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ETHNOGRAPHY: WHERE AND
HOW
UNITS OF ANALYSIS Units of analysis are who you are
studyingCommunitiesFamiliesOrganizationsOccupational groupsCommunities of interest
SELECTION CRITERIA
LogisticalLocationTimingSeasonal issuesSize of group Issues (special permission, supplies, home,
clothes, transportation etc.)
First ContactWindshield Reconnaissance Gate KeepersKey Informants
OBSERVATION Not as natural as it seems! Intense, not overlooking the usual It’s not data unless recorded in a usable
way To record or not record? Discuss confidentiality use pseudonyms
if necessary
NOTE TAKING Try to write as many direct quotes as
possible so you can capture the language and emotions being used
Make sure your notes follow the conversation as spoken
Make sure you use a cover sheet and date and time each interview
Devise a system to categorize interviews for quick reference
Record your own thoughts on the interview
UNOBTRUSIVE OBSERVATIONS Made with minimum research
participation Key Cultural Ideas to watch
Proxemics – how people use physical spaceKinesics – how people convey meaning
through body language
UNOBTRUSIVE OBSERVATIONS Structured Observation
Using a fixed setting to see how people interact in it for comparability
Using an inventory for comparison across places or groups
Usually unobtrusive research is structured
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION More typical of ethnography Generally only works if people in the
study group have become familiar with the researcher
Generally note-taking occurs in the evening or next day out of sight of the study group
Participant observation is unstructured observation
ETHNOGRAPHIC INTERVIEWING Research Observation is not natural or
intuitive There are specific types of interviews for
subjects dependent on the sort of information needed for the research
Types of interviews Exploratory In-depth Key Informant Open-ended Semi-Structured Life History Oral History
EXPLORATORY INTERVIEW Most typical of all ethnographic Methods Usually In-Depth to give great detail and
enhance the researchers understanding Usually Open-Ended so the respondent
explains things from their viewpoint and the context of things. There are no forced choice questionsEffectively builds rapport in a
conversational setting Identifies differing views of eventsSometimes collaborators can become
emotional
EXPLORATORY INTERVIEW Conversational style is preferred—it is
okay to probe or ask challenging questions
Start the interview with a culturally appropriate conversation starterGenerally an inquiry of family, friends, even
petsBe in a comfortable settingPrivacy may be a concern (balance with
personal safety)Gender issues could be importantWatch for cues of discomfort, length,
annoyanceGET THE RIGHT PERSON—KEY INFORMANT
TO TAPE OR NOT TO TAPE It’s become standard practice to
digitally record interviews In many cases interviews are
transcribed and analyzed with content analysis software
Obviously this is very intensive commitment of time and work
Other times interviews of videotaped, but usually reserved for public figures and important key informants who are very public—no confidentiality
TO TAPE OR NOT TO TAPE Other anthropologists feel that taping
inhibits the interview Sensitive topics are influenced by the
recording—some may not wish to go on record
If not taped note-taking is critical—especially if content analysis is going to be preformed
There are many cases where there are very good reasons not to record
SUMMARIZING YOUR DATA Numerical content analysis Cultural model Key concepts Strictly descriptive
SEMI-STRUCTURED OR FOCUSED INTERVIEWS Predetermined questions on a specific
topic Often developed after a number of
exploratory interviews Sometimes just administered to key
informants or a more representative sample to assess how widely the ideas are held
1. How long have you fished in this area?2. Did your parents and grandparents fish also?3. Is fishing the biggest source of income for your family?4. Currently, whom do you sell your catch to?5. In your opinion, how much has fishing in this area changed?6. How has the fishery changed?7. What do you think has caused changes in fishing as a way of life?8. What do you think has caused changes in the fishery?9. Would you say that you live in a fishing community?10. How would you say you’re doing?11. How have you adapted to fishing changes in the past?12. Do you belong to any fishing or other support group?13. What appeals to you about fishing?14. What might make you want to leave the fishery?15. What do you say is the biggest problem for you as a fisherman?What is the biggest problem for your community?
TIPS FOR SEMI-STRUCTURED QUESTIONS Use plain language Avoid double barrels Avoid leading questions Ask questions in a chronological
sequence Start simple and moved to questions Ask all questions on a single topic
before moving to the next issue Work from the concrete to abstract Ask the most sensitive questions near
the end of the interview
USING ARCHIVED MATERIALS Archived materials are records stored
from research, services, government, and other agencies
Some examples include:MapsRecords of births, deaths, real-estate
transactions, marriages, etc.CensusChurch Court recordsOld newspapersPhotos, letters, museums
USING ARCHIVED MATERIALS Archived materials produce non-reactive
research—therefore are unobtrusive Secondary data is information collected
by someone else for another purpose other than your work
Archived materials and secondary research are missing the contextual analysis of the collaborators
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER External Validity and Internal Validity Triangulation
Observation Unobtrusive Participant Observation
Interviews Exploratory unstructured Semi-structured
Archived materials News/history information/records Secondary data