an alpha level of 0.05 is 5.99. Since the calciilated value , 1
exceeds the critical value, the researcher rejects the null hypothesis. The -
,,
L
cbnclusion, therefore, is that the proportion of physical blocks provided to schools
is significantly dependent on school type. .,,, . . b < . . ? ' , ? , . 3 + . .
6-
BOi: The proponion of library materials supplied to secondary' Schools in Enugu State does not signijicantly depend on school type.
Decision
Reject null hypothesis
SCHOOL TYPE
MALE
FEMALE
CO-ED
, I - .-. . Data collected for this hypothesis were also subjected to chi square tests. Summary
of results of.data analysis is shown in table XIII.
% proportion provided
87 (87.66)
98 (87.66)
78 (87.66)
% proportion not provided
13 (12.33)
2 (12.33)
22 (12.33)
a-level
0.05
X2 -cal
18.55
x' crit
5.99
75
Table X I I I : Extent to which supply of library muterials to secondary schools i
I/ FEMALE
dependent on school type. 1 I 1 I
%proportion I % proportion 1 X?-cal I a-level I x? crit supplied I not supplied I
I I I I
Decision
Uphold IM! I hypothesis
Table XIII reveal that the calculated value is less than the critical value at ' . .
the given alpha level. Following the decision rule, the researcher upholds the nul l
hypothesis and concludes that the proportion of Library materials supplied to
secondary schools in Enugu state is not significantly dependent on school type.
110,: The proportion of science luboratory equiptnent supplied to schools does not sigtllficantly depend on scllool type.
This hypothesis was also tested using simple chi square test of independence.
Summary of results of data analysis is presented in table XIV .<,+... < . 4 . . 3 % . ' * ' '
FEMALE
CO-ED
supplied not supplied
(74)
The calculated value is 6.36 while the critical value at 5% level of significance is
Table XIV: Extent to which the provision of laboratory eqnip~nenf to seconrlary schools is dependent on school type.
5.99. Since the calculated value is greater than the critical value, the researcher
-. I
- -
rejects the null hypothesis and concludes that the proportion of science laboratxj
equipment supplied to schools is significantly dependent on school type.
,. . : ...,.... i..
P
X2-cal
6.36
a-level
0.05
x2-crit
5.99
Decision
Reject null hypothesis
CHAPTER FIVE
INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
In this chapter the findings of the study were discussed. From the findings
the researcher drew conclusions and deduced the educational implications of the
study . The researcher also made some recommendations, discussed the limitations
of the study and finally suggested areas for further research.
Rctsearch Questions
Research Question I: . -
What facilities and equipment are supplied by the Government to Secondary Schools in E~zugu State ?
Data collected with section 'A' of the "School Resource- Provision Assessment
Invent,ory" were analyzed using mean and percentage proportions. The analysis
took into consideration such other variables as school size and the standard criteria
of usage of the facilities or resources:'Su'mmar' of result in table I of chapter four
reveal that physical blocks, classroom/office facilities, science laboratory
equipment, introtluctory technology equipment,library materials, sporting
equipment and basic utilities like water and elkctricity were supplied to secondary
schools in Enugu State in percentage proportion of 87, 21, 74, 66, 48,-22 and 46
78
respectively. This is to say that physical bloc.ks, scicnc-c laboratory and
Introductory technology equipment were supplied to secondary schools in a
rclatively large quantity, although going by standard criteria of usage, a substantial
quantity still remain unprovicled. The table also reveal that government has not
achieved much i n thc supply of classroomloffice facilities, library materials and
sporting equipment.
The findings with regard to research question I i onsistent with the earlier ,F findings of Oguntoye (1989) who observed that government, in pursuance of the ' -
National Policy has made several efforts i n . financing and provision of necessary
. - equipmentslfacilities to schools throughdut the country. Although thc provision of
some of the facilitieslequipment are not quite adequate in some schools, the
problems often stem from poor policy implementation and not necessarily on the
government itself (Fields 1974). People delegated by government to cnsure the full
implementation of their policies often divert the resources for selfish personal
interests. Sometimes, political interests are allowed to prevail upon governnient
genuine intentions. The issue arising from the lindings of this research question
is that since a lot of resources are still scarce i n the schools, thcre is a need to . , , , . . - 7 . 3,' ,, . <? *
ensure that thosc scarce resources are provided so that
interest are equitably provided with necessary rrsources
, I -../
students i n all fields of /
lor learning. i
Research Ouestion 11:
To what e,xtent are the fi~cilities supplied b y the govemmvt to secondary scl~ool in Etzugu Stale Arlequrrr~ .?.
of the various Fdcilitieslequipnient supplied by govcrnment to secondary schools
i n Enugu State as perceived by principals, tcachcrs and students. The table reveal
that thc provision of physical llcilitics is vcry adequate with a mean adequacy of i ' /
3.48 on the 4-point rating scale. The table also shows t!iat. science laboratory
equipment, and introductory technology equipnient
secondary schools in Enugu State with a perccivcd
2.64 respectively on the 4-point scale. In additioa thc
were adequately supplied to
incan adequacy of 2.96 and
table exposed the inadequacy .
in provisio~~ of basic utilities (mean 1.84) and gross inadequacy in the provision ~
.- of classrooni/office facilities, library materials, and sporting equipment with a
rncant of 0.84, 0.72 and 8.88 respectively on thc 4-point scale. 1
Nduanya (1981), in his study on equalization of education opportunity in
Nigeria, observed that most facilitieslequip~nent necessary for the full 1
i~nple~ncntation of' the National policy, ,~n&iucationand thc objectives of thc 6-3- 1
3-1 system are not adequately provided by some states to their secondary schools. /
'l'hc in2hili ty of some states to provide these facilities to thcir Secondary Schools \
creates a for111 of incqiiality espcci~~lly when equaLit.j! is considered at the National
Icvel. Thc theory of justice deniands that a child should bc atlequatcly provide with 1
all necessary inalcrials necessary I cffcclivc Icarning before an
educational/inlellcctual assess~nent of him can be generalized (Rawal 1973). Equality
demands adequacy grid fairness in the provision of the various facilities and equipment.
Fafunwa (1984) also identified gross inadequacy in provision of some
educational facilities. According to Fahnwa, Such inadequacies are major factors
militating against the impleinentation of the National Policy on Education.
Research Ouestion 111:
What ,ji.rctor,s crre takcn into considerdon 17)) the ministry of Eclucntion in t lz c tli.r/ril~rr~io~i 01' c~clrrctrlio~rccl jircilitics lo .w-o~zdcr~y ,school,s ?.
Section ' D' 01' the School Resource Provision Asscssinent Scale which explored thc
extent of consideration of school location, school type, political influence, special
appeal and principal's degree of public relation in the distribution of educational
facilities were used to collect data for this research question. Data collected were
subjected to simple analysis using mean and standard deviation. Suinrnary of data
analysis presented in table I11 of chapter four reveal that school location, and political
influence were considered to, a. yqy, .great. extent in the distribution of educational
facilities with a mcan consideration of 3.62 and 3.59 I-espcclively o n the 4-point rating
scale .
'Thc issuc ol' school location in ( I the _ equal . . distribution of cducatioilal facilities
8 1
has been discussed by Adewole (1982). The findings of this study on the influence
of location agrees completely with his earlier findings during his studies on
problems of educating Nomads in Nigeria. He regretted that government tends to
negiect schools located deep in the rural areas in distribution of all facilities
thereby creating.gross inequality and unbridgeable gaps between the quality of
education obtainable in rural and in urban areas.
Sun~mary of results in table I11 also show that school type, dynamism of the
school immediate environment and principal's degree of pu61ic relations are often
considered in the distribution of educational facilitieslequipme~t to secondary
school. The observed mean extent of,consideration k e 2.81, 2.25 and 2.88 .-
respectively on the 4-point scale.
Kerber and Smith (1990) observed, in their review of "Educational issues
in challenging socicty" that school type, and school adn~inistrator's degree of
public relation are the major factors in school recognition in most societies. They
ex plaineci explicitly that these factors often influence government policies on equal
opportunities especially at the implementation stage. The result of this study agrees
entirely with the earlier ideas of Kerber and his colleague. It must, however, be .& ,, ., . .<. .t' 3 ..'*
ohserved that in secondary schools, there is the political undertone in the
distribution of facilities. In some cases, the politics of location, school type and .
individual political strength tend
result of this research question
to override National , I . .-
further confirms the
Policies on Education. The
earlier findings of Enacho
82
(1985) o n issucs ol' urban and rural inequalities in resource clistrihution to secondary
schools in Nigeria. Enaclio's finding reveal gross marginalization on the part of rural
schools, which according to him, were often regarded by policy irnpleinenters as
community owned of schools. The issue of community ownership of schools also tends
to establish a stage for fierce political drama in facility distribution. Communities with
higher political influence and personal recognition, therefore,become the government
focus in resource allocation while schools in co~nmunitics with littlc influcncc continues
to suffer resource and infrastructural inadequacy.
The data also reveal that special appeal is rarely considered in the distribution
oi' resources ol' secondary schools in Enugu State. It has been observed that scl~ool
location and political influence are higldy considered in resource distribution. This
implies that no matter the amount of appeal, without such political influences, such
appeals may not yield any dividend.
Research Ouestion IV
To wlzat extent are Secondary Sclzools in Enugu State adequately stafled ?.
.c ,, . .,<. d. , r . "4 ' '
Data for this research quest1011 were collected using school staff statistics. The staff + 1
statistic were analyzed in relation to some btandard criteria in terms of ilumber of
classes and students to be taught or attended to or' quantity of job to be done by
83
the staff in relation to staff available. The data were analyzed in simple percentage
proportions. The researcher identified the obvious fact that the number of staff in
a particular school or in all schools cannot be considered in isolation of school
size. Using simple proportion the researcher observed that secondary schools in
Enugu state are poorly staffed with Science and technical teachers. Results of data
analysis in table IV revealed that the percentage proportion of science and
technical teachers available in Enugu State Secondary Schools is 47 while the
proportion lacking in 53 percent. The table also reveal that secondary schools in
Enugu State are very well staffed with qualified arts and humanities teachers. The
percentage proportion available is 88 while only 12 percentage is 'lacking.
Although the 12 percent of such teachers lacking is significant, the gaps were
bridged when teachers were convinced to teach extra periods so as to cover up the
deficiency. In terms of qualified skilled non tutorial staffs (typist, Laboratory
assistants and drivers), data analysis reveal that the percentage proportion available
is 68, while 32% is still lacking. Because of the nature of their job, and the skills
, involved, it is very difficult for other members of the staff to assist in their duties
and also difficult for them to increase their work load without disrupting other ., , " . . . i l . J. .. ' -iJ. . .
arrangement within the school systems. As a result their deficiency is often 97
pronounced in the school system. Data analysis also reveall.that unskilled non- ' .
tutorial staff (labourers, messengers and cleaners)
aTc very adequately provided to secondary schools in Enugu State. The proportion .a-
provided is 98%.
Nduanya (1981) had earlier identified that the inadequacy of service and .
technical teachers is one of the major problem plaguing the national objectives in
equal education opportunities. The problem does not only lie in the inadequacy but
in the non-uniformity in the distribution of these teachers. Omatseye (1981) in his
"critical appraisal of historic trends in Nigeria's educational inequality" observed
a marginal inadequacy in the availability of science and technology teachers
especially in the areas of mathematics anc! Introductory technology. He further
lamented that while government flood the school system with unskilled and non-
science based teachers, little attention was given to the problem of science and
technology education in secondary schools in terms of special training and
provisions of human resources in these fields. He maintained that no matter the
quantity of science and technology equipment supplied to schools, their utility is
completely meaningless without competent teachers in the field.
Research Question V -----
W1znt consideration guide the posting of teachers to Secondary schools in Enugu State ?. .',, . " C . , * . . , ,%, , .
Section 'D' of the "School Resource Proxision ~ssessment Scale" contains six . i items which wer: properly designed to explore the major factors considered in \
I ' .L.
nosting of teachers to secondary schools in Enugu State. The factors explored by .
this section are routine rationalization exercise,
requests, political undertone, church intervention
85
punitive measures, special
and .marital considerations.
Results of data analysis reveal that special request, political undertone and punitive
measures are major factors considered in posting of teachers. These, of course, are
not in line with factors to be considered in posting of teachers in situations where
equality is the watchword. Marital consideration was also reported to be very often
considered in posting of teachers. Marital considering, was observed by Arosch
(1976) as a sympathy posting which is a further deviation from concept of equality
in posting of staff to schools. Routine rationalization was rarely considered. The
poor consideration of routine rationalization in posting of teacher as revealed by
this study is a clear manifestation of the complete disregard of the National Policy
on equal education opportunity in the state. The only procedure to ensure equality
in terms of staff strength in schools is through regular rationalization of teachers.
To ensure equality in staff distribution, personnel officers should de-emphasis i irrelevant factors like marital consideration, church intervention, politics, and
punitive measures. More emphasis should be given-to staf'f rationalization so as
to ensure that all schools are equ,itz&$y s.\affed
Research OuestionA-
To what extent does school typg injl&ence go'vrrnnient distribution of facilities to secondary schools in' Enugu Stare ?.
. - Summary of data analysis shown in table VI of chapter four shows that
86
percentage mean proportion of physical blocks provided to male schools is.87, and
98 for female schools while 78 was provided to coeducational schools. The result
reveal that female schools are given more consideration in terms of' physical blocks
. while co-educational schools are given the least consideration in that respect. In
general, however, all schools are well considered in terms of physical blocks.
Result of data analysis also show that the percentage mean proportion of
classroom/offiie facilities provided to male, female and co-education schools are
7, 10 and 4 respectively. This indicates that government does not make any serious
effort in the provision of classroom facilities and office equipment. Female and
male schools also had extra advantage in the provision of these facilities.
The table also shows that eqi~dity is not observed in the distribution of
science laboratory equipment and introductory technology equipment. A percentage
mean proportion of 83, 70 and 69 of science laboratory equipment was obtained
for male, female and co-educational schools respectively. As for the Introductory ,
technology equipment, a percentage mean proportion of 98, 24, and 76 were
obtained for the male, female and co-educational schools respectively. The poor
ons side ration of fcmale schools int he provision of introductory technology .$,,.... ' .
equipment is not quite surprising in view cf the increasing gender bias in our
country today. Bryne (1988) noted that in often cases, girls are neglected in the
provision of technical equipment in the sense that technology is not a female affair. , I - .L.
Jardine (1986) also noted that fair chances art: not given to boys and girls in the
development of technical skill in-schools. He noted that feminine attributes of
females does not call for technical growth. This assumption however,is a complete
deviation from the ass;mptions of equality in education opportunities. Nduanya
(i981) regretted the poor encouragement given to girls in the development of -
technical skills and stressed that government and policy makers in education
ministries should ensure that girls are given full encouragement in the development
of technical skills. &+
Qesult of data analysis also reveal that the percentage proportion of library
materials provided to male, female and co-educational schools are 17, 25 and 12
r~spec~tively, indicating that library materials are provided more to female schools
than male or co-educational schools. The proportion of sporting equipment .
provided to male, female and co-educational schools as revealed by data analysis
are 35, 10 and 2 respectively, indicating that although little consideration are given
to schools in provision of sporting equipment, no consideration is given to female -. 1 schools. Sparrow (1991) earlier observed that females are often neglected in the
development of physical skills. He emphasized that feminism in its own right, does
not abstain itself from physical development which sporting activities provide. In .. ,,.... <. ' 1 . . , . . I + ' .
view of this fact, therefore, the,poor consideration of females in provision of
sporting facilities is a blunt disregard of the policy on equal education opportunity. i \
Finally, res.ults of data analysis on proportions of facilities and equipments , _...
supplied to schools in relation to school types show that basic utilities (water and
electricity) are provided to male, female and co-educational schools in the
proportion of 47,64 and 27 percent respectively. This result slso manifests
inequality in.provision of facilities. Urwick (1985) noted that most co-educational
schools are community schools. As such, their basic needs are left for the
communities to provide. He noted that the politics in Nigerian educational planning
does not provide a fair chance for community schools in the provision of such
facilities.
Researc-LQuestion VII
In what ways does school locution itzfluence government distribution oJ' facilitivs to secondary schools in Etzugu State?
During data analysis school location was clissified into Urbali and rural
Results of data analysis in respect of school location as shown in table VII of P
chapter four reveal a gross inequality in the provision of facilities for schools in
the two environmental settings. - In terms of physical blocks, much difference was
not observed although urban schools. had higher advantage. A percentage mean
proportion of 96 was obtained for urban schools while a percentage mean
proportion of 78 was pr~vided'fb'"'i~rBl'$~hdols. Although the difference in the
provision of physical blocks is not much, equality does not demand an iota of
difference.
Results of data analysis also show that'i'n the provision of classroom /office
facilities, the mean percentage proportion provided to urban .schools is 30 while
89
that of rural'schools is 12 percent. In the distribution of science and laboratory
equipment the percentage proportion to urban and rural schools are 94 and 54
respectively. Data analysis also reveal
of Introductory technology equipment
schools received a mean proportion of
that while a percentage mean proportion
of 68 is provided to urban schools rural
64 . In the provision of Library materials,
a percentage proportion of 21 and 15 were provided to urban and rural schools
respectively. Data analysis also reveal a staggering difference in the provision of
sporting equipment and basic facilities for schools in urban and rural settings. In
the provision of sporting equipment, a percentage proportion of 36 and 8 were
obtained for urban and rural schools while in the provision of basic utilities a
percentage proportion of 74 and 18 were provided for urban 2nd rural schools
respectively.
In all cases, more considerations were given to urban schools in the
provision of facilities. Speaking on equality in relation to school environment,
Enacho (1983) observed that resource distribution in Nigerian secondary schools
is deter~nin'ed mainly by environmental factors. He earlier observed that urban
~chools are provided with educatjmal .resources more than rural schools. Lele
(1990) observed that equality demands equal consideration for urban and rural
schools. He further emphasized that a uniform development in the field of
education depends to a large extent on ,the extent to which rural schools are given
equal considerations in educational development plans.
Hypothesis
HO,: The proportion ofphysical blocks provided to schools does not signijlcantly depend on school location.
Data collected for this hypothesis after the schools were classified into
Urban and Rural were subjected to a chi square (x') test of independence.
Sumnary of the test of independence shown in the table VII of chapter four . . * .
shows that the chi square calculated is 14.32 while the critical value at an alpha
level of 0.05 is 3.841. The decision rule is to reject the null hypothesis when the
cdculated value is greater than the critical value at the given alpha level. The
researcher rejected the null hypothesis which says that the proportion of physical
blocks provided to schools does not significantly depend on school location. This
is to say that school location determined the provision pf physi'cal blocks to
secondary school in Enugu state. Results of research question VII already showed
that the mean proportio? of physical blocks provided to urhan schools is 96 while
78 was provided to rural schools. Enacho (1983), and Lele (1990) already noted
that school location has influenced distribution of school resources to a great
extent. Both urban and rural schools need physical blocks for meaningful learning -*4,.... <..*..%%.,+ ,
to be achieved. In view of this fact, therefore, discrimination in the provision of
such a facility means perpetuating inequality in the school systeni
9 1
HO,: The Proportion of Library niuteriuls Supplied to Schools is not signifhntly dependent on school location.
Table IX presents the summary of the chi square analysis on the extent to
which supply of 'library materials is dependent on school location. The calculated
value was 1.22 while the critical value was 3.841 at 5 % alpha level. Since the
calculated value was less than the critical value the researcher up held the null
hypothesis .that thl: proportion of library materials supplied to schools was riot
significantly dependent on school location. his is to say that school location does ' . .
not significantly influence the supply of library materials to schools .
Library materials are necessary for teaching and learning i n schools. As such there
is a need to maintain such equality in their distributions.
I The proportion of Science Laboratory equipment Supplied to Schools is not signijcantly dependent on sclzool location.
Summary of data analysis on the extent to which government supplies of science
equipment is dependent on school location is provided i n table X of chapter four.
The table reveals a calculated value of 41.58 and a critical value of 3.841 at an . , 5 . 4 ' , . . I
alpha level of 0.05. The researcher rejected the hull hypothesis because the .
calculated value was greater than the critical value at the given alpha level. That / is to say that school location determines the distribution of science equipment to
.. - 1' - ...
secondary schools in Enugu state. The policy on equal education opportunity
demands that there should be fairness in the distribution of educational resources
92
irrespective of sex, and geographic environment. The observed disparity in the
provision of science equipment to urban and rural schools therefore is a negation I
of the recommendation of the National Policy on Equal Education Opportunity in I
Nigeria.
HO,: The proportion of sporting equipment supplied to secondary schools in ' Enugu state is not signi&antly dependent on school location.
The chi square (:L~) test of independence was also used to test this hypothesis.
Results of data analysis in table XI show that the calculated value was 22.84 while " .
the critical value at an alpha level of .0.05 was 381. Since the calculated value was
greater than the critical value the researcher rejected the nul l hypothesis and
concluded that the proportion of sporting equipment supplied to secondary schools
in Enugu state is significantly dependent on school location.
Result of research question VII revealled that the proportion of sporting equipment
supplied to Urban school is 36 while the proportion provided to rural schools was
8. This is to, say that urban schools were given greater consideration in the
provision of sporting equipment,,, ...,. %,. ., %.'+
.
Nduanya (1981) earlier traced the disparity in the provision of some /
1/ facilities to gender io!es. He observed the mistaken assimption that gender roles .
are mostly observed in rural settings. As such it might be mistakenly assumed that
rurai schools needed less sporting equipment especially as it had been observed
03
lhat most rural schools are co-educational scl~ools with greater female population.
Equality dcmands lhat bolh Urban and rural schools receive an equilable shares of all
educational resource. The observed difference is also a n~anifeslation of disregard for
the National Policy on equal educational provisions.
School types were classified into three: nlalc, female and co-educational schools. Data
collected on thc extent of provision of physical blocks to the three types of schools
were sub.jected lo chi-square test of independence. Summary of the lest shown in table
XI1 of chapter four indicated that the chi square calculated (X2-cal was 19.55 while the
chi-square critical (X2-crit) at an alpha level /of 0.05 was 5.99. Following the normal ( i
decision rule, the researcher rejected the null l~ypothesis and drew a conclusion that
[he proportion of physical blocks provided to secondary schools in Enugu State was
significantly dependent on school type. This is to say that school type influenced
decisions on provision of physical blocks to schools.
Resul~s ol' research question six in lablc VI 01' chapter lix~r rcveaIIed [hat the , * . . hl . \ , . . . . . 'Z ' .
~ ~ r c e n t a g e mean proportion of physical biocks provided to male, feinale and co-
educational schools are 87, 98 and 78 respectively. This explains why the hypothcsis
tested revealed a significant difference. While female schools were given higher
consideration in the provision of physicdl blocks, co-education
schools were the least considered in this respect. ?
Ugwu, Iwuchukwu and Okor (1982) observed that over the past fe.w years, . .
Secondary Schools have been proliferating in most commu.nities. Most of these
schools are co-educational schools established through community efforts and as
such are often deficient in vital amenities. They observed that although, in
principle , the schools are said to have been taken over by the government little
or no effort is made by the education ministry to ensure that such community
schools are raised to the expected standard in terms of physical structures and
other amenities.
I : Tlie proportion of library nrnteriils supplied to secondary schools in Enugu State does not signijlcantly depend on school type.
Summary of the chi square test on the extent to which school type determines' . . .
provision of library materials shown in table XI11 of chapter four indicated that the %
calcuiated value (5.84) is less than the critical value (5.99) at the given alpha
Ievel. Since the calculated value was less that the critical value the researcher
upheld the null hypothesis and concluded that school type has no influence in the , .. . .,. ,,. . 4 '5 . ' .
distribution of library materials to secoridary ~chools in Enugu state. In table VI
of chapter four, it can be observed that the percentage mean proportion of library
inaterials provided to male, female and co-educational schools were 17, 25, and
12 respectively. Although more library materials &ere provided to female schools,
the difference in the quantity p-ovided to the three schools was not great.
NO,: The proportion of science laboratory equi,ument supplied to schools does not significant depend on school type.
This hypot.hesis was also tested using the chi square test of independence.
Summary of the test in table XIV revealled that the calculated value (6.36) was
greater than the critical value (5.99) at an alpha level of 0.05. Because the
calculated value was greater than the critical value, the researcher rejected the null
hypothesis and concluded that the proportion of science laboratory equipment
supplied to schools in Enugu State was significantly depedent on school type.
This is iu say that school type is the factor mostly considered in distribution of
science laboratory equipment in Enugu State'secondary schools and not the Federal
.'- government regulations as provided by the National Policy on equal educational
opportunity in Nigeria. Results of research question six on table VI of chapter four
showed that the proportion of science laboratory equipment provided to male, .
female and co-educational schools were 83, 70 and 69 respectively indicating that
male schools were given higher consideration in the provision of science laboratory
equipment. This finding agrees with the earlier research findings of Sparrow
(1991) and Urwick (1983) on male&male inequalities in educational resource
provisions. /
Conclusion
From the results obtained in the investigation into the extent of equality i n
the distribution of educational resources in Enugu State secondary schools, the
researcher drew the following conclusion :
(a) The major facilities supplied to secondary schools in Enugu state are
physical blocks, classroom/office facilities, science laboratory equipment.
introductory. technology equipment, library materials, sporting equipment
and basic utilities like water and electricity. The result further revealed that
physical blocks were very adequately provided. Science laboratory and
introductory lechnology equipment were adequately provided while the
provision of classrooml officer facilities, library materials sporting
equipment and basic utilities were very inadequate.
(b) The study also revealed that factors considered in the distribution of
resources to secondary schools in Enugu State were school location, school
type, political influence, dynamism of the school immediate environment
, and principal's degree of public relation. It was also discovered that the
major factors considered in posting of staff to schools were special request, .,,,.... <..?..,.+* ' .
political influence, punitive measures and marital consideration. Routine
rationalization which is a measure toward equality in staff distrib~ltion was \
very rarely considered. ( I _.-.
(c) Provision of physical blocks, Science laboratory e(uipment and sporting . -
97
equipment, are significantly dependent on school location. It was however,
observed that the distribution of library materials to Secondary Schools in
Enugu state was not influenced by school location.
(6) The study finally revealed that the proportion of physical blocks and
Science laboratory equipment provided to Secondary Schools in Enugu state
was significantly dependent on school type. This is to gay that the policy on
equal education opportunities was not observed by the State Ministry of
Education in the distribution of these two facilities only.
Educational Implication of the Study
The result of this study has some implications for education especially in
Enugu State. en he study has revealed that some major education facilities are not
equitably distributed to schools within the state. The Education Ministry. of the
State will be adequately informed on the proportions provided to the various
schools and the need to balance the proportions in all schools so that all the
students will have a fair oppo~runity in the school system.
Findings on factors considered in the distribution of educational facilities ., ,, . . . 3 . +' , . - I '
1 .
also reveal that factors such as school location; school type, political influence and
dynamism of the school immediate environment influence the in~plementation of -
the policy on equal educational opportunities in Enugu State. As such, this study (, - .-.
will inform the government and education ministry on the need to avoid personal
and all irrelevant factors that influence their decisions in resource distribution. This
study exposes the need to adopt routine rationalization in resource distribution so
as to ensure equality of resources distribution in all schools of the State. This will
ensure that all students are given a fair chance to manifest their talent in schools.
The study fully explored the extent to which the distribution of school
resources is dependent on school type and school location. The study observed a
lot of bias and gross inequalities with respect to these variables. Having explored
these, the study will now inform policy makers on the extent of imbalance in
resource allocation to schools and the need tc control the education ministries
through the provision of strict guidelines in resource distribution so that equal
proportion of school resources are provided to all schools irrespective of school
locations or school type.
This research, therefore, exposes the extent to which the Enugu State
Education Ministry has failed in the Implementation of the National Policy on
Equal Education .Opportunity. This revelation will therefore inform the state
government on the urgent need to resolve the problem and bridge the widening .
gulf ir? academic standards of sch.g& . , IS i~ , , the state. '
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the researcher made the following
recommendations
(a) The State Government should establish strict and well monitored rules that
should guide the education ministry in the distribution of resources to
schools. This will ensure that personal factors do not override the national
interest. Such rules will ensure that equal consideration is given to all
schools in resources allocation.
(b) Resources should be p!ovided to by the State Government to secondary
schools in proportions. Equality demands that each individual not each
school, be given a fair chance in resource provision. As such, the number
of students per school should be taken into consideration in educational
resource provision to schools. For example, if five hundred test tubes are
supplied to a school of one thousand science students, One thousand test
tubes should be supplied to a school of two thousand students.
(c) The observed deficiencies in the provision of educational resources 'to some
schools should be corrected by providing more resources to schools where . , ,, .; . * 4 . +' .. % 4 + , .
. - they are seriously lacking. This approdch will bring up the standard of
already downtrodden schools thereby providing equal opportunity for
students in such schools to compete favourably with their colleagues in ,I .-
oiher schools.
Limitations of the Study ,
Admittedly, the generalization made with respect to this study is subject to
the FolIowing limitations:
The researcher found i tvery difficult to convince school principals and
teachers on the need to expose their school inventory for the purpose of this
study. In some cases some inventory books were hidden from the researcher
thereby making it difficult for the researcher to assess the school facilities,
properly.
The researcher also encountered some difficulties assessing school
population. In some few cases, principals refused to expose the exact figure
of student population thereby introducing some errors in the calculation of
the proportion of school facilities in relation to number of students and staff
population.
Some schools lack an up-to-date inventory of school facilities,. In some few
cases materials noted in the inventory were nowhere to be found while
some materials not included in the inventory are available in the school.
Although in such case the reseqcbera resorted to a thorough re-assessment
of school facilities with the assistance of teachers and some non-tutorial
staff, the possibility of omitting some of the items may not be completely
eliminated. . I' - ..
Suggestions for filrther Research
Based on the findings, and the limitations of this research, the following are suggested for further research.
1 . Faclors Inllucncing Eclualily of Academic Standard in Enugu State Secondary Schools.
2. Factors that Influence Implementatio~ of Educational ~oliciks in Enugu State. 1
3. Inllucncc 01' gencler anel school location on cclucational rcsoursc utilization during instruction.
/
The study is an investigation into the extent of equality in the distribution of
cducational resources in Emgu State secondary scl~ools. The researcher developed two
instruments (The Scllool Rcsource Provision Assessment Inventory and the School ?
I<csourcc Provisio~i' Assessnlent Scale) which were used to collect data for the study.
With the results obtained from data ai~alysis the researcher answered the seven research
questions and tested the seven hypotheses on which this study was based. Results of
data analysis inclicatc that considerations were given to school location, school type,
political influence and dynamism of the school immediate environment in allocatioil of . < ,, . . "<. .?. ,, . .%+ .
certain resources to scliool~. During the discussion of the findings of this study, the
researcher pointed out the educational implications of the study, made i rccom~l~endatio~ls, and stated the limitatioix of the study.
, I - .-
' { , 102
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APPENDICES
MPENDIX I
SCHOOL RESOURCE PROVISION ASSESSMENT INVENTORY
NAME OF SCHOOL
LOCAL WVT AREA
TYPE OF SCHOOL .BOYS .GIRLS . CO-ED
SCHOOL LOCATION :URBAN
SIN
4 1 INTRODUCTORY !
2
3
I TECHNOLOGY EQUIPMENT (
i j PHYSICAL BLOCK
Classification of Inventory
CLASSROOMIOFFICE FACILITIES
SCIENCE LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
individual I tenn within the category
- -
7 ( BASIC UTILITIES
5
criteria
6 1 SPORTING EQUIPMENT
LIBRARY ,, ""1. "' .' '4.- ' '
SCHOOL RESOURCE PROVISION ASSESSMENT SCALE
PERSONAL DATA
NAME OF RESPONDENT:
NAME OF SCHOOL:
POST HELD:
SUBJECT TAUGHT (for teachers):
INS7RUC77ON : Indicate your response with a tick ( ) in the appropriate column corresponding to items of your choice.
SECTION A 7
To what extent does government consider the following factors in distributing education resources co Schools ?
-
.J
V .C.E = very great extent, G.E = great extent, L.E = litt1.e extent, V.L.E = very little extent .. , A . . .<. 3,. ,, . " C ' .
VLE Ci.E V.G.E.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
L.E
School location (Urbanlmra!) '
School type (male,female & Co.ed.) Political influence Dynamism of the school's immediate environment. Special appeal The principai's degree of public relation.
SECTION 'B'
To what extent does the government consider the type of school (Boys,Girls, Co-edu) in
- distribution of the following educational futilities to Sec. Schools in Enugu state ?.
V.often often Rarely Never
7. Physical blocks 8. Classroorn/office facilities 9. Science laboratory equipment 10. Introductory technology equipment 1 1 . Library materials' 12. Sporting equipment 13. Basic utilities (water & electricity)
SECTION 'C ----
How often does government consider location of schools in term of urban and rural in h disrribution of the following educational resources ?.
How often does the government consider the following factors in posting tutorial and non- tutorial staff to schools ?.
Never
14. 15
Science laboratory equipment '
l~~troductory technology equipment
Sporting equipment
L ' 1 Rarely
Physical blocks Classroom/office facilities
Never V , often
Often V .often
Often
Rarely
Routine rationalization exercise Punitive Measures Special requests Political overtone Church intervention Marital consideration
SECTION 'E' --
SECTION 'F'
To what extent are these facilities adequate in your School ?.
To what extent are the following human resources adequate in your school ?.
.,-
h.~ = very great extent, G.E = great extent, L.E = little extent, V .L . t = very l~ttle extent
V.L.E
I
27
V.A
34
35 36
37
Physical blocks 28 29 ?? 3 1 32 33
Qualified Science and Introductory Technology teachers Qualified Arts and humanltI&Ykeh~fieis '
'
Qualified Skilled non- tutorial staffs (typists,laboratory assistants and drivers) Efficient.unskilled non-tutorial staffs (labourers, Messengers & cleaners).
L. E
Classroom/office facilities Science laboratory equipment Introductory technology equipment Library mate1 ials Sporting equi Iment Basic utilities (water & electricity)
V.G.E
I
A
G.E
1.A V.1.A
APPENDIX I11
Test of Internal Consistency of the "School Resource Provision Assessment Scale" Using the Cronbach alpha (a).
L.
SECTION A --
Variance of the individual response to items (vi)
3 1 2 I 1 I Variance
Variance of the total test
SECTION 'B'
Variance of individual responses to items
. . Variance of the total rest
I 1 ITEMS I I variance 4
SECTION 'C' ---
Various of Individual response to items
Variance of the total test
Variance
0.89 0.99 0.17 0.64 0.07 0.48 0.07 A'
ITEMS
13 14
2 -.. 6 2 1 1 2 8
6 11 11 3 8 --
4
18 8
1
5 11 0 7
3 ..-- 2 1 10
16 5 3 10 1 ::
SECTION 'D' -
Variance of individual response to items
Variance of the total test
ITEMS - -- Variance 4 3 2 1
SECTION 'E' ----
Variance of individual response to the items.
Variance of the total test
Variance
0.96 0.55 0.89 0.98
SECTION 'F'
4 3 2 I Variance
8 9 22 11 0.98. 43 6 1 0.17 24 18 8 0 70 4 1 6 2 0.40
VI = 2.25
VariancG of the total test
4 a,=- [I- 2 . 2 5 ] 4 -1 5 . 7 5 7 4 7
APPENDIX 1V
TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY OF THE "SCHOOL RESOURCE PROVISION ASSESSMENT SCALE".
Scores of #e first administration (X)
Scores of the second administration (X)
.. - After all substitutions were made the researcher arrived at the following values.
x2 = 6568.88 y2 = 5650.50 xy = 5955.00
. Applying the formula i n the computation of the relationship we have: P
APPENDIX VI
LIST OF SCHOOLS USED FOR THE STUDY
( I ) C. S. S. Obeagu Awkunanaw (31) C. S. S. Obollo Afor
(2) C. S. S. Ugwuaji (32) G. S. S. Neke.
(3) Girls Sec School Abakpa (33) B. H. S. Orba
(4) C. S. S. Ebe (34) C. S. S. Imilike Agu
(5) Christ High School Abor (35) U. S. S. Ugbaike
(6) G. S. S. Ngwo (36) C. H. S. Okpo (7) C. I. C. Enugu (37) G. S. S. Umuogbo Agu
(8) G. H. S. Awkunanaw (38) C. S. S. Igogoro
(9) New Estate Boys' Sec. School (39) P. S . S. Ukehe
( iO) C. S. S. Isiarna Avflaw (40) B. s.'s. Aku
(11) C. B. S. S'. Ugwuoba (41) C. H. S. Ekwegbe
(12) G. S. S. lsikwe Achi (42) G. S. S. Ukehe
4* (13) B. S. S. Obe (43) G. S. S. lheaka
(14) C. S. 5. Nomeh (44) G. S. S. Ibagwaaka
(15) B. H. S. Ozalla (45) C. S. S. Itch1
(16) G. S. S. Akegbe Ugwu (46) B. S. S. Ovoko
(17) B. H. S. Awgu (47) C. S. S. Nimbo
(18) R . S. S. Mgbowo (48) A. M . H. S . Adaba
(19) C. S. S. Amabor Owelli (49) S. T. C. Nsukka
420) G. S. S. Agbogugu (50) Q. R . S. S . Nsukka
(21) G. S. S. Abor (51) G. S. S. Isienu
(22) C. S. S. Udi (52) M. S. S. Nsukka
(23) B. S. S. ~masiodo, Oghe ."""'. " "" ' (53) N. H. S. Nsukka
(24) C. S. S. Umumba Ndiuno (54) U. G S. S. Nsukka
(25) G. S. S. lmezi Owa (55) B. H . S. Nru
(26) G. S. S . Mgbagbu Owa (56) G. S. S. Opi
(27) C. S. S. Umughu Obelagu Umuna - (57) C . S. S. E& Oballa
(28) G S. S. Achi ' @3)C.G.S .S . Imi l ikeUno.
(29) Quans' School Enugu (59) G. S. S. Aku
(30) U . R. S. S. Enugu '
(60) B. S . S. Ibagwaaka
