Unit TwoUnit TwoAbout LanguageAbout Language

2.12.1 Theories of the origin of L.Theories of the origin of L.

Communication constitutes one of the moCommunication constitutes one of the most fundamental needs of human beings, ast fundamental needs of human beings, and is ultimately essential for their survival.nd is ultimately essential for their survival.

Since language is of so much primacy to Since language is of so much primacy to human beings, people have always spechuman beings, people have always speculated upon where language came from; ulated upon where language came from; consequently we have with us today variconsequently we have with us today various theories and speculations. ous theories and speculations.

2.1.1 Ancient Theories of 2.1.1 Ancient Theories of Divine Origin Divine Origin

A)A) Biblical:Biblical: The story of the Garden of Eden The story of the Garden of Eden goes that ‘God created Adam and speech goes that ‘God created Adam and speech simultaneously’.simultaneously’.

B) B) Egyptian:Egyptian: They considered themselves to They considered themselves to have the oldest civilization and asserted that have the oldest civilization and asserted that the original human language was Egyptian. the original human language was Egyptian.

C) C) Greek:Greek: They speculated about everything in They speculated about everything in the universe. It was commonly held among the the universe. It was commonly held among the classic Greeks that at some ancient time there classic Greeks that at some ancient time there was a ‘legislator’ who gave the correct, natural was a ‘legislator’ who gave the correct, natural name to everything. name to everything.

2.1.22.1.2 Modern Theories of Modern Theories of The Origin The Origin

A)A) Bow-wowBow-wow theory theory B) B) Pooh-pooh Pooh-pooh theory theory (Gottfried von Herder (Gottfried von Herder 17721772))

C) C) Ding-dong Ding-dong theory theory (Müller in the 1800s)(Müller in the 1800s)

D) D) Yo-he-ho Yo-he-ho theory theory (around the turn of the 2000s(around the turn of the 2000s ))

E) E) Ta-ta Ta-ta theorytheory F) F) Sing-songSing-song theory theory (Otto Jesperson(Otto Jesperson ))

G) Contact theory G) Contact theory (G. Révész)(G. Révész)

2.2 2.2 Definitions of LanguageDefinitions of Language

‘‘What is language?’ at first sounds like a What is language?’ at first sounds like a naïve and simple question. Yet to this extnaïve and simple question. Yet to this extremely familiar, everyday phenomenon, it remely familiar, everyday phenomenon, it is difficult to give a satisfactory definition. is difficult to give a satisfactory definition. We might have probably come up with an We might have probably come up with an answer very much like:answer very much like:

2.2.1 Language is a 2.2.1 Language is a means of means of communication.communication.

A variety of ways could be named. A variety of ways could be named. Tracing down to the root, we are left with Tracing down to the root, we are left with

only two: speaking and writing. only two: speaking and writing. Of the two, speech is primary, spoken lonOf the two, speech is primary, spoken lon

g before the dawn of recorded history.g before the dawn of recorded history. Hundreds of groups of people have no wrHundreds of groups of people have no wr

iting system, and yet they have their own iting system, and yet they have their own languages. languages.

Therefore, this definition should be altereTherefore, this definition should be altered to the following:d to the following:

2.2.2 Language is a 2.2.2 Language is a vocalvocal means of means of communication.communication.

Still this definition is incomplete in that we Still this definition is incomplete in that we don’t just make a lot of noises. Every-thindon’t just make a lot of noises. Every-thing we utter is set forth in a meaningful ordg we utter is set forth in a meaningful order lest we fail to communicate. er lest we fail to communicate.

Thus, in order to communicate, we must Thus, in order to communicate, we must have a system.have a system.

AMnd our definition of language have to AMnd our definition of language have to be amended to:be amended to:

2.2.3 Language is a vocal 2.2.3 Language is a vocal systemsystem of of communication.communication.

The utterances we make must adhere to The utterances we make must adhere to some preconceived order and arrangemesome preconceived order and arrangement.nt.

These ideas are represented by ‘symbolThese ideas are represented by ‘symbols’ which are embodied in sounds.s’ which are embodied in sounds.

In order to react to the symbols or utter thIn order to react to the symbols or utter them, we must first learn them. em, we must first learn them.

Then the definition can be further revised Then the definition can be further revised to read: to read:

2.2.4 Language is a system 2.2.4 Language is a system of vocal of vocal symbolssymbols used for used for communication.communication.

There is no connection between the sounThere is no connection between the sounds and the objects. ds and the objects.

The speakers have all agreed arbitrarily uThe speakers have all agreed arbitrarily upon the relationship of utterance and conpon the relationship of utterance and concept.cept.

A typical example is ‘a rose by any other A typical example is ‘a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.’ name would smell as sweet.’

Now, we might have to further alter the dNow, we might have to further alter the definition:efinition:

2.2.5 Language is a system 2.2.5 Language is a system of of arbitraryarbitrary vocal symbols vocal symbols used for communication. used for communication.

Communication suggests the imparting of Communication suggests the imparting of ideas. ideas.

But we do not merely listen passively to iBut we do not merely listen passively to ideas all the time. deas all the time.

Rather, we often find ourselves called upRather, we often find ourselves called upon to lend a helping hand. on to lend a helping hand.

Thus we ready to add to our definition:Thus we ready to add to our definition:

2.2.6 Language is a system of 2.2.6 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used arbitrary vocal symbols used for communication or for communication or interactioninteraction..

Animals are able to communicate ideas aAnimals are able to communicate ideas and interact by means of an arbitrary vocal nd interact by means of an arbitrary vocal system. system.

What differs human beings from these anWhat differs human beings from these animals is that humans are able to pass on imals is that humans are able to pass on a whole complex of ideas.a whole complex of ideas.

We have symbolic language and they seWe have symbolic language and they seem to have a signaling system.em to have a signaling system.

Thus, it is necessary to include another fThus, it is necessary to include another function in the definition:unction in the definition:

2.2.7 Language is a system of 2.2.7 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols arbitrary vocal symbols used for communication, used for communication, intention, and intention, and cultural cultural transmission.transmission.

To specify the users, as Leonard BloomfiTo specify the users, as Leonard Bloomfield first named, the term ‘a speech commeld first named, the term ‘a speech community’ (Within certain communities succesunity’ (Within certain communities successive utterances are alike or partly alike.) sive utterances are alike or partly alike.) ought to be borrowed to make the definitiought to be borrowed to make the definition complete:on complete:

2.2.8 A language is a 2.2.8 A language is a system of arbitrary vocal system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of symbols by means of which the members of which the members of a a speech communityspeech community communicate, interact, communicate, interact, and transmit their and transmit their culture.culture.

2.2.9 Some modern 2.2.9 Some modern linguists’ definitions of linguists’ definitions of L.:L.:

a)a) Sapir (1921):Sapir (1921): Language is a purely human aLanguage is a purely human and non-instinctivee method of communicating ideas, end non-instinctivee method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced motions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.symbols.

b)b) Chomsky (1957):Chomsky (1957): From now on I will considFrom now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, er language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and construct out of a finite set of each finite in length and construct out of a finite set of elements.elements.

c)c) Hall (1968):Hall (1968): ((Language is) the institutiLanguage is) the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with eaon whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbich other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.trary symbols.

2.2.10 Generally accepted 2.2.10 Generally accepted definition of language:definition of language:

Language is a system of arbitrary voLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commucal symbols used for human communicationnication..

2.2.11 Main Attributes of 2.2.11 Main Attributes of

Language Language

Language has a system.Language has a system. Language is vocal.Language is vocal. Language is arbitrary.Language is arbitrary. Language is a human activity.Language is a human activity. Language is non-instinctive.Language is non-instinctive. Language is social activity.Language is social activity. Language is related to culture.Language is related to culture. Language changes.Language changes.

2.3 Design Features2.3 Design Features

To show that language is human is to distTo show that language is human is to distinguish language from other systems of ainguish language from other systems of animal communication. nimal communication.

Differences and similarities between langDifferences and similarities between language and animal communication systems uage and animal communication systems can be highlighted by comparing essentiacan be highlighted by comparing essential characteristics of the systems. l characteristics of the systems.

Hochett (1960) and Thorpe (1974), call thHochett (1960) and Thorpe (1974), call these essential characteristics ese essential characteristics design featdesign featuresures

2.3.1 Hochett’s Design Features2.3.1 Hochett’s Design Features

1. 1. Mode of communicaMode of communicationtion

2.2. Rapid Fading Rapid Fading 3. 3. InterchangeabilityInterchangeability 4. 4. FeedbackFeedback 5. 5. SpecializationSpecialization 6.6. Semanticity Semanticity 7. 7. ArbitrarinessArbitrariness 8. 8. DiscretenessDiscreteness

9.9. Displacement Displacement 10.10. Productivity Productivity 11.11. Cultural transmi Cultural transmi

ssionssion 12. 12. Duality (of PatteDuality (of Patte

rning)rning) 13. 13. PrevaricationPrevarication 14.14. Reflexiveness Reflexiveness 15. 15. LearnabilityLearnability

2.3.2 Arbitrariness2.3.2 Arbitrariness

Language is arbitrary. Different sounds can be Language is arbitrary. Different sounds can be used to refer to the same object in different lanused to refer to the same object in different languages.guages.

e.g. e.g. 桌子 桌子 (in Chinese)(in Chinese) table (in English) table (in English) 机 （つくぇ）机 （つくぇ） (in Japanese)(in Japanese)

Yet language is not entirely arbitrary; certain wYet language is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated.ords are motivated.

e.g. onomatopoeic words: bang, crash, cacklee.g. onomatopoeic words: bang, crash, cackle compound words: photocopy, classroomcompound words: photocopy, classroom The arbitrary nature is a sign of sophistication The arbitrary nature is a sign of sophistication

and it makes it possible for language to have aand it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.n unlimited source of expressions.

2.3.3 Productivity-2.3.3 Productivity-aa

Language is productive or creative in that it Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interprmakes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.etation of new signals by its users.

i) No constraints on topics: i) No constraints on topics: ii) We constantly add to the language: object naii) We constantly add to the language: object na

mes, actions and novel combinations in sentencmes, actions and novel combinations in sentences.es.

Being productive, language is productive at Being productive, language is productive at many levels:many levels: Novel words created from soundsNovel words created from sounds Words for a variety of conceptsWords for a variety of concepts Sentences for novel ideasSentences for novel ideas

2.3.3 Productivity-2.3.3 Productivity-bb

General principles of productivity:General principles of productivity: i) A finite number of basic elementsi) A finite number of basic elements Ii) “Rules” for combining themIi) “Rules” for combining them Iii) The system can be described by rules, but tIii) The system can be described by rules, but t

here may not be that specific rule inside your hhere may not be that specific rule inside your head.ead.

Productivity is unique to human language. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appeMost animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the ar to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users number of different signals that their users can send and receive can send and receive

2.3.4 Duality2.3.4 Duality Language is a system, which consists of Language is a system, which consists of

two sets structures, or two levels.two sets structures, or two levels. i) The lower, or the basic level: a structure of i) The lower, or the basic level: a structure of

sounds (speech sounds), meaningless by sounds (speech sounds), meaningless by themselves; themselves;

ii) The higher level: grouping, or regrouping ii) The higher level: grouping, or regrouping of speech sounds into units of meaning.of speech sounds into units of meaning.

This duality of structure, or This duality of structure, or double double articulationarticulation of language enables its of language enables its users to talk about anything within their users to talk about anything within their knowledge.knowledge.

2.3.5 Displacement2.3.5 Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which aLanguage can be used to refer to things which a

re present or not present, real or imagined mattre present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away ers in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.places.

Some animals seem to possess abilities appropSome animals seem to possess abilities appropriating those of displacement, and yet they lack triating those of displacement, and yet they lack the freedom to apply this to new contexts. he freedom to apply this to new contexts.

Displacement is thus our ability to convey a meDisplacement is thus our ability to convey a meaning that transcends the immediately perceptibaning that transcends the immediately perceptible sphere of space and time, free from barriers cle sphere of space and time, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.aused by separation in time and place.

2.3.6 Cultural Transmission2.3.6 Cultural Transmission

Human capacity for language has a geneHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis. But the details of any language tic basis. But the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted. system are not genetically transmitted.

Language is passed on from generation tLanguage is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learnio generation through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.ng, rather than by instinct.

In contrast, animal call systems are genetIn contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, that is, animals are borically transmitted, that is, animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of cn with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.alls peculiar to their species.

2.4 Assignments:2.4 Assignments:

a)a) What are the main features of humaWhat are the main features of human language which are to show that it is esn language which are to show that it is essentially different from animal communicasentially different from animal communicational system?tional system?

b) b) What are the two major media of lingu What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which is istic communication? Of the two, which is primary and why?primary and why?