UNITED WE STAND DIVIDED WE FALL:
A STANDARD MODEL OF UNIT COHESION
Mikael Salo
DISSERTATION
To be presented, with the permission of the Faculty of Social
Sciences of the University of Helsinki, for public examination in
the Auditorium
of Arppeanum, Snellmaninkatu 3, Helsinki, on August 5th, 2011,
at 12 noon.
University of Helsinki Department of Social Research
2011
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ABSTRACT
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9
CONTENTS
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LIST OF ORIGINAL PUBLICATIONS
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1 INTRODUCTION
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Figure 1 Outline of the Study
Chapter 2 Development of Theory - development of the
research on group cohesion
- definitions and different conceptualizations of unit
cohesion
- distinctions between the cohesion components
- alternative research viewpoints
- a summary of cohesion compoments as a figure
Chapter 3 Predictors and moderators of cohesion - friendship -
social and task
support - shared experiences - leadership - training - personnel
policy - group type, size,
tasks, functions - traditions
Outline of the study
Chapter 4 Outcomes - similar attitudes - increased
motivation and satisfaction
- commitment - personal and
group performance
- good conduct - retention - lower levels of
stress
Chapter 5 Methods - research questions - the aims of the
articles - sample - questionnaires - measures
Chapter 6 Results - variables impacting
unit cohesion - sociometric choices
and group cohesion - group-level
characteristics - the structure of unit
cohesion- the role of cohesion
in maximizing effectiveness
Chapter 7 Discussion - main results - methodological
limitations - the standard
model of unit cohesion
- practical recommendations
- concluding remarks
9
2 UNIT COHESION AS A RESEARCH TOPIC
2.1 THE ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT
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ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE GROUP
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@@&%&>" P>&&Q/"MG=:9=*1 & > " &
"* 5 & @ /4&= :;&"
&&>
/G=
" /F M 4 = 3= - = & &""
PQ /**= && &>3/G= > @ & & ""&
& &*? " & &" =& & & " @ >A &
/4&= :; &
" & / M#>@=:.;3*
5 -= & & 7 & &=
*,-FF8=>&&&&
"/H
=:;3* 5 = = "= @ /7"3= & & /
83 &
*G" -= & #>@ /:.;3 &G&&&"&
&&>7 * !&= /:.93 & F & > & "&*
=
'()
.
& /:.:3 & > * 5 >= & && " '** &
& $H/8=:.3*
5=&&
&"
> "/!&=:;13*8 = " & 7& /**=8= :.3= & &
/&"&3 & &
/ =:;;3*?="=>""&& / = :;;OH
= :;3*!A=
> &" / &3 " " 7 " /=: "& &
& & H& H 55* 4
> 0 H"& &
* 2"= / = ;:9%: /3 ""A"&= /3"&=/3 & & = /&3
@&@ > "&& = /3 & - * 5 & =& " & )
> > &"& &*6 = &= &"" & & -
)&@ - /* !&= :;13* F-= & "& & & &
&
&
@/M#>@=:.;3*"=&&
.1
& & & /G*=:;93*
5 = " > 7" &
& @* ?&7")-&=& B&&"@&*2 = > "
&
@ & & &=
@B*
2.2.10 SOCIAL IDENTITIES IN NESTED ORGANIZATIONS
? &
&&*&/:9=*93& P -
> B -&"&*QG/:;=*;3&
=P-
>&=Q>&
!& /::=3*
PBA&& Q /4= ::3* F &
=>&=&*4>"= " &
& "& " " /2 M #= 3* ? &&BP =Q> P "
= "= =Q > & " > P
" -Q /&*= *13*?=&&&&&- & /4= ::3* 2
& ">&=>B)"&/2M#=3*
(>&G&/::3&( /3 &
&&&>&"&== & 7&= > & >
'()
..
= = & " &= "*?&&&-"=7
>&=&7"""&/( M(>=3*"=/(>MG&=::O( =O(
M(>=3 " & & "=7=&
*F-= & /3 7 / 3= /3 7 >& &"& = & /37"
&/**=3*2 ->/3 "
> = /3 7 >& >
& = & /3 7"&
& /**=
&&3*F=
! /3"
B">=/37 >& />
& 3= /3 & 7" & B > &/**=& "* = >&
3* 5 & " &
" &
* "= > &7 & 7 "
" &
>* , &= > 7&&&
"&
>& >&""&
&/( M(>=3*
&?)B&?B&/?)=:
. /I= 3* ? -@ & > @ & /**= 4= ?= M "&=
::O?=::O?*=:;9O?M, =:;:3*=&& /4= ::3* !&= >
& > " & &/4=!
7>=M4@>=::13*
B &&">/F=?=MH= :9O4= ::3*? >>
&> == &=&=
&/ = :;3* & 7@ &
&= > " &&/(>=::3*
!@ &> >
>7 / 3 & /& 3 /= O * 4>@ M= :; " "* "3* ? &
/4= ::3* ? & &&&&=> & > & /!
M$=::;3*5="7
& = &* " & &" & >& &
& /= :91= 3* , &= " @ &>
&=&&*
5 =4 &4 /::3 & & = >
& & & "=> &
7& * = 77& >A/**== = 3 /4= ::3 & &
&@& & /=3*?= = & &
7@==&/**=&3/4M4=::3*?)" & & > /4= ::3= &
&&"&=&/4M4=::3*
'()
.
H & > & =H
/:;3 && >
@ & &*?=&>&
>>===&&&&
*? A & & && & & &= & A
&&/>A&&
3*?@&
" &= & @ =A="@*
5 = & &" &
& &= &"& > / & "* &3= & - &
> & / 3 &
/ 3* 5 > & > & ""& "&& @/**=8=4
=M#=13*
,
>>&&&*5&>&&
=&" > &"& L@
&
>&*!=&=7&&&" &="=&="=&-*
5&"=> & -& " > &
& >&& = "=
"@ *&&&&>&&*&&
@&& & = > &&= & * &
& &/&3 *
.9
2.2.11 COMMITMENT IN NESTED ORGANIZATIONS
!>&
@
*(
&&=>"=5&&
@*?& @7 & "= > & @
&>> *?@= >
@* 4>"= & @" > = @
"=&&&&> @ & * ?= =
@ & & / 3 " @ / 3*
%+ > &&
>/!M(=3*!
&
/MH=:;3*?
/ 3 &/ @ "3 /,"= ::3* $ /:;3 & /3 /"* 3 = /3 " "
= & /3 &> " /=&&=&3*E
&8> /&= M (= :9.3* ? &
@ P/3 &
@B&"O/3>
-&
@O & /13 &
@Q />&==M= :9:=*3*5 &= & & & &7 =
>
& &
@*
>& / *= :;3 & > >
& =&&"*2&
P&>&"&&-
>>"& > @Q /&*= * 3=
'()
.;
> "
> &"&B"&
@/HM(=3* 2& / 3 & " /" 3 /M2= ::3 &=&""/=" ,= M
= ;3* F= >&= = & />& *= :;=* 9= .1O *= :9.= * .3
&
@
"P&"&B& > & "" @=Q && & " &
& A => 7=&@"*
G/:;"@"
= @ = = & *%+ & > @B = = & =
" &"& "= &
&>
"&* 5 & "=" && /:;93 &
= @=&*I=&G&=&"&4"/::;3&& & @ =
7& =&7&*5=&
@=&""&*
2 &"&"
"&@/M2= ::9O=(=M0&= 3 & - @ /8=3*&2/::9=*3=
-=-&+
&"&"=&&> &
P> = = = ===&*Q2"=
&& = & & "* F-= "& & >
@ / 7&& 3/( M = O (= = M (= 3* ? A &"&
L
@*
/!?3">&">/E
M8>== 3* ? A &" - &&
.:
& &" &"& /8>=?= M E
= 3* ? &" " /P-"Q3
&A&=&&&&="-& > /E
M8>= "Q /2=1= * 1971;3* E
& 8> /
=& > & "" @ />& *=:;3* 5 2!= & &=
&> @ & /E
M8>=
'()
@ & /H= :;3* ? " & & @ & - @ /#= :;O M 2=::93*
2! & 6! & &&"/$=13*
( /!!3 P
> &>"@Q/M2=::=*9=::9=*3 & >
> / M2= :;.3* />
@3 & !! L P - "Q/2= 1= * .3* !!
- /4= :O ? M $= :& "& /$==M=::9OE
M8>= @= & A @ & = = = ) &= &
/M2=:;.3*5="&"
!!/M2=::93*
? > " & @ = ""&!!/M2=::3*? " " P "
" Q/E
M8>=
""
@="&""/ M 2= :;.3* !"= " > !! / M 2= ::93* ,@ > " >
" "= & /& M ( = :.3=
*
&7"&/I=::3= ?! & & 2!
&>&@>6!&!!P&&"/**="3Q/*=;=*93=&&"*2"
/&*3 - "= "= &" @ & =& & /*>& *=
:;3*$
& /::9= * :93 & P
@=Q@"
*5= " " &>&
& >&&=!!"@&*2=@ & &&
"> 7&&7"& *
2.3 THE COMPONENTS OF UNIT COHESION: AN OVERVIEW
' " & & @ & "= " & > & "= &
@ & /**= > &
@3 /G=:;;O&M$= :;;=:;;3*?&==&>
"= 7 & &7 * 7 & & &7& *
2"="&"&&& & * H &
"=>&&=&
& A = 7& -&
" /F 3* , &= &7+
/&& > @ &3= & /& &
> & > @B 3*
'()
&*7 & "= ->&&&&AB = 7& /
&& G= :;;O& M $= :;;= :;;3* , &=
&7="&=&&-
"&&@
& & * ? &&&&
&
@=&&&"&
&>/F3*
Figure 2 Components of Unit Cohesion
'
7 & & " & 7& /&&3&&=- /**= &
= @= &3*=&&&/&3 "" = &=&&@>*?
"> > " & &>@"& /* &&&
/=3=
&&/
@
>
= = & * 5 &B&"&&"*? = > -
@"=&=&"&&*? -
" & " > &&"B "* -
">> ==&& >7 * ,@ -&)
@>>
I@&O G>=&&O >&=&O "&> -O
F>&&"&&O &"O 8 >&O &&*
!&= "= 7= = &
@ = = &">&"&&
*
,&"&"=>&&/*&&4= ::3* ? & = &=
@= & &= &
=)=& " /* M#>@=:.;3*5&>" &= * 4>"=
&""A*,"&&
=&*2 & = -= & 7&@*
! / *= ::&&"&&*5> & > >
&7 & && & =&A>*5
'()
&
@* ? & &"@ = & &= &&"&*6="
> &&F=>& &
& & &*
"&=-&/**= 3=&&7&&*&
"
& &
= > &"==&@ /M2= :;.= ::= ::93* 5= " & " &
& 7&"*
? & -& " @ & @ &7 " @ & /**=
M &= &&
&*5
&"@=&=&&@"/*F&F.3*
& &/!*= ::
& > 7= & @ & > & =>&7*
F > @ = &
&&>->&&>*4>"=>>&
>& && * ? > @ &-&&=&& * F
= &/3&"&&"&
= /3 = /3 7 /**= & & -3=&/&3@-&*
99:'(
&3 /$=::;3* & - 7 = &/
-3>&7=&> @ * & /::3= -= &&
&&A&&"=&==>!&(/3& " > = &=
& &* &2 /:;.3 & " > & "=&")&&% "
"& >& &
> &
@* &R)/::3&=>7" / > 3 &
" " > >&*
; & > " &* 5 & & &
> &"& &>&
@ /**= $= 1O 8M F= .OMR)= ::3= 7 & &" * 5 - = -= & 4
/.3 > - > " * = (= H= & G& /:::3 -&
>&&=&&7 " > '** 2 >&>>"7*(=
/4&&=I"=E"=8=M=;3*"=-@7 " " 7
-&7&/=$&=MF=13*
,& =&>
"> /W@ME=:3*?= > > " > 7&& /=3=& >
& & 7 * & /13-&=&>&>"&
@ &" 7=>>B && * ?
&PB>B"=&&=&Q/&*=*1.13=&
* ? A P> > > Q / = = MG&= :;.= * 13* ? && "
& > /&===&& 3*
= ! /:;3 & & > &&
& = > > &
@ & > & * ? /**=3&-" > > &
"*?=-&&&&
>
& & -* !&= > &@==& 7 = 7& / 73
&7*
5 &
& &>
"
" >=&>
7& " /?&&= ::3*6"= & &
7 /& M 8&= :::3= & > " /M2=::93*
5 & "= & & 8& /:::3
&
*, &= G /3 & & &>
&2& > " & > /**= &7&3*&/::3
>-&"&)">*2="">&&*4>"= =& &"
&&&=
" & > = > - &&*
5 &= &"& > /**= &= =& 3= >
&&&"&/4=::3*?- " & & /&
%3= & > /&
> & 3* ?
99:'(
& > * /? =:=: >=-&-=&&=&/$=::;3*2 =
> && && & &
> & & /H
= :;3*5 7 & & &
"B
!*
5 & && & &
7 & &7 &
& A & & /&= :::O
&=::1O&M8&=:::3*?>&
-&"&&P > >
&"&Q/&M(
=:.=*13*H&&B&/&M8&=:::3=
&-&&7*
& &==
=
>/HM=3*!
& "" " /I@= :9
>>=&
& = = & *Q & & &=
& " " & &- " & & &" /8>= :.;O & M
8&= :::3* 5 = &
" = = & /G=:;3*
G" /G *= :;9O G=:;9OG*=::&"& & * ?& * =
&
/H =:::3*5&>-&"& / 3 A& /( = >= 6= M =
::;O 4=6= &=MH= &= >
> & " " & >"&" "&*
& #>@ /:.;3 @ &=&=&"* ? > - & &
> > &==&*?" " /$= 13= > "*
2 " /( *= 3* &
" = = =
= & B > = &
B /(=O(M2&=:::3*2& = & " = & "
99:'(
- & >> &"/(=O(*=3*4&&&
&-/(=O( *= 3= & - &
&& * 2 = & &"&L&==&*
7 & "*5"&>7& /**=3 /4= ::3= & = = & &
/ = ::3
& "* > " & "-
"& /#=:&)
&=&="=&""/8M8=:&&"">& /I@= :9= :.93*
FA /4= :;3 & - /#> M !&= .3 = &>
&>/4M4=::O = ::3*? &>
/**= "3/-M
&=13*
5=&7-/F*=:"=&
&/(*=:;9O8M8=:&= /**= 3 &&
&& * 2&
4 /::3= & &
&& =>&&>>*
? > & & "& = > & &&
/4= O $"@= :9;3* ?
"==&>/4=O4M4=:::O&M(
=:.3*(&&&&&=> & /8= :.3* ?= PQ/4=O4M47
"=3*5=&&">
"==&""&&"&=&*
A /()&= : "B"&)">>&-&/I"=:O= :.:O 6>=
:.9= :93*
/:.:= * ;3
P&>*Q
" >
>>
> -/**=&
&3="&/&M( =:.3=&-/#=:993=/8M8=:=:& >
&& > >
&/X*.=Y*3*
99:'(
4/:=*1:3&PSB&Q /3 - & /3 = /13 & "= & /.3 *
5 - = &"& & &
>& = >&= = & /? M $= : > 7& & &
/8
M =:.:O6>MH&=:&
&&>=&"&&/5@&=: &"
1
/? *= 13= >7= &= &= & /G= 3= " & &
/&= ::3= &
@ /(= :::3* "= &
""= & /& 3 /? M$=: /: = = &*F=-!&!& /:;3
& > & "&*?&)==&&&=>&
&*!A= > " = "&>&&
=&&>&>&*
5 = 7 & " & " - * 5 >&= & & & >
&
&*=&"&" &* "= " & " = &= == & &
& &
& =
&=>"& 7*? @ &
> &
&
> = &> &"&B = >& &&=
&@&" &
&*
3.2 STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF A GROUP THAT SUPPORT UNIT
COHESION
? & A * ? > = - > & = &" & * F -= = &
= & & * = @ & = & > = & - &
99:'(
.
&
*?"&&& A " " * ?= " &&
&
& &*
;+ " &
" /4&= :; /= : 77 & )" &"&/&*3*
",&
"/!M =::=: & -&
& /&*3* 5
& > >&-&"&&"&
&" /H= :3*H &
=!& /::
&
99:'(
* (= @ A&"*
5 -=
"&
=&&- &* =&="&> >
* 4@ /:;3= -= & " P Q
7@&
>&
= > & 7"
& & > & * 8"
AA&)&&&"="&-=&&
==&/?@=:;3*?&
A& & /**= &3 & /(>= O 4&=:; &= &
&" /(>= 3= &> &>/#*=:;.3*
&BB"/(= O = : > & & /G= :;O &= :;93* = "
& > & "&>/M#>@=:.;3*
9
2 & " & " &/4&=:;"" >>= & > " *
> & & "&=&& * I-&& > = = >
&>
/(*=:;93*,&= &
&B
/(M2&=:::3*
9 &
/5 M = :;3 & = " = & >&
&&&*?&
&>&B&
"
* ( /**= 3=
@ & /( M 2&= :::3=B = =&
/G&=?=M=1O= :;3=& & &/F >*=:;93*
;
&"/GM0 =:::3&/'=(>=&= M = ::
99:'(
;
=>2& &>
"/,3"/
*=:;.3*2=6""@
2="*
? = = & " & && * ? " &" &/(>*=:;;3
& "* ?= & " &>7*F-=
&
&=>/**=E=::7 & 7 /( M 4"=::;3*
G ! & " &
&"& /(=3*"= & @ & /8 *= &
&
@ / P
Q L '6?3 /?&&= ::= * 13* ? & /= ::3 /2= 13 &
"& @ > /= :;;3* ? A >
@/**=
&>3*( = "7 & >
=>>>7*?=7&" & A" & && "
@*
:
'/!>&=::>/4&=:; = & &"&
/G= 3* >
& " & @ /= ::3
&"& /(= :::3= & > & /$
&=:;93*?>/::=*..3 && P & & Q *
8& "& & > & & " > &
/&M$=:;93*5&B
- & /$ &=:;93* ( && " & -= &
/(=O(*=3*"= &7&& )
" " /I=3*
&>& /$= ::;3= & = && /?@= :;3= /(>= 3
& > * "&&
" /$ M "= ::=:;3*"= &
&"/G M $@=
99:'(
9
:;3*!>@&&
&/@3 /(*=:;93=>&& /( *=
/H&*=::13*? @ & & >&&"-
>& @ /$@ M $= :9;3* "= >
&&7 /GM$@= " = " &"= & "= ""/$@M$=:9;3*
G " && & /(M2&=:::3*? &/(*=:;9O=:93) /= ::3=
@ / MR)= ::3 & /H = :::3= & & /!M!&= :;O&=::3
& /H& *=::1OR
M8>=:;;3*
"="&
-
&/!M!&=:;O?@M0&=:;3*= " && -
&
& /(= !=( = M 8&= 1O H& *= ::13* ? & @&
&)"= )"= & &&" /= :93* 2&)" & / 3& =
> )" & "*2&&" A" & &"&"&*
5 = " " & *F-==@===& & > *I" /**= 3 " A B=
= & & " 7 * 5 "
> & " " *
9
3.3 SOCIAL EXPERIENCES IN PRIMARY GROUPS
"
/G= :;:O E= ::& /G=:;:OGM0 = :::3*H /::3&& & "=
&)= &= = ) * "= &> /**= 3> " /&*3* H
&" & /K = #= 6=&=MF&=::3=>" >7= &=
&= & & /G=3*">>& >7 = &"& &=
& & &&/ =::3*
G " /= >= &" 3 &
& &
"" /$"@= :9;O8= :.3*( /> " >3&&
&* & " & >7@&=" = & &
*F-=> &
>&&
B=&/**=4=::3=>&=&> =& > ">
" B & /(M$ &=::O$ &=:;93*=&
&= & /G=3& %"/H=::3=&&
&&/G=3*
5 = & " " "
* " & >7&"*2"=" &"& * 5 = 7 A &
*!& = = = & &
&& *
( " >
A & " & " = & & - =
&=&&)&
99:'(
9
B /G M $@=
91
:::O 5 M = :;O 8 M 8= : /**= 3 /4= ::3* E
& 8> /&> && => "&=&=&
*F="&
/&*3* 5&&=
@ />& *= :;3* 4 & /3& > > & &
&
"
> & &* "= & " & " = &
""/&*3*
! & /= M != ::.3* ?= " &
"& &A/8 = :O = ::3* 5 & " &" & -
@7@"/4M=3=& > & "& " & * ?
& " & " = & " &/?@=:;3*!"=
&" *?=&&"-=&
/$ =:3*
2 ! " = > @&"="7= & = & A &
" /?@=:;3* , &= ! " / &
& 7&"3= > " " 7 / & &" & 7&"
> 3= = ""&
&=&&-/&*3*
! &
= >
7&* !
& A& > & P
99:'(
9.
Q/G
MG=::;=*.13*5&"/3&&@/&&"3=/3/&&3=&/3&)
"= > = & /!= :;3* 5 & > & & = " = &
> /8&M = :: /GM$@= &
= && / = ::3* ? "& &"=
&"& /&*3=&
"/**=4=::3* (= & && /!=?= M H= :O = ::3= & "
> /&= :93* ,"= ) "=
/(>=3= & "=>
&>"/ =::3*
5=&
=&&"*5"&&/**=&
3 & &* 5 =>
&
& &" * 2 = 7 " &
*
& !/ &&/ 2 A& =>>-*2@ >7@&= " >
= = & & /$=::;3*?&" -& * "= > & >
&
* 5&&= A > & & & /(=3= & "
/**=M=:93*,"=A " & 7 && *
/ *= :;3 & > & ( =!9 >> >
& & @ B " & " " * (= " > & > * ?>
9 > ""= A= & & /G *= :;93*?> "
"&= > > " " &"& /( M=::O(>=( =M=::.3*
, & @ & =>=&=&7 ==&=&"/M=::13*,&=
>= ,= = & F> /:::3 "& /3 = /3
& / &= @&=& & >7>> &
B )3= /3 >= & /&3 &
* !7(>= = ?= & /::*1* 5*.* !* 3=/.3&"=&/*= ::.3*
? & > & > " * "= & " && /**= &
&"& = >&= & & "3*!A= & = & A&
&& /4 *= 9O = (>= M!7(>=::
=
= &
/(*=:;93* A> & /(=3=&"
&* 4 " && > & > = & & & &
&
99:'(
9
B * 5&= "- & &
&
& & /R@=R= M $= 3* 4>"= @ >& " & > =
&" &%*?&"A&&/#*=:;.3*
! & && 8 > /= 3* #>@ & 8 /:9.3 &
&& & >= & / &"&3= /& & &=
"3= A& & & >>=& -
> >&*? && >7"& > "
"&"&7&>/
*=:;.3*
? 7 &
&" > "&
=&= /4&= :;@ M 8= :9.3* 5 = & = "7>= = &
>>&/(=OH
=:;3*H & 77)""&/**=!>=:;O!&=:;1OG=:;;O8M8=: B"
& /4= :O & M ( =:.3* /4M4=::3*
& /&="=M = 3* (= >
"== & &
& /**= 3 /2&= :9 & - &" /G=:9O#>@M8=
:9.3& "/4&=:;
99
= ::3= "
" &/8M8=: >
" ! >& /8 M 8= :*?"&"& & & -
"&/4@=.3*,"=&&
" & /!
= ::%:3 &"
P > Q/?@=:;=*97;3*
& P -
> "&&"&&& Q /' *= :: = = =& " & /
*= :: /GM$@=7@&= >&= =&>/8"=(=MR& =::3*&
A
& && 7 >&
B & /' *= ::& &> & /$@> = G= = M !7(>=
::3* !A= &&
> & = " && & & = &
>A &/$=::;3*
FA&-= /(M= ::3* >= & 7 "= = &= &"
/4&M4=::3* 5&"&&
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3.4.1 LEADERSHIP CHARACTERISTICS AND BEHAVIOR IN A COHESIVE
GROUP
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3.5 ORGANIZATIONAL EXPERIENCES IN SECONDARY GROUPS
?@"&)&&=& & - /4&=:; *"= @ & /( *=
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