Unit2 Revision Guide

8/9/2019 Unit2 Revision Guide

1/73

1

GCSE GEOGRAPHYREVISION GUIDE

EDEXCEL B


2/73

2

Contents Page

Compulsory Units

Topic 1: Population Dynamics Pages 3-14

Topic 2: Consuming Resources Pages 15-21

Topic 3: Living Spaces Pages 22-31

Topic 4: Making a Living Pages 32-39

Optional Units

Topic 5: Changing Cities Pages 40-48

Topic 6: Changing Countryside Pages 49-55

Topic 7: Development Dilemmas Pages 56-62

Topic 8: World of Work Pages 63-70

Practice Exam Questions Pages 72-73


3/73

3

Topic 1: Population Dynamics

What you need to know:

- What has happened to the global population historical, current and future

trends?

- Role of socio-cultural and economic factors affecting birth and death rates

- Factors driving recent changes in fertility and mortality rates

- How and why population change varies

- How and why population structures change

- Issues relating to youthful and ageing populations

- Why some countries wish to control their population?

- The impact and effectiveness or polices to control population

- Differing policies that exist to mange migration

- Why countries adopt different migration policies

- Tensions that arise as a result of migrations


4/73

4

Key terms

Birth rate the amount of babies born per 1000 of the populationper year

Death rate the amount of deaths per 1000 of the population peryear

Population balance birth and death rates are almost equal and thepopulation remains level

Natural

Increase/decreasethe difference between birth and death rates

Fertility rate the average number of children born to a women

Immigrants people moving into a country

Emigrants people moving out of a country

Migration movement of people into and out of an area or country

Migration balance: Positivemore immigrants than emigrants increasepopulation

Negativedecrease population less immigrantsthan emigrants decrease population

Replacement Level the amount of babies needed to be born for thepopulation to remain the same

Pro- natalist policy A population policy that encourages births to increase

the populationAnti-natalist policy A population policy that tries to reduce the birth rateand therefore reduce population growth

Open door migration

policyA population policy that encourages internationalmigration

Points based migration

policyA population policy that only allows skilled people tomigrate to that country.


5/73


6/73

6

BUT in some developing countries Life expectancy has

declined

In Botswana 30% of adults have HIV/AIDS and life expectancy has decreased.

In Sudan CONFLICT has led to a lower life expectancy.

Why are birth rates high in some countries?

- In some developing countries a large % of people work in agriculture and children areseen as an economic benefit to work on the land- Women may not have a choice as their religion may be against birth control- It may be the culture to marry very young so women are more likely to have morechildren

Named Example: Why will Russias population decline:

(Developed Country?)

- Falling life expectancy caused by industrial disease and alcoholism- Outward migration of younger fertile men and women- A low fertility rate of 1.2 children per women.

SO BIRTH RATES ARE DECLINING BECAUSE:- Women have access to birth control methods.- They may also choose to have few children as they are seen as an economic cost.

- Also more educated women chose to start a career before having children.

Named Example: Yemens population will grow quickly

(Developing country)

- Women marry very young and have a large number of children (fertility rate 6.7)- Increased life expectancy partly due to improved child vaccinations- High birth rate as the Islamic religion is against birth control


7/73

7

How and why population change varies

Demographic Transition Model

Stage 1: High fluctuating

- High birth rate due to no birth control and high infant mortality- High death rate due to disease and famine

Stage 2: Early expanding e.g. Yemen

- High birth rate

- Falling death rates due to improved health care and nutrition

Stage 3: late expanding e.g. China

- Falling birth rates due to birth control and wanting smaller families- Falling death rates

Stage 4: low fluctuating e.g. Japan

- Low birth and death rates due to working women delaying age to start their families

Stage 5: Decline e.g. Germany

-

Death rate higher than birth rate due to a grey population


8/73

8

Factors driving recent changes in fertility and mortality

rates

Population pyramids show important features of a population age and gender. Thediagram below shows how to read one:

Population pyramids can be seen to link to the DTM

Population pyramids can be also used to work out the dependency ratio (is a relationshipbetween those who are and are not working in an area (usually a country).


9/73

9

Issues relating to youthful and ageing populations

Countries often suffer from problems due to the structure of their population.

Youthful population- This is when there are a very high percentage of people underthe age of 15.Disadvantages of a Youthful population

Pressure on housing not enough housing, people living in slums. This is verycommon around the big cities (New Delhi), where millions of people live in shantytowns with no running water, roads, sewage of any kind.

Pressure on schooling illiterate population. Indias literacy rate is 60%,Cambodias literacy rate is 69%

Pressure on food supplies- famine, food distribution difficulties. Naturaldisasters accentuate this problem e.g. droughts.

Pressure on health services high levels of education provision and health careare needed for children and babies and this is expensive.

The rapidly growing population need housing and will need employment More difficult for women to workas they have to spend time caring for large

numbers of children, so they are not earning an income.

The Advantages of a Youthful Population:

Provides a steady supply of workers and can encourage economies to grow.

Children provide security and support for old age. Children are a valuable source of income for a family as they can work on the land

from quite a young age. As children get older they may be able to earn money in

other ways. For example, selling snacks to tourists on the beach in a holiday resort. As children get older they can help to care for younger children in the family.

Ageing population- This is when a country has a large number of people over the age of65 in their country.Problems:

The Advantages of an Ageing Population:

The tourist industry in countries like the UK has benefited with more retiredpeople going on several holidays a year.

More elderly people in MEDCs (more economically developed countries) have moneyto spend which helps the local economy.

They can support their grown-up children as they raise their young families. They undertake many worthwhile tasks, many of them voluntary.


10/73

10

The Disadvantages of an Ageing Population:

Old people cost a lot to support and taxes may rise to pay for extra health andcare.

Health care There will be a shortage of retirement homes and hospital care forthe elderly, so more will have to be built.

The need for specially designed houses and serviced blocked of flats. For example,hand rails, nonslip floors and emergency buttons.

An increase in the cost of pensions. More elderly people, living longer, will requirepensions for longer. With the falling birth rate, there will be fewer workers in theeconomy, so higher taxes will be needed to fund those pensions. In Japan, theGovernment has already raised the pension age from 60 to 65.

Shortages of labour, recruiting overseas workers. For example, nurses and doctors. Provision of leisure activities for the elderly.

There are decreasing numbers of economically active people in the population

Solutions to the Problem of an Ageing Population

Health care Provide more health care e.g. retirement homes, hospital beds, more

undertakers, etc. Skilled health care workers, e.g. nurses, doctors, etc.

Pensions 3 solutions

Increase tax not popular

Raise retirement age not popular Abolish state pensions not popular


11/73

11

Named Examples: Contrasting countries Japan vs. Mexico

Ageing Population Japan

Facts Causes Effects

- 20.8% of populationaged +65- 26.8 million pensioners- Birth rate belowreplacement level

- People living longer (79for men & 85 for women).Due to healthy diet andhigh GDP- Birth rate declining dueto increase age of firstchild (2006 29.2 years)and number of marriageshas decreased

- Increase cost ofpensions as fewerworkers- Government raisedretirement age from 60to 65- Increase in numbers innursing homes- Increase cost ofmedical care

Youthful population: Mexico

Facts Causes Effects

- 31% of population under15- Population grew 50million in 40 years- Average age in 26

- Low death rate at 4.78deaths per 1000. due tovaccinations and doctors- falling birth rate butlarge % of young people- Will take 50 years for

Mexico to loose itsyouthful population

- Increase need forschool places- Young people unable tofind work so emigrate toUSA- Growing manufacturing

industry- Strongly catholic butabortion has beenlegalised to reducenumber of children

Why some countries wish to control their population?

Countries often need to manage their population to gain an optimum population (whenresources and population equally balance = sustainable). Governments often step into

manage their populations to stop them passing the tipping point that leads tooverpopulation.


12/73

12

Named Example Anti-Natalist Chinas one child Policy

What? Why? Effects

Introduced in 1970s couples not allowed to

have more than one child.Couples with one childwere given benefits e.g.cash bonuses, betterchildcare and improvedhousing.Unauthorisedpregnancies pressured tohave abortions

-High growth rate ofpopulation

- Pressure on land andfood supplies due tolarge population

-Birth rate fell from 34per 1000 in 1970 to 13

per 1000 in 2008- Annual populationgrowth rate fell from2.4% to 0.6%-Total population grownfrom 996 million in 1980to 1,320 million today-Chinese tradition toprefer sons so sexselective abortionsoccurred (120 males to100 females- Shortage of women atmarrying age

Named Example: Pro-Natalist: Estonia

What? Why? Effects

Introduce mothers

salary where women

were paid to havechildren- 15 months fully paidmaternity leave

-Estonia becameindependent from Russia

in 1992- Falling population dueto fertility rate decliningfrom 2.2 in 1988 to 1.4 in1998- People planning fewerchildren due to increasepoverty, single lifestylesand young peoplemigrating overseas

-By 2006 fertility raterose to 1.5 (still below

replacement level)


13/73

13

Differing policies that exist to mange migration

Named Example: UK

Open Door

- Post War immigrants came to UK from colonies in the Caribbean due to an Act ofParliament giving all Commonwealth (ex-colonial) citizens free entry into the UK. (1950-1960s million people came from the Caribbean).

+ve = Met shortageof unskilled and semi-skilled labour= Helped with the reconstruction of the country post war

-ve = public money spent on meeting needs of the immigrants e.g. housing etc= 1970s recession, the immigrants lead to increased unemployment

Point Based system

If you wish to come and work to settle down you need to gain a certain amount ofpoints. This was established 2008 and contains 5 tiers of migrants. Tier one has highlyskilled workers such as scientists, down to Tier five who are temporary workers e.g.musicians playing in a concert. SO scientists and highly skilled people eg doctors aremore likely to be allowed into the UK where there is a skills shortage.

In 2004 eastern European countries of Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland,Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia and Slovenia joined the EU (A8 Accession countries). This

meant that citizens of these countries are free to move and work in other EU membercountries. In most cases these economic migrants stay only until they feel they havemade enough money to take home

Source advantages Host Advantages

- Immigrants send money/remittanceshome to their families- Less pressure on resources and jobs inplaces like Poland etc

- Immigrants bring skills back to theircountry

- meets need of shortage of unskilled andsemi-skilled labour- helped to reconstruct UK after the war- Increases culture in the UK

- Immigrants contribute to the UK economy bythe taxes they pay- Immigrants often take mainly low paid jobs- Less than 5% claim any sort of state benefit

Source disadvantages Host disadvantages

- Loss of working population from Polandfor example- Decline in birth rate as most migrants areyoung men

-

- public money spent on immigrants e.g.housing and healthcare- during the 1970s recession the immigrantsadded to the number of unemployed

- Increased hostility towards the immigrants


14/73

14

Tensions that arise as a result of migrations

The UK immigration of ethnic groups lead to conflict as there was hostility towardsthem. These ethnic groups banded together into particular areas to reduce the risk ofbeing victimised. The UK government stepped in and stated that all citizens regardless

of ethnicity should enjoy equal opportunities. Today much more harmonious as peoplehave begun to realise the positives of having them; they add to countrys skill base and

culture.


15/73

15

Topic 2: Consuming Resources


- How resources can be defined and classified

-

The impacts of obtaining and consuming one renewable, sustainable and non-

renewable resources

- Inequalities in supply and consumption of one global resource

- Future pressures on both supply and consumption of this resource in view of

recent global economic growth

- Theories about the population-resource equation

-

How well these theories stand up to current global resource supply and

demand

- How resource demand might be reduced

- The potential for alternative and renewable resources

- Whether technology can fix the problem


16/73

16

Key Terms

Alternative energy Energy sources that provide an alternative to fossilfuels

Boserupian theory The view that when population grows it stimulatestechnological changes that produce increases inoutput, ensuring that living standards can bemaintained for the growing population

Carbon footprint A measurement of all the greenhouse gases weindividually produce, through burning fossil fuels forelectricity, transport etc.

Human resource The skills and abilities of the population

Malthusian theory The view that population growth is the main reason

why a society would collapseMaterial resource A natural substance that humans choose to use

Natural resource Those materials found in the natural world that areuseful to man, and that we have the technology andwillingness to use

Non-renewableresource

Those resource like coal or oil- that cannot beremade, because it would take millions of years forthem to form again

Renewable resource Resources, such as forests, that can be maintained by

managementSustainabledevelopment

Development that meets the needs of the presentwithout compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs

Sustainable resource Resources such as wood that can be renewed if weact to replace them as we use them


17/73

17

How resources can be defined and classified

There are three main types:1) Natural resources e.g. wood2) Human resources e.g. skills of a population e.g. Doctors

3)

Material or capital resources e.g. good and equipment already in society)

You can also define resources via their availability- Non-renewable resources cannot be remade because they take millions of years toform again e.g. coal or oil- Sustainable resources Can be deliberately be renewed so that it can last into thefuture e.g. planting trees- Renewable resources renew themselves so do not need to be managed e.g. solar andwind power

The impacts of obtaining and consuming one renewable,

sustainable and non-renewable resources

Resource Benefits Costs

Non-renewable e.g. TarSand oil

- Extraction would bringfurther money to oilcompanies- could avoid the costs of

switching to other fuelssuch as hydrogen

- Extraction uses hugeamounts of water- only 5 year supply- need removal of forest

to get to the oil

Sustainable andrenewable e.g. Bio fuels

- C02 absorbed whenthey are grown- engines need littlechange to cope with biofuels

- need huge area of landto grow the crop- reduces habitat varietydue to monoculture

Sustainable but limitede.g. Solar energy

- Unlimited- Environmentallyfriendly so limited

carbon emissions

- Intermittent as newways of storingelectricity are needed

- Current production istiny- Relatively expensive


18/73

18

Inequalities in supply and consumption of one global

resource

Uneven patterns of oil supply and

demand

Current production is focused in the Middle East, especiallySaudi Arabia. However many of these countries have reachedpeak oil (production of relatively cheaply obtained oil has

reached its maximum so there is now a fall in production).

Consumption is largely related to the wealth of a countryand its reliance on cars. 70% of the worlds oil is usedtransporting goods and people within and between countries.

The USA has less than 5% of thepopulation but uses 25% of the oilmainly due to:

- Lack of public transport systems- Low density urban settlements soneed long journeys to work, schooletc- History of low petrol prices

World reserve of oil (%)

Saudi Arabia (22.3%)

Iran (11.2%) Kuwait (9.7%) UAE (8.3%) Venezuela (6.5%) Russia (6.3%) Kazakhstan (3.4%) Libya (3.3%) Nigeria (3.0%)

USA (1.8%)

China (1.4%) Canada (1.4%) Qatar (1.3%)


19/73

19

Future pressures on both supply and consumption of this

resource in view of recent global economic growth

China and India are continuing to grow rapidly with a combined population of 1,400million using 71 million cars. In most cases as the population grows the demand for carswill increase as the hope to get the American Dream. To achieve this Tata Motors

based in India has begun production a car priced at 1500, this increasing the demandfor oil and adding to C02 emissions.

Theories about the population-resource equation

Malthus Theory 1 766- 1 834)

- Population increases faster than food

supply so there would come a time whenthe world could not cope.- Population increases geometrically (1, 2,4, 8, and 16)- Food supply increases arithmetically (1,2, 3, 4, and 5)- Population would outgrow the amount offood available leading to famine, war anddisease

Malthus argued that there were ways to prevent population from extending beyond thefood supplies necessary to support it (optimum population). This includes a combinationof1. Negative Methods people choose to reduce human fertility e.g. Chinas one childpolicy, sterilisation2. Positives:Anything which increases mortality: e.g. low living standards, diseaseMalthus argued that this would kept the carrying capacity in check theNumber of plants, animals or human which can be adequately supported (carried) by theland

Boserup Theory 1 965- Population growth has a positive impact on people as it forcesthem to invent a way out of a problem when resources start torun out e.g. GM crops- Overpopulation leads to innovation and higher productivity inuse of land (irrigation, weeding, crop intensification, betterseeds) and labour (tools, better techniques) e.g. GM Crops andthe Green Revolution


20/73

20

How well these theories stand up to current global resource

supply and demand

MALTHUS Some people believe in Malthuss ideas.

He believed that population grew

exponentially (doubling at each stage

1:2:4:8:16), but that food production

grew arithmetically (adding one unit at

each stage 1:2:3:4:5, etc).

This meant that population would

eventually outstrip food supply. At this

point, the population would decrease

through starvation. Malthus called this a

natural check on population growth.

Other natural checks were disease,

famine and food insecurity.

This can be seen in some countries. For

example, in Ethiopia where there is a

greater population than the resources

available and many Ethiopians rely on

FOOD AID to survive.

A preventative check is when the

Government does something to stop

BOSERUP

However some people follow Boserups

ideas. She argued that food production does

not limit or control population growth.

Instead, she said that population growth

controls farming methods. She believed that

people would try not to give into disease or

famine.

Instead, they would invent solutions to the

problem. She used the term agricultural

intensification to explain how farmers can

grow more food from the same price of land

using better farming techniques and

chemical fertilisers.

This can be seen in Malawi

Food supply has increased using irrigationand the genetic modification of seeds.

Irrigation is when you take water

from areas that have it to those that

dont. In Malawi there are plans for

an irrigation project to create a

green belt of land using water from

Lake Malawi. Malawi is also allowed to genetically

modify (GM) seeds into the

country. These crops may allow

Malawi to grow more food

especially in dry areas, creating jobs

and economic growth.

In most countries Malthuss ideas have not

occurred as people have developed ways to

increase FOOD roduction.


21/73

21

How resource demand might be reduced

Reducing the dependence on oil

- Plastic water bottles are made from oil and then oil is used to transport them across

great distances.- Now carrying refillable bottles of water and recycling the bottle- Switch to hydrogen run cars as they release no harmful emissions. E.g.

The Ford Edge car is first alternative fuel car to be able to travelsimilar distances to traditional petrol cars.

Individual action

- changing habits e.g. using public transport and switching to energy efficient light bulbs et- Recycling and conservation- Buying food from local farm shops to reduce food miles

Corporate Action:

- Example of Interface Carpets based in the USA has identified various goals to improveits environmental performance e.g. eliminating waste in all areas of the business and usingrenewable energy resources such solar and wind power.

- Google Headquarters uses hydrogen cars which are renewable and also provides a busshuttle to pick up its employers to reduce their car usage

The aim is to achieve SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

This is development that meets the needs of the present withoutcompromising theability of future generations to meet their own needs

The potential for alternative and renewable resources

In 1995 the UK generated 2% of its electricity from renewable sources compared with theEU average of 14%. The government set its target of reaching 10% by 2010. This theybelieve is achievable as the average costs for wind, hydro, landfill gas and waste-burning felldramatically during the 1990s. However, UK government achieved only 6% by 2010. There isstill however a huge market for the UK to switch towards more renewable resources ofenergy.

Whether technology can fix the problem

Technological fix is the idea that we can resolve problems we might have by inventingsolutions to them. The problem of finding alternative fuels to replace cheap oil would needhigh amounts of effort from governments, corporations and researchers to cope with theissue of peak oil.

ExamplesGenetically modified foodHydrogen fuel car (alternative to oil)

Wave power machines (alternative to energy- electricity produced by burning fossilfuels)


22/73

22

Topic 3: Living Spaces


-

Defining a good living space and how it may vary with age and stage in the

life cycle etc

- The processes that lead to variations in the quality of living spaces

- Perceptions of living spaces and how these vary spatially between urban and

rural

- How personal choices about living spaces are affected by age and life cycle

- Pressures on rural areas in developed countries to provide more living spaces

- The pressures on living spaces in urban areas, their impacts, and the

compromises made in creating good quality living space

- The need for more affordable quality living spaces in urban and rural areas

- The links between quality of living spaces and economic wealth

- Attempts to create high-quality living spaces in urban and rural areas for all

urban populations


23/73

23

Key Terms

Accessible rural areas Countryside within easy reach of urban areas

Cultural background The origins of an individuals or groups belief system

Economic status The position held by an individual, group or country interms of their economic power

Expatriate community Overseas communities made up of non-nationals e.g.the British living in Spain

Global city A major urban area that has a significant role incontrolling the international flows of capital and trade

Global hub A major centre of global communications, such as aninternational airport

Greenfield sites A piece of land that has not been built on before, but

is now being considered for developmentInner city living space Residential areas within city centre areas

Organic agriculture Farming systems that use no artificial chemicals

Pull factor Something that attracts people to a location

Push factor Something that makes people wish to leave a location

Redevelopment Development which aims to stimulate growth in areasthat have experienced decline

Regeneration Growth in areas that have experienced decline in the

pastRemote rural areas Rural areas that are distant from and thus little

affected by urban areas and their populations

Rural Idyll The common perception that rural areas are quiet andattractive and therefore good places to live

Sustainable living space Living spaces that are designed in such as way to havea small impact on the environment and thus moredurable than others

Urban sprawl Urban growth, usually weakly controlled, into

surrounding rural and semi-rural areas


24/73

24

Defining a good living space and how it may vary with

age and stage in the life cycle etc

Peoples idea of what makes good living spaces tends to vary due to age and theireconomic background. You tend to form a strong bond with a living space if it meetsyour needs and it has access to the things you like doing.

Factors affecting how we view places:

Age Younger people seek out more variety in their social livesand this makes cities more attractive. Older people orthose with families tend to find rural areas moreattractive.

Mobility Personal mobility will affect how isolation we feel. Rural

areas tend to have more problems with mobility with areliance on private cars

Cultural background This impacts on how we see places and how attractive wefind them

Knowledge and perception Highlights the idea of a place without people actuallyknowing the area e.g. crime rates etc

Economic status Areas that offer job security are deemed more attractive

The factors that lead to variations in the quality of living

spaces

Social factors: crime rates,

healthcare, education, risk of

disease etc

Political factors: opportunity to

vote, freedom of speech and

movement

Economic factors: access to

services, job opportunities,

transport links etc

Environmental factors:available water, soil fertility,

likelihood of hazards etc


25/73

25

Perceptions of living spaces and how these vary spatially between

urban and rural

The rural idyll in DEVELOPED countries is an image that people have of the rural life indeveloped countries e.g. less traffic, pollution; more open space for leisure; less crime shopsetc. This rural idyll idea creates high demand for housing.This has caused problems:

Demand from people has meant housing in attractive areas accessible to citieshas become EXPENSIVE

Some wealthy people have BOUGHT second homes this increases demand andtherefore PRICES. Local people may not AFFORD them.

Rural areas are often used as weekend retreats for urbanites who venture to thecountryside each weekend. The villages population also grows during the summermonths due to holiday/ second homes. However during the week and winter the

population declines. This has led to the closure of services like shops and pubs. (Alsopeople may live in the villages but work in nearby towns and do their shopping thereor in out of town centres)

What causes Counterurbanisation?

Counterurbanisation is the movement of people out of urban areas like towns and cities torural areas e.g. villages and small towns.

The ma in push and pull factors are often a mirror image of each other.

The main push factors out of the city)

a r e . . . . . . .

The main pull factors towards the

countryside) are . . . . . . .

Expensive housing; higher crime rates;congestion and traffic; higher levels of noiseand air pollution

The perception that the rural idyll exists withmore open space; less congestion and traffic;fresh air and less pollution; more housing foryour money; less crime and a better communityspirit.

Improvement in transport (high speed trainsand motorways)means people no longer have tolive where they work

The growth of IT faxes, email, videoconferencing-and broadband connections meanspeople can work from home

However the rural idyll may hide problems:

- Closure of services like village shops and pubs- Secondary school children may have to travel a long way to school- Public transport links may be poor and this isolates older people andteenagers- Young people maybe remote from leisure facilities as well as educationalfacilities

- There may be a lack of employment opportunity in the local area and sopeople may commute a long way to work. Wages in local employment maybe lower


26/73

26

Developing countries: Urbanisation

In many cities in developing countries there has been an increase in the proportion ofpeople living in urban area due to RURAL to URBAN migration.The main push and pull factors are often a mirror image of each other.

Pull factorsThe main pull factors (towards the city) are

Push factorsThe main push factors(out of the countryside)

are

Employment opportunities in service andmanufacturing industry. For example inJohor Bahru in Malaysia TNCs have set upfactories e.g. Dyson which createsemployment opportunities.

Lack of paid employment. Often farms are toosmall to support a growing population

Better Education opportunities especially insecondary and tertiary (university) Lack of educational opportunities

Better health care with more health centresand hospitals(Also electricity; water supply etc)

Lack of health care facilities

This has (together with high naturalincrease due to young age of migrants somore births and fewer deaths due to

improved medical care) lead to thedevelopment of Squatter settlements

What is a squatter settlement?

- An area of makeshift housing with poorliving conditions- Often no running water and people have tobuy from water sellers

- Lack of sanitation (getting rid of sewage and dirty water) so diseases like diarrhoeadevelop.

- Due to poverty; lack of street lighting and lack of security often leads to highercrime levels.- May lack other services like schools; health centres and public transport- Houses are often built illegally so people do not feel secure.

However there is a major advantage: housing is cheap and affordable for the

urban poor


27/73

27

How personal choices about living spaces are affected by age

and life cycle

20 somethings are moving back to the city in developed countries like the UK:

This process is called re-urbanisationwhere young people (25-35) who are relativelywell off move back into the cities eg London Docklands around Canary WharfRegeneration projectshave attracted young, often single people back into London. Thejobs that have replaced the old industrial jobs (eg in the docks; food processing) are inbusiness and financial services.

Attractions: Pull factors

o close to the city centre for work and high quality shoppingo good public transport in the city centres so no need for a car

o

culture e.g. theatres and museums and leisure (clubs, restaurants) and a goodnight life close byo modern housing available often built on brownfield sites (or gentrified housing)

Regeneration: development (e.g. employment; housing

leisure) in areas that have experienced decline.

Retiring to the sun:

Many older people are choosing to retire to eastern and

southern Spain:People in the UK have increased income and savings as wellas people reaching retirement age in better healthAttractions of Spain

o warmer climate than the UKo Modern health facilitieso House prices are lower than the UKo Lower heating costs and household bills than the UK

o Cheap to fly home to see friends and family

BUT there are problems- Ill health and worries about language problems in foreign hospitals- Falling value of pensions as the value of the pound declines against the Euro;- As people get very old they may need more family support which is not available inSpain


28/73

28

Pressures on rural areas in developed countries to provide

more living spaces

Populations in developing countries are growing slowly BUT there is a growing demandfor housing due to :

*People moving from one area to another*More individual/ smaller households due to single/ divorced/older people livingon their own.

So there are pressures to build more housing on Greenfield sites. (areas which have notbeen built on before e.g. countryside)

Consequences of building on Greenfield site

there is a need to find suitable Greenfield sites and there is often pressure bylocal people against this

The growth of towns and villages in RURAL areas has an impact both in the ruralsettlement (e.g. increased traffic by commuters; more people so there is populationpressure on schools and health centres; loss of AMENITY land)

AND in the surrounding rural area(e.g. loss of biodiversity) Loss of productive farmland Increased use of cars for commuting by new residents

There is also a pressure to build new transport developments e.g. roads and

airports.


29/73


30/73

30

What are the pressures on living spaces?

In Mumbai huge slums e.g. Dharavi are home to over 600,000 people (see abovethe problems of squatter settlements)

Over 1/3 of the population of nearly 20m do not have access to fresh drinking

water and 2m do not have access to a toilet (poor sanitation) The public transport system is poor and commuting takes a long time

Creating Sustainable living Spaces

Rural Sustainable Examples

Developed Countries Developing Countries

Martin (Hampshire)

Looked to control their food system so that itcould become less dependent on supermarkets

etc. Residents have joined Future Farms whichis a community allotment of 3 hectares growingvegetables and raising animals. It is sold bythe villagers for profit as well as for their ownfood.

Eco-villages in Brazil

Ecoovila is a small eco-village located in the cityof Porto Alegre. The aim was to develop

affordable housing for everyone and use eco-friendly building materials. All houses face thesun so they soak up its energy, houses are cooledby underground chambers in the homes, grassroofs reduce inside temperatures and help toinsulate. They have used local material such asclay bricks and sewage is treated in a biologicalreed-bed system.

Developed Developing

London congestion chargingRecycling and waste reduction

Masdar (United Arab Emirates)

A new settlement for 50,000 people has been built17km outside the capital. It is claimed to be thefirst zero-carbon, zero waste city. For example

wind towers are placed on top of buildings to suckcool air in and warm air out. Rooftops are coveredwith solar panels and the city will be car free due toextensive public transport.

Barcelona (Spain)

Created a scheme called bicing where

people buy a years membership for 30

which allows them to pick up a bike from oneof the

400 stations that are located around thecity. There are over 6000 bikes and morethan 175000 members.

Urban farms in Havana, Cuba

These are gardens that use every piece of availableground in the city and in 1995 is was estimated thatthere were 26,600 popular gardens in the city thatproduce a wide range of products


31/73

31

BICESTER

Urban Sustainable examples

The Future: Sustainable living spaces: Britains new ecotowns

What are Compact Communities?

Attempts to reduce the environmental impact of our living spaces by making the bestuse of space. Workplaces are located within the housing areas so there is less need totravel. Housing is dense so it provides enough people to support the local services anduse public transport.

Why build new Eco-towns?

The UK government want at least 10 new eco towns to be built by 2020. NW Bicester isone of the first wave that could be built.

WHY: There is a shortage of housing especially affordable housing in certain partsof the UK.

What are they? Eco-towns are described as small new towns of at least 5-20,000homes designed to achieve zero carbon development and more sustainable living (energyefficiency; streets with charging points for electric cars;jobs within or close; localfood production; conservation/recycling of water and waste; urban design will allowchilden to walk/cycle to school) using the best new design and architecture.

Some new ecotowns will be built on brownfield sites eg former RAF aerodromes butmany will be built on Greenfield sites.

EG North West Bicester in Oxfordshire.

Plans have been put forward to build 5000 homes and create 5000 jobs for localpeople in NW Bicester

If you look at the satellite photo this ecotown will be built on a Greenfield site.

For Against

More affordable,sustainable housing

where the demand isgreatest

Ecotowns will be a model(example)for futuresustainable livingdevelopments

Sustainable living is thefuture the world haschanged and we cannot

live in the past

This site is a Greenfield siteLoss of biodiversity in the

areaLoss of amenity land egwalking in open spaceLoss of productive farmlandIncreased use of cars forcommuting by new residentsThe Campaign to ProtectRural England argues thatCouncils should redevelopderelict Brownfield sites and

bring back into use 800,000empty homes in England.

Greenfield site


32/73

32

Topic 4: Making a Living


- Understand how the balance between employment sectors is changing

- Process of industrialisation and deindustrialisation and the impacts of these

- Factors leading to diversification of rural economy in a developed country

- Understand the environmental impact of employment change in urban areas

of a developing country

- Understand the environmental impact of de-industrialisation and economic

diversification in one area within a developed country

- Identify the potential for regeneration and environmental change on

Brownfield sites

- Identify the potential for greener growth in urban areas.


33/73


34/73

34

Understand how the balance between employment sectors is

changing

Employment can be divided into four main groups or sectors: Primary industry people extract raw material from the land or sea e.g. farming

Secondary industry people are involved in manufacturing e.g. house building Tertiary industry provide a services e.g. selling goods or nursing Quaternary industry provide information and expert help e.g. IT

Employment structures: The proportion of people working in each of the primary,secondary and tertiary sector

These are a method of showing employment structure and should be read in thedirection of the arrows

World Employment Structures

Globally LEDCssuch as Nigeriaand Kenya havehigh amounts ofprimary industriesdue to the factthat there is alack of education

and they aremainly subsidencefarmers. MEDC'ssuch as UK andUSA tend to focuson Tertiaryactivities due to

higher education rates and tertiary jobs are higher paid. Primary is low due to the factthat most MEDCshave taken to importing food stuffs etc as it is cheaper.


35/73

35

Clarke-Fisher Model

In the pre-industrial stage low-income countries are mainly employed in primaryproduction, middle income countries are focused on secondary industries and finally

high-income countries are dominated by the tertiary sector.

This model tells us how employment changes over time and how the balance ofemployment changes as a country develops. However it does assume that there is asimple straight development path from LEDCsto MEDCs.

Process of industrialisation and deindustrialisation and the impacts of these

Industrialisation is a social and economic process which changes pre-industrial societies(farming) to industrial ones. The industrial output is a good way of measuring howindustrialised a country is.

Deindustrialisation is the decline in manufacturing (secondary) industry and the growthin tertiary and quaternary industries.

Economies start to develop and

incomes rise = demand for

manufactured goods increase =

secondary industry grows

Incomes continue to rise,

people start to consume more

services = tertiary sector

grows

Tertiary services support

and promote quaternary

services

Reasons for

De-industrialisation

Greater competition from

countries such as China and

India

Reduced demand for

traditional products due to

new technologies

Mechanisation has increased productivity and

reduced the number of workers needed


36/73

36

Named Example: Mexico: an industrialising country

Mexico was originally mainly focused on agriculture but the growth of industry meantmany people moved from the rural areas to the cities. In 1950s manufacturing becamethe biggest provider of wealth. Manufacturing has been attracted here due to:

-

a large and highly skilled workforce- large consumer market (plenty of people to buy the products)- Low distribution costs- Close to government who make the decisions

Re-export businesses have sprung up which are located close to the USA boarder, theyare owned by foreign companies who process goods imported from the USA and re-export duty free (no tax!). This has caused many problems such as the growth of theinformal sector e.g. shining shoes.

Named Example: Germany: a de-industrialised country

Germany has the 4thlargest economy in the world. Deindustrialisation in the 1980sforced manufacturing to move to lower-cost sites (many abroad) and the growth ofservice industries. The decline in manufacturing meant that Germany had to act tosave its economy by setting up small manufacturing businesses. Germany now has 31%of people employed in manufacturing but many people are now involved in knowledge-based industries.

Factors leading to diversification of rural economy in a

developed country

Diversify = create more variety in jobs and industry so that people are not dependenton just one activity e.g. farming.

Challenges for the

countryside

Lack of affordable homes due to

purchasing of second homes in

rural areas = increasing house prices

Change in farming:

- Low wages, increasing

mechanisation, cheaper imports

- Supermarkets have driven prices

down

Lack of transport links

- Public transport is infrequent and

expensive

Local depopulation

- Younger people move out of rural

areas due to lack of jobs etc

Disappearance of local services e.g.

bus services, health services have

declined


37/73


38/73

38

Environmental impact of de-industrialisation and

economic diversification

Named Example: UK

Economic impacts Social Impacts e.g. Glasgow Environmental Impacts- UK use to be a largeshipbuilding area but hasdeclined over the years- Loss of personal income- Loss of taxes to nationaland local governments- Rising demand for incomesupport services- Loss of income in the local

areas due peoples lack ofspending power (cantafford to buy things)

- Family breakdown- Alcoholism and crime- Permanent unemployment

Positive:- More available land- Less water used in

industrial processes- Less energy required

for machines- Reduced traffic

congestion- Reduced noise and air

pollutionNegative- Derelict Land- Empty factory buildings- Good manufactured

further away =transport issues

Identify the potential for regeneration and environmental

change on Brownfield sites

Brownfield site = an area of land which has been built on before and is suitable forredevelopmentGreenfield site = an area of land that has not previously been built on before

Developing Brownfield sites does have some negatives:- Often more expensive to develop because of clean up costs- Regulations for reclaiming the sites can often be a barrier to new development- Some of these sites can be important wildlife habitats

Named Example: Birmingham Fort Dunlop

The West Midlands Regional Development Agency has helped to support theregeneration of the city areas affected by industrial decline.

Fort Dunlop in its prime employed 12000 people and in1816 a village known as tyretown was developed around

the site to meet the workers needs. The factory closedin 1980s when Dunlop moved its manufacturing abroad.It was empty for 20 years and then in 2002 it received

planning permission to redevelop into a mixed-usesustainable 24-hr community.


39/73

39

Identify the potential for greener growth in urban areas.

Green employment is attempts to improve air and water quality, recycle and reducewaste, promote conservation and to improve the environment.It includes the following:

-

Making green products from natural renewable materials or recycled goods- Constructing green buildings that use less energy, recycle water and are built from

natural materials- Offering green services e.g. ecotourism- Quaternary services e.g. architects designing green buildings

Examples1) Eco-tourismTries to respect the environment and local people, but reduce the impact oftourisms. It is growing on an average of 5% per year. Uluru (Ayers Rock) in

Australia offers eco-tourism by the local Anangu people. They offer guided toursto cultural sits and teach about their desert life.

- High cost-low volume which means it costs 280 pert night at the hotels- Most tourists arrive by air increasing environmental impact- Located in the remote desert so everything has to be brought in by road

2) RecyclingCuritiba in located in SE Brazil. Its population has grown rapidly to 1.6 millioncreating the normal problems of unemployment, poor housing etc. In 1989 it was

the first city in Brazil to introduce separation and recycling of its waste. Today2/3rds of the citys waste is processed creating employment sorting organic andinorganic waste. Recovered materials are then sold to local factories and the moneyis used to fund social programmes e.g. schooling.


40/73

40

Topic 5: Changing Cities


What an eco-footprint is and how we can calculate it

Why many cities have very large eco-footprints

Why eco-footprints vary in size from place to place

What are the main causes of environmental pollution

How we can manage the environment more sustainably and reduce our eco-

footprint

How we can reduce our waste

How we can make our transport more sustainable

How sustainable city living can improve the quality of life

What green consumerism is

How farmers markets are encouraging people to buy high-quality local

produce and cut down on food miles


41/73


42/73

42

What are the environmental issues facing cities?

Urban regions and their eco-footprints

When towns or cities are first established they use the surrounding countryside toproduce food and raw materials for the people to survive. However, as the city

expands it begins to have to rely on importing food and raw materials from other areasin order to support itself therefore its eco-footprint has expanded.

The eco-footprint is used to identify how sustainable a city is and what changes needto be made to improve the quality of life for people living within it.


43/73

43

How and why eco-footprints vary in size from place toplace?

A comparison of 2 places in the UK shows that:

City Planets Footprint (globalhectares)

Winchester 3.62 6.52

Salisbury 2.79 5.01

Both these cities have around 43,000 people and are only80km apart. Why are their eco-footprints so different?

Incomes and house values in Winchester are higher sopeople can afford to spend more on everything

Both cities have high employment rates Both people commute out of Winchester and further to work than in Salisbury.

This means Winchesters carbon footprint is increased, whereas in Salisbury

more people walk, cycle or use public transport

Differences between developed and developing countries

The link between wealth and environmental impacts is not clear as places such asGermany and the Netherlands have high GDP per capita and longer life expectanciesthan the UK but all have lower eco-footprints. However, eco-footprints of developingcountries tend to be much smaller than developed nations as their lifestyles and

consumption patterns are much different.


44/73

44

What are the main causes of environmental pollution?

Producing electricity Producing electricity through the burning of coal, oil or gasreleases gases which contribute to increasing global warming

Nuclear power This has many threats including to land, air and water if any of

the radioactivity were to escape e.g. ChernobylIndustry Chemical or car industries produce environmental pollution this

often occurs due to run-off into the water system

Household waste Increasingly we are dependant on landfill sites to dispose ofhousehold waste. This contains chemicals which can seap intothe water table and also releases methane gase

Oil Main source of energy for transport and burning this releaseschemicals into the air

Agricultural

chemicals

Most food in MEDCs is grown with the use of pesticides or

fertilisers, these chemicals often end up in the food or watersupply

Contaminated water Many underground water sources have been contaminated bychemicals from farming, industry and houses.


45/73

45

Assess the environmental impacts and footprints of

different urban areas and activities -Named Case Study: London

Key Facts: The City of London produces 8.8% of UKs GDP

Greater London is set to become the fourth largest urban economy in the world 81% of Londons food comes from outside the UK 20% of Londons water comes from outside the area e.g. from Wales London needs an area 125x bigger to supply all the resources it consumes

London developed due to its surrounding area and the ability for it to support itspopulation i.e. Carrying Capacity (the maximum number of people who can be supportedin a given area). Once this was reached London was forced to look outside its area inorder to support its growing population and economy.

Londons life support system

What does London do with all its waste?

In order to cope with its waste London transports its waste to surrounding counties e.g.Essex deals with 33% of Londons waste.Landfill vs Incinerator

Landfill Incinerator

For

Makes good use of old quarries Easily maintained and safe Produces methane that can be burnt

as fuel Can be sealed after use and used for

parkland

Long life span Cost effective Safe disposal of toxic substances Residue left over can be used for

road building

Against Atrracts vermin e.g. rats Gives off the smells of methane Waste materials contaminate

groundwater Can suffer from subsidence

Gives off toxic gases C02 is released 25% of originial waste remains

after burning

WASTE 40.9 million tonnes of C02 27 million tonnes of food,

construction materials, chemicals etc. 28% of water lost through leakage

18% of energy is wasted

FOOD 6.9 million tonnes per yearWATER 866 billion litres per yearENERGY 13.2 million tonnes oil equivalent Only 1% renewable sources

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 20 million tonnesWORKERS 3 million commuters dail

49 million tonnes of materialsconsumed

64 billion passenger km travelledeach year 69% by car

OUTPUTSINPUTS


46/73


47/73

47

Named Example: London reducing energy and waste

Key Facts:- Only 1% of Londons energy comes from renewable sources- Up to 60% of energy is lost in homes due to poor insulation

-

Londoners produce 3.4 million tonnes of rubbish each year- Up to 80% of our waste could be recycled, re-used or composted

What is London doing?Eco-communities these new eco-towns are to be built on brownfield sites out of town.E.g. BedZED near Croydon, Greater London, is the largest carbon-neutral eco-community in the UK. It is built on reclaimed land and promotes energy conservation.

BedZED key characteristics

- Buildings have been built from natural, recycled or reclaimed materials- Houses have been built facing south to allow for the use of solar power

-

Producing as much renewable energy as that consumed- Using heat from cooking for space heating- Providing homes with roof gardens, rain water harvesting and waste water recycling- Community layout promotes walking, cycling and public transport use

How could London reduce its waste?

Direct Variable charging where recyclables are collected free of charge and pay-as-you-throw policies are applied to everything else. However, this could encourage fly-tipping.

Polluter pays principle where the company that produced the waste items arecharged. However the cost for this is likely to the transferred to the customer.

How we can make our transport more sustainable

There are various solutions to reduce the amount of cars, Lorries etc. on UK roads.1) Converting cars to LPG(Liquid propane Gas) instead of petrol or diesel. It is

much cleaner and cheaper than petrol and grants are available for the cost ofthe conversion.

2) Using hybrid carswhich are powered by electric batteries as well as petrol.3) Super-tramse.g. Manchester aim to reduce congestion and improve air quality4)

Bus laneshelp speed up the journeys to and from the city centres and wouldthere reduce air pollution as more people are encouraged to use them

5) Congestion charginge.g. In London a congestion charge of 8 pre-paid or 10on the day applies to Central London, with an additional low emission zone chargeof 100-200 per day for large lorries. (Since 2003 there has been a 21% fall intraffic in central London, a 43% increase in the amount of bus passengers and43% increase in cyclists).

6) Park and ride schemes help reduce the amount of people entering the citycentres and reduce congestion


48/73

48

Sustainable city living

What does it look like?

All waste recycled for reuseOrganic waste from urban sewage systems to be used as fertilisers

More parks and green spaceSolar panels to be used to heat water and provide some electricityPublic transport to be powered by electricity gained from renewable sourcesIndustries would be required to clean its waste to prevent pollution

Named Case study: Curitiba, Southern Brazil

Key ideas:Population = 2.2 millionMain idea was to create a IntegratedTransportation Network in which there were 3 high

speed, one-way designated bus lanes which wereconnected through terminals which allow them torun every 90 seconds.The system transports 2.6 million people everyday and is used by 70% of the citys population

Buses use alternative fuel e.g. natural gas to cut down on pollution levels

What is green consumerism?

This concentrates on encouraging people to:

a) Reduce the amount of products we consume, including energy, water and foodb) Buy items that are environmentally friendlyHow to become a green consumer?- Dont buy more than you need- Buy organic fruit and vegetables- Look for environmentally friendly labelled products- Compare labels on energy consuming products- Use public transport- Look for products with less packaging

Farmers marketsThe first British farmers market opened in Bath in 1997 and there are now 500 in the

UK. People spend around 120 million a year at these events. Farmers markets are aset of stalls run by farmers and food growers from the local area. The idea is toencourage small-scale, environmentally aware methods of farming and production.

Advantages for the farmer Advantages for the customer

- Immediate payment- No high transport costs- No costs to retailers i.e. shops- Chance to explain the product

- Fresh produce- Seasonal fruit and vegetables- Free range and organic meat and eggs- Try before you buy

-

Chance to ask questions


49/73

49

Topic 6: Changing Countryside


Issues facing rural areas in developing countries, e.g. rural isolation,

economic decline, depopulation.

Pressures on rural areas in developed countries.

The impact of changes to the national and global economy on rural areas

in developing economies.

Urban-rural links and their impact on rural areas in one developed

country, and the pressures created

Initiatives taken in rural areas in developing countries can help to address

issues of isolation and economic decline.

Declining rural areas can develop more sustainably if appropriate action is

taken

Initiatives taken in rural areas under pressure in developed countries can

help to address the issues.

Rural areas under pressure can develop more sustainably in future if

appropriate action is taken.


50/73

50

Key Terms

Accessible countryside Countryside within easy reach of urban areas

Chocolate box village A rural settlement that appears to match thepicturesque image sometimes used on boxes ofchocolates

Commuter belt A residential area within relatively easy reach andoften surrounding a city, where many residents travelto and from the city daily

Counterurbanisation The movement of people and employment from majorcities into smaller settlements and rural areas locatedjust beyond the city

Diversification Reducing risks e.g. in farming areas, farmers can find

other ways of making money out of the farmEnvironmentaldegradation

Negative impacts of the natural environment,generally through human action

Globalisation The process, led by transnational companies, wherebythe worlds countries are becoming part of one vast

economy

Grassroots scheme A scheme that originates within a local communityrather than being imposed from above

Honey pot A place of special interest or appeal that attracts

large number of visitors and tends to becomeovercrowded at peak times

Rural depopulation The decline of population in rural areas and regions

SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest a small area thathas officially been protected because of its wildlifeor geology

Telecottaging Working from home in the country, using computercommunication

Urban Fringe The countryside surrounding an urban area


51/73

51

Issues facing rural areas in developing countries, e.g. rural

isolation, economic decline, depopulation

Spiral of Decline

Physical and human processes affecting developing

areas:

1. Environmental degradationdue to deforestation and desertification clearance of vegetation in order to farm means soil erosion increasesincreasingdroughts lack of food

2. Population changehigh rates of natural increase pressure on naturalresources

3. Urbanisationmore people are leaving the countryside as they are attracted to

the cities for jobs only elderly and females left in the countryside to do thefarming

4. Human hazardsdiseases and wars cause higher death rates less people toproduce the food

5. Globalisation land can be turned into exotic crop growing for people thousandsof miles away

Less food

produced

Foodinsecurity

Rural-urban

migration

Neglect of

farming


52/73

52

Named Example: Malawi

Key Facts:

- Annual GSP $800- 50% of the population lives below the poverty line

-

33% are underfed- Owes $1.8 billion in debt

Problems faced:1) Rural isolation in southern Malawi- Only 1 for every 139 people have access to a telephone- Rural economy has hardly grown as it is poor infrastructure e.g. during wet seasonit takes hours to travel 20 km

2) Rural Poverty

-

Every day farmers spend 43 minutes collecting wood, 48 minutes walking to farmplots and 128 minutes walking to market

- Rural areas have fewer healthcare facilities- Primary schooling is free, but secondary schooling costs a family most of their

years income

3) Depopulation- More people are leaving the countryside as they are attracted to urban areas for

jobs, education and healthcare. This results in the elderly and female population

being left behind.

The impact of changes to the national and global economy

on rural areas in developing economies

Named Example: Malawi

Growth of large estatescreated during the 19th

Century colonisation of Malawi byBritain. They estates plantations for tea, coffee and tobacco. They hire local landlessfarmers and the get paid 1p per kg of tea leave picked.Tobacco Tenants- Malawi has 1.4 million child labourers. These farmers are allocated aplot of land by estate owners to produce a specific amount. Many tenants lackmedication, proper housing and safe drinking water.Small holders the majority of farmers in rural areas, 1.8million families and produce80% of its food. They are using subsistence farming as they only produce enough foodfor themselves.


53/73


54/73

54

Initiatives taken in rural areas under pressure in developed

countries can help to address the issues: LAKE DISTRICT

CASE STUDY CONTINUED

Making farming greener:

- Arable rotation = rotating vegetables e.g. peas etc can fix nitrogen and reduce theamount of fertiliser needed

- Organic Farming = Relies on crop rotation, compost and biological pest control tomaintain the soil and control pests. Does not use chemical fertilisers so it isenvironmental friendly.

- Hedgerows = these control livestock and help to prevent soil erosion and water run-off.

Housing problem in the Lake District

-

charge second home owners more than 100% council tax to raise money- Limit second home ownership- Convert disused farm buildings into affordable housing- Stop the Right to buy, to preserve the amount of council housing.

Traffic problem in the Lake District

1) Build Bypasses around key towns e.g. Ambleside would improve journey timesand increase road capacity

2) Park and Ride at key towns reduce town centre traffic3) Limit car parking = reduce the number of parking spaces to put visitors off

arriving by car4) Charge vehicles entering the national park = could use the money raised to

maintain the parks


55/73

55

Initiatives taken in rural areas in developing countries

can help to address issues of isolation and economic

decline

***Named Case Study: Ethiopia***

Crops and a shop:

Ethiopia is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. Due to itslocation the climate is hot and arid making farming extremely difficult. FARM-Africa is a non-governmental organisation which works with local rural communitiesin Eastern Africa. The organisation helps them to built canal to channel water intothe fields, received starter kit of seeds and loans to open a small shop to sell itemslike soap and salt.

Ethiopias millennium villages

Millennium Promise is a non-governmental organisation who aims to end rural hunger,disease and poverty. It is a bottom-up approach which uses the following ideas:

- building micro dams and safe water points- refurbishing classrooms in local schools- Distributing insecticide-treated bed nets to tackle malaria

Fish Farming

World Vision has set up a project to develop fish farming in Malawian families affected

by HIV/AIDS. It helps farmers to dig small, rain-fed ponds designed for commonfreshwater fish. Kitchen waste is used to feed the fish and provides a good source ofincome to the families. It has helped reduce children malnutrition from 45% to 15%.It has also doubled the income of 1200 households.


56/73

56

Topic 7: Development Dilemmas


Economic development can lead to regional economic differences in

developing countries

Disparities can develop between urban and rural areas in the same

country

Development models in developing countries are usually top-down or

bottom-up

The impact of top-down development in a developing country

Characteristics of bottom up development

Impacts of bottom up development in a developing country

The characteristics of sustainable development in rural areas

Are top-down or bottom-up schemes more appropriate for rural areas in

developing countries in future?


57/73

57

Key Terms

Appropriate Technology Equipment that the local community is able to userelatively easily and without much cost

Bottom-up approach Development projects that come from localcommunities rather than central government orexternal agencies

Core region The most important social, economic and political areaof a country or global region the centre of power

Disparity A great difference between parts of a country interms of wealth

Environmental ImpactAssessment

A method of evaluating the effects of plans andpolicies on the environment

Hydro-electric power The use of fast flowing water to turn turbines whichproduce electricity

Human DevelopmentIndex

A measure of development that uses four economicand social indicators to produce an index figure thatallows comparison between countries

Micro-Hydro Schemes Small-scale HEP that generate electricity locally

Millennium DevelopmentGoals (MDGs)

The development goals agreed by the worldgovernments at the UN summit in September 2000

Non-government

organisations

Charities such as WaterAid who do not report back to

a specific government or countryPeriphery The outer limits or edge of an area, often remote or

isolated from the core

Poverty A state of shortage of money and goods, usuallymeasured in terms of average wealth and income insociety

Poverty Cycle A set of processes that maintain a group or society inpoverty

Top-down approach Approach in which projects are set up and organised

by governments, often with little consultation withlocal communities


58/73

58

Economic development can lead to regional economic

differences in developing countries

Development means improvement for people and the economy. Within a countrythere tends to be disparity between the core areas (urban areas with the majorityof people and services) and the periphery (rural remote countryside).

Upward spiral caused by

Multiplier effect

Measuring Development:1) Economic WealthMeasured as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita = the total value of goods andservices in a nation measured over a year2) Human Development Index (HDI) gives a country a score between 0 and 1 and isbased on life expectancy, education and income.3) Birth rates The number of babies born per thousand per year

4) Death rate- The number of deaths per thousand per year5) Infant mortality rate The numbers of babies who die before the age of 5 perthousand per year6) Access to clean water7) % rural population The amount of people who live in peripheral/countryside areas8) Types of employment amount/percentage of people employed in primary,secondary, tertiary etc9) Level of literacy the numbers/amount of people who can read and write

Need houses, water and

services

Growth continues and

settlement and economy

ex and

Demand for more workers

Workers need to build

and provide theseNeed Food

Shops open, more services

needed

Needs workforcePeople move there

Growth of industry

Investment


59/73

59

Disparities can develop between urban and rural areas in

the same country

Named Example: India

Core area: Maharashtra

Is Indias richest core region with the highest GDP and contains Indias largest city,

Mumbai. It has grown due to various reasons:- Services e.g. banking, IT and call centres. Mumbais universities produce English

speakers who are employed by large Western companies e.g. BT.- Manufacturing: cotton, food processing, steel, engineering and cement are commonly

exported.- Entertainment: Mumbai has the worlds largest film industry- Bollywood- Leisure and business services hotels and restaurants

Periphery area: Bihar

Bihar is Indias poorest state with 86% of population live in rural areas with most

working in farming.- Average incomes are only 6000 rupees (75) per person per year. This is 33% of

Indias average income- 55% of households live below the poverty line and 80% of people work in low-level

jobs- It gets very little investment from companies because its people cant afford basic

services- In 2003, only 58.5% had electricity and 12% water-flushed toilets- School attendance is low with only 35% of children attending primary school and 8%

reached upper primary.

Development models in developing countries are usually

top-down or bottom-up

There are different ways that a country can prompt development:Decisions are made by the national government andnew regulations/laws are put into place. Local

people are not involved in the process or decisionsbeing made. E.g. Dams for Hydro-Electric Power(HEP)Problems:

- Country gets into debt as it borrows largeamounts of money from the World Bank

- Conditions are often attached to the loans- Uses lots of energy and is expensive to operate

after being built- Often take resources away from peripheral areas that need it

Bottom-up Development


60/73

60

Local people are fully involved inthe process and decision-makingand therefore the developmentscheme are often more appropriateto the local needs of the people.E.g. Building a biogas digester

The impact of top-down development in a developing

country

****CASE STUDY: Santo Antonio Dam in Brazil****

Background:

- Part of the Madeira River Project- Madeira River Basin covers 1.5 million km2 and the dam is located 5km upstream

from Porto Velho- Cost $5.3 billion to build and will produce 3,150 MW of electricity

Social Economic Environmental

Advantages - 20,000 jobscreated

-

Attracted 100,000people to the area

- Health, educationetc have improved

- Education andtraining centre forimmigrants created

- Produce the cheapestelectricity in Brazil

-

Will supply 8% ofBrazils electricity

- Betterinfrastructure (roadsand waterways) incentre of S. America

- HEP is renewable andavoids use of oil/nuclear

-

Fish channels in the damallows fish to migrate

- Two forests will beplanted

- Suggestions by publichave been included inbasic environmentalplans

Disadvantages -Dam built despitelocal opposition- 3,000 people forcedto leave their homes- Indigenous peoplesland at risk of flooding- Increase in malariadue to greater waterarea

- cost $22 billion- Too much reliance onHEP (76% of electricity)- High sediment loadscan block turbinesreducing theireffectiveness- commercial fishing atrisk, from the dam

- River food webs will beaffected-Final flooded area was x2as large as predicted(+1000km2)-Project fined 3.3 millionfor killing 11 tonnes of fish
http://www.co-operative.coop/Master%20Brand/Photographs/A-biogas-digester.gif


61/73

61

Impacts of bottom up development in a developing country

***CASE STUDY: Micro-hydro schemes in Peru****

Micro-Hydro schemes are those with an electricitygenerating capacity of less than 100KW. The water isdiverted from a stream to a high point of the valley sideand then down a pipe to turn a turbine.

These are considered appropriate for the local skillslevel and help spread technology to the rural periphery.They are low cost and involve the local peoplePeru:

In the poorest area of Peru 44% of people live on less than $2 a day. Rainfall in thearea is high so a charity called Practical Action helped install 50 schemes providingelectricity for 30,000 people.

Social Economic Environmental

Advantages - Local people involved in allstages of the scheme

- Health care is improvedas electricity allowsstorage of medicines

-

Electricity for schools- Training of local people to

operate the technologygives them skills

- Cheaper electricitythan a large HEPscheme

- Scheme uses localskills and cheap

technology- 60% of people in the

area said that theirincome had increased

- Avoids flooding largeareas of land that wouldtake away farmland

- Avoid the need to burnwood from local trees

for fuel- Replaces fossil fuel use

Disadvantages -Poor people have to pa forthe electricity which ismetered- Some villages have doubledin size creating populationpressures

- Demand for electricityis variable- Initial capital cost ishigh for a poor villagee.g. 500 per householdSome specialisedequipment had to beimported

- Small storage dam isneeded which alters theflow of the river and spoilsthe scenery


62/73

62

The characteristics of sustainable development in rural

areas

Are top-down or bottom-up schemes more appropriate for

rural areas in developing countries in future?

Achieving sustainable development can become a problem for developing countries asthey are stuck in a cycle of poverty. Large top-down schemes that focus on nationalproblems (e.g. Santo Antonio Dam) may overlook the rural poor and do very little toimprove the lives of local people living in the periphery. Small-scale, bottom-upschemes are often more appropriate and more sustainable in the long term.

Cycle of Poverty

It is hard for developing countries to improve the well-being of the population whilststill ensuring the conservation of ecosystems and resources.

Nature-small overall impact

on the natural environment

Social long term benefits

for the local population e.g.

education, ener etc

Appropriate technology

method and equipment used

are at a level people can

understand and use

Local Decision making

local people involved in all

stages of planning and

choice

Affordable initial cost and

maintenance is low enough

for local people to afford

them

FEATURES OF

SUSTAINABLE

SCHEMES

Subsistence farming

Little or no surplus

farm produce

No investment in

land improvement,

machinery or

materials

Little or no income


63/73

63

Topic 8: World of WorkWhat do you need to know?

How the new global economy works

How globalisation has led to the inter linkage of the worlds economy, and

that some countries are winners and some LDCs are losers

How the global shift has led to changes in the global economy as

production shifts from developed to developing countries

How transnational companies drive the processes of globalisation and the

global shift

How transnational companies operate

How changes are taking place in the world of work

How these changes are impacting on people and the environment in named

locations

How there are winners and losers as a result of changing employment

How new technology (ICT) is transforming the ways people work

How changes have occurred in the workplace, with improved working

conditions for many in developed countries

Whether work and employment are becoming more sustainable


64/73

64

What is the new economy?

This relates to MEDCs moving towards a global service sector economy through theprocess of globalisation (growth and the spread of ideas on a global or worldwide scale).

The global economy is divided into 4 sectors:Primary sector working with natural resources e.g. farmingSecondary sector making things e.g. manufacturingTertiary sector providing services e.g. banks, teachersQuaternary sector research and ICT based

As countries move towards more tertiary and quaternary based sectors there is lessreliance on traditional locations and they become footloose.

New economies tend to be based on the production of knowledge, ideas and services

e.g. jobs in ICT, TV production and bio-technology. Countries which have strong globalconnections are the well connected and influential have been areas where the neweconomies have developed e.g. Singapore. Whilst traditional economies have remainedin more isolated areas such as Bangladesh and countries in Africa.

However a particular feature of the global economy is the dependence that developsbetween countries. Lower-income countries tend to focus on growing food and buyingcheap manufactured goods. Middle-income countries buy raw materials andmanufacture these into goods. Whilst high-income countries buy food and

manufactured goods; but focus on selling services and new technologies.

Changes to the global economy:

New services are appearing within the tertiary and quaternary sectorsLocations for industries are changing e.g. global shift of manufacturing to

cheaper locations in low-income countriesIntroduction of teleworking and outsourcingMore and more resources are being consumed


65/73

65

Implications of the new economy of people in different

parts of the world

In 1960, the richest 20% of the people shared 70% of the global wealth between them.By 2004, the richest 20% controlled over 90% of the worlds wealth. This has meant

there has been increasing inequalities caused the globalisation. The growing economyis affecting people in a number of ways:

- Workers in developed countries have to retrain as jobs in primary sectors haveswitched to tertiary and quaternary sectors- Workers in the developing work have had to learn new skills- More women are becoming involved in the global labour force- The use of child labour is a tradition some countries as it is cheap, however in the neweconomy it is banned.

Named Example: Chinas Growth

Chinas economy has seen a huge shift from primary production to industry as it hasdeveloped over the past decade. However the implications of this growth have been atthe cost of the environment. 70% of Chinas rivers and lakes are polluted by industrial

and domestic waste and 30% of China suffers from acid rain caused by coal-firedpower stations.

How transnational companies drive the processes of

globalisation and the global shift

A Transnational Corporation is a company which has production in more than onecountry around the world. Advances in technology, communication and networking havelead to the global shift in economic activity. This has meant that labour-intensivemanufacturing shifted to more low-income countries to take advantage of the cheaplabour. More recently service based industries such as Call centres have shifted toplaces such as India this is known as outsourcing.


66/73

66

Named Example: Wal-Mart

Key Facts:

Wal-Mart's 2002 sales topped $218 billion, with sales growth at 13.8 %.

Its 2002 net income was $ 6.7 billion, a growth of 6 %.

Wal-Mart has 1,283,000 employees, as of 2002; a growth of 11.2 %

Wal-Mart is the largest retail store in the United States

Currently Wal-Mart operates over 4,150 retail facilities globally.

According to the Fortune 500 Wal-Mart holds the number one spot, ranked by its totalsales.

History:

1962 Wal-Mart opened the first store.

1985 Wal-Mart has 882 stores with sales of $8.4 billion1990 Wal-Mart becomes USA nation's No. 1 retailer.

1996 Wal-Mart enters China

Why is Wal-Mart so successful?

Aim 1: Dominate the Retail Market Everywhere

Wal-Mart is a discount retailer because they sell their products at the lowest possibleprices. Each store is encouraged to f compete against all other stores in its customer

base until the Wal-Mart store gains dominance over its local competitors

Aim 2: Growth by expansion in the US and Internationally.

Currently the corporation employs over 1.3 million employees, one million in the USalone. The company owns over 4000 stores worldwide. Over 1,200 units (stores) are inoperation internationally. Internationally, the retailer operates in Mexico, Canada,Argentina, Brazil, China, Korea, Germany, and the United Kingdom.

Aim 3: Create Positive Brand and Name Recognition

Their goal is to have the customer associate the retailer with the reputation of

offering the best prices. The company accomplishes this through television advertisingcampaigns and newspaper adverts.

Aim 4: Branching out into New sectors of retailing

Wal-Mart has recently become a major pharmacy, car repair shop and it is now movinginto grocery sales


67/73

67

Who are the winners and losers in the changing

employment patterns?

Advantages Disadvantages

MEDCs o

Cheaper imports from LEDCsbenefits customersoGlobal shifts allow jobs in manydifferent countriesoGreater efficiency caused byoutsourcing = new technologies inMEDCsoLoss of industries = betterenvironmental quality

o

Outsourcing can lead to joblosses within MEDCsoJob losses often concentratedin certain areas e.g. clothesmaking = mass unemployment andsocial problems

LEDCs andNICs

oExports rise = increased incomeand investment into the countryoWealth can trickle down to localareas with new jobsoNew technology = new skills

oNew jobs in urban areaspromote rural to urban migrationoSocial impacts e.g. exploitationoOver-dependence on singleprocess e.g. textilesoReduce food supplies as peopleswitch to manufacturing jobsoEnvironmental pollution

How new technology (ICT) is transforming the ways people

workNamed Example: Call Centres in India

In the mid 1990s call centres were shifted to South Asia, especially India with an

estimated value of outsourcing at 27 billion in India. IT and business process

outsourcing services now account for 5.4% of

Documents

Unit2 Revision Guide