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Unit Specification USP141 – Biomechanics in sport and exercise Unit reference number: H/616/9411

Level: 3 Guided Learning (GL) hours: 60

Overview Biomechanics is the study of the mechanical laws relating to the movement or structure of the human body. It is particularly concerned with analysis of the different forces acting on the human body and the ways in which these forces interact during sport and exercise. Using a variety of scientific methods, sport and exercise scientists study the various forces and their effects on movement, with the aim of improving athletic performance and coaching practice and preventing injury.

This units looks at the different types of movements used in sport and exercise and the various forces that affect the moving body, such as: gravity, ground reaction force, buoyancy, air resistance and friction. Important concepts such as centre of gravity, centre of mass, base of support and their role in maintaining stability and balance during sport and exercise are also investigated.

Learners will discover the movement of the human body in different sport and exercise contexts. They will explore the forces that act on the body in sport and exercise and the way the body reacts to and absorbs these and produces forces to counteract them. They will use this information to make recommendations to improve exercise and sport performance, prevent injury and inform coaching practice.

Learning outcomes On completion of this unit, learners will:

LO1 Know the forces acting on the human body during sport and exercise performance LO2 Know the effects of linear motion on the human body during sport and exercise performance LO3 Understand the effects of angular motion on the human body during sport and exercise performance

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Unit content LO1 Know the forces acting on the human body during sport and exercise performance

Learners must know Newton’s three laws of motion and how these apply to the human body during sport and exercise performance

Content to include

• Newton’s three laws of motion - First law – law of inertia: ‘Every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a

straight line unless compelled to change its state by the action of an external force’ Applications to human movement – the body or part of the body will stay

in a state of rest i.e. not moving, unless a force acts upon it. The force constantly acting on the body is gravity. Forces generated within the body act to control or overcome the effect of gravity. In sport, objects that have been propelled have inertia, this force must be absorbed or redirected by forces generated by the human body to control the object e.g. trapping, kicking or heading a ball in soccer

- Second law of motion – law of acceleration: ‘The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object’

Applications to human movement – this can be expressed differently as an equation. Force = mass x acceleration. In this way force is a product of the mass of an object and its acceleration. The force of gravity acts to accelerate the mass of the human body, part of the body or object vertically downwards. To accelerate the mass of the body, or part of the body, in a different direction (vector), the body must generate forces to overcome this force

- Third law of motion – law of reaction: ‘For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction’

Applications to human movement – when one body exerts a force on a second body the second body exerts a reaction force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body. Gravity acts downwards on the human body, ground reaction force exerts an equal and opposite force on the points of contact of the body with the ground

• Application to sport and exercise - Applying the laws to movement of the human body as a whole - Applying the laws to movements within the human body e.g. of limbs or body

segments - Applying forces to stationary sporting objects - Striking balls and other moving sporting objects - Collisions in sport between bodies and objects - Consideration of forces acting when moving on different surfaces e.g. ice or snow and

in water versus air

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• How different forces affect sport and exercise - Definition of Force: A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's

interaction with another object that will cause a change in its state of movement Measured in Newtons (N)

Has a magnitude and a vector Force = Mass x Acceleration

- Definition of Ground reaction force: Ground reaction force (GRF) is the force exerted by the ground on a body in contact with it. Its magnitude and vector are dependent on the mass of the object and the combination of gravity with other forces that may change the vector. E.g. GRF is different for a foot strike in running than when walking or standing. Not only is the force smaller but the horizontal component of the vector is increased, which will change the vector of GRF

- Action and reaction forces Examples of action and reaction forces, e.g. kicking and throwing objects,

pushing off the ground Effect on sport and exercise: Production of force is required to move the

body and sporting objects, e.g. balls, hammers, rackets, javelins and discuses

Importance of technique for efficient force transfer, reducing muscular effort required to perform sporting actions

Advantages and disadvantages of different body types to perform specific sporting actions e.g. length of limbs (levers), body mass

Learners must know the implications of friction for performance in sport and exercise

Content to include

• Definition – the resistive force that occurs when one surface moves over another • Types of friction: static, sliding, rolling, and fluid friction

- Static, sliding, and rolling friction occur between solid surfaces - Static friction is strongest, followed by sliding friction, and then rolling friction, which

is weakest - Fluid friction occurs in fluids, which are liquids or gases

• Examples of sliding friction - Use of chalk on hands to prevent the bar from slipping during weight lifting - A ski, snowboard or luge sliding across snow or ice - A training shoe gripping on the surface to prevent slipping – relevance to footwear

selection and design for different sports e.g. running versus racquet sports versus climbing shoes

• Coefficient of friction - A coefficient of friction is a value that shows the relationship between the force of

friction between two objects and the normal reaction between the objects that are involved

- A unit-less number representing the relative ease of sliding between two surfaces, e.g. the coefficient of friction is usually represented by µ

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- Factors affecting the coefficient of friction – the friction force depends on two factors The materials that are in contact. The two materials and the nature of

their surfaces. The relative hardness and roughness of surfaces The force (magnitude and vector are important) pushing the two surfaces

together. Pushing the surfaces together increases the surface area in contact with each other and the effect of friction

• Implications of frictional forces for sports performance - Consideration of friction between surfaces of moving tissues in the human body e.g.

articular cartilage and surfaces of connective tissues with or without adhesions and implications of their hydration status on the nature of the tissues’ surfaces

- Design of sports clothing to improve comfort and minimise friction - Friction between tyres and the road surface, e.g. cycling, motor racing

Learners must know the effects of air resistance on sport and exercise

Content to include

• Definition – the force that acts on a body moving through air in the opposite direction to its direction of travel

- Caused by the molecules that make up air making contact with the surface of the moving body

- Also referred to as drag

• Effect of air resistance on projectiles - Parabolic, nearly parabolic and asymmetric flight paths - Forces acting on a projectile during flight (gravity and air resistance)

• Implications and effect of air resistance - The design of sports equipment and clothing - Streamlining, e.g. swimming, running, cycling

• The implications of aerodynamics in sport performance and exercise - Definition: the study of the properties of moving air and the interaction between air

and solid bodies moving through it - Factors affecting speed of air flow around an object

Speed of movement

Shape of the object Nature/texture of the object’s surface

- Types of flow Laminar flow – smooth flow, air flows in parallel lines around an object Turbulent flow – irregular flow, air flows in a violent, mixed-up way,

fluctuating and changing - Impact of turbulence on moving bodies and objects and implications for sports

performance Drafting in cycling, running and motor racing Design of equipment, e.g. cricket and golf balls

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• Bernoulli’s principle and how lift impacts sports and exercise activities: - Definition: Lift (Bernoulli’s principle) – an upward force caused by air flowing at

different speeds above and below an object e.g. design of airplane wing, wings on F1 cars or a Frisbee

- Factors affecting lift Shape of the object e.g. streamlined or non-streamlined Angle at which it is positioned – for take-off and during flight e.g. the

importance of the release angle when throwing discus or javelin - Magnus effect or Magnus force - Bernoulli’s principle applied to spinning objects, e.g. balls

Contact between air molecules at the boundary layer and the air flow creates a pressure differential and a Magnus force which causes an object to deviate from its original path

Named after discoverer Gustav Magnus (1852) A lift force of tremendous importance to all athletes or sports people who

want to bend the flight of a ball - Impact on sports performance

Effect on flight of projectiles (discus, shot)

Optimum angle of take-off, e.g. for ski jumpers and long jumpers Design of aeroplane wings and aerofoil in Formula 1 racing Application of spin, e.g. to tennis and cricket balls or to a football to

enable it to move in the air

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LO2 Know the effects of linear motion on the human body during sport and exercise performance

Learners must know the effects of linear motion in sport and exercise

Content to include

• Linear motion – movement of a body or object in a straight line, also known as rectilinear motion

• Difference between rectilinear motion and curvilinear motion - Rectilinear motion – constant velocity as no change of direction (straight line) - Curvilinear motion – velocity changes as direction changes (curved path)

• Vector and scalar quantities - Vector quantities – described in terms of size and direction - Scalar quantities – described only in terms of size

• Vector and scalar quantities may include - Mass describes the amount of matter a body possesses in kg and is a scalar quantity

- Weight is the effect gravity has on the mass of a body in N and is a vector quantity

• Effects of linear motion on different sport and exercise activities • The effects of inertia and momentum in sport and exercise

- Definitions and description Inertia – an object will remain at rest or will follow a linear motion, unless

affected by an external force The greater the mass of an object the greater the acceleration required to

force it to change its state of movement

Momentum – the amount of motion an object has or ‘mass in motion’ The greater the momentum, the harder it is to change the direction of an

object’s movement Momentum is a vector quantity, it is the product of an objects mass and

its velocity (momentum = mass x velocity) - Calculating of momentum

Momentum – calculated by multiplying a body’s mass (kg) by its velocity (m/s)

The normal unit of measurement for momentum is kg.m/s Momentum should be calculated in a range of practical situations, e.g.

moving objects, moving bodies, force required to stop or change the direction of an object with momentum, advantages and disadvantages of momentum in different sport and exercise situations

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Learners must know the effects of speed, velocity, acceleration and deceleration in sport and exercise

Content to include

• The difference between speed and velocity – speed is scalar, velocity is a vector • The effects on the body, e.g. whole body or specific limb movement • The effects on sporting objects, e.g. balls, javelins • Calculations to measure speed and velocity • Distance and displacement

- Distance – how far a body or object has travelled or moved - Displacement – how far a body or object has travelled or moved in relation to its

original starting position

• Speed - The rate at which an object or body moves

- A scalar quantity i.e. it does not take direction into consideration - Unit of measurement is metres/second (m/s) - Considers the distance a body or object has travelled - Calculation – divide distance covered in metres by the time taken in seconds

(distance ÷ time) - Speed can be calculated in different sporting situations and events, e.g. average speed

of a sprinter or speed over a set distance e.g. each 10m segment of a race in athletics (100 m, 200 m)

• Velocity - A vector quantity i.e. it describes the speed in a specific direction - Unit of measurement is metres/second (m/s) - Takes into consideration the displacement of the object – how far it has moved from

its starting position - Calculation – divide displacement in metres by the time taken in seconds

(displacement ÷ time) - Velocity can be calculated in sporting situations where direction and displacement are

important

• The effects of acceleration and deceleration in sport and exercise - Definitions

Acceleration – rate of increase in velocity over time Deceleration – rate of decrease in velocity over time Both measure how quickly velocity changes over a set period of time

- Calculating acceleration and deceleration Acceleration and deceleration are measured as velocity/time and have

the units metres/second2 (m/s2) Acceleration will be a positive figure Deceleration will be a negative figure

- Calculating acceleration and deceleration in specific sporting activities Velocity at the end of the time period minus velocity at the start of the

time period Divided by the length of the time period

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LO3 Understand the effects of angular motion on the human body during sport and exercise performance

Learners must know the relationship between centre of mass and stability and its effects in sport and exercise

Content to include

• Definition of centre of mass - The centre of mass is the unique point in an object where the weighted relative

position of the distributed mass sums to zero. Alternatively, it can be thought of as the point where force can be applied to the object without causing any rotation of the object

- Usually central to the mass or in the centre of the mass but depending on the shape and position of the mass distributed in space it can be to one side or the other, and even outside of the object as it is a theoretical concept

- In practical terms for sporting situations this is the same as the centre of gravity as the gravitational field is uniform across objects

• Location of the centre of mass - Variable, depending on the shape of the object or body and whether it is stationary or

moving - Symmetrical shapes (e.g. balls) - Asymmetrical shapes (e.g. human body)

- Inanimate objects (e.g. tables, chairs, boxes) - Moving objects (e.g. ball, weight, javelin, racquet) - Human body – movement of the centre of mass in response to the movements of the

human body and changes to centre of mass due to changes in body structure e.g. growth, increased muscle or fat mass, pregnancy

• Impact of location of centre of mass on sports performance - Impact of changes in the position of centre of mass on the ability to maintain balance

and effect on sport and exercise performance - Manipulation of centre of mass during different sporting events, e.g. jumping,

gymnastics, trampoline and during different exercise positions

• Relationship between centre of mass and stability: stability is dependent on the location and positioning of the centre of mass

• Factors affecting the centre of mass of a human body - Height of individual, e.g. taller equals higher centre of mass and less stability - Weight of individual, e.g. heavier weight offers increase stability - Position of limbs in relation to the body, e.g. close to centre or away from centre, can

affect balance of centre of mass - Width of base of support, e.g. wider base offers greater stability and balance for

centre of mass - Posture, e.g. postural changes (hyperkyphosis and hyperlordosis) change loading on

skeletal and muscular structures, which impacts stability of some posture types (Hyperkyphosis leads to increased risk of falls in older adults)

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• Manipulation of centre of mass to improve sports performance: - Techniques in jumping (high jump and long jump) and gymnastics (beam, bars and

mat and maintaining balance) and trampoline (somersaults) - Foot placement in walking, running/sprinting (impact and alignment and links to

injury, e.g. overpronation or supination, overstriding and heel strike) - Stance in boxing and martial arts (e.g. to maintain balance and increase explosive

power)

Learners must know the different types of levers and axes of rotation and their application to sport and exercise movements

Content to include

• Types of levers - First class, e.g. at neck - Second class, e.g. at ankle - Third class – most common; e.g. at elbow and most other freely moveable joints in

body - The relationship between fulcrum/pivot, effort and load in each type of lever

First class – Effort – pivot – load (EPL) Second class – Pivot – load – effort (PLE)

Third class – Pivot – effort – load (PEL)

• Effects of different lever types and characteristics - Increase or decrease the load that any given effort can move - Increase or decrease the speed the limb (body segment or whole body) moves at - Increase mechanical advantage or create mechanical disadvantage

• Lever systems and rotation forces - Moment of force or torque is the turning effect of a force e.g. at a joint of the body as

a limb moves - Calculated by magnitude of the force multiplied by length of moment arm

• Description of axes of rotation - Axes of rotation are the axes around which the body, limbs or segments of the body

can rotate

• Axes of movement - Longitudinal axis – a vertical axis through the body from top to the bottom - Mediolateral axis – a horizontal axis through the body from side-to-side - Anteroposterior axis – a horizontal axis through the body from front to back

• Movement potential in each axis of rotation - Mediolateral – Subbuteo footballer action, flexion-extension movements in the

sagittal plane e.g. front or back somersault in gymnastics, diving or trampoline - Anteroposterior – sideways actions, adduction-abduction or lateral flexion in the

frontal plane e.g. gymnast performing a cartwheel

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- Longitudinal – spinning top action, rotating along the length of the spine or a limb in the transverse plane e.g. spinning actions in dance or ice skating, internal and external rotation of arm at shoulder or leg at hip

• Planes of movement - Sagittal plane – bilateral axis movements (flexion, extension) - Frontal plane – anterior/posterior axis movements (adduction, abduction, lateral

flexion, eversion, inversion) - Transverse plane – vertical axis movements (internal rotation, external rotation,

horizontal flexion/adduction, horizontal extension/abduction)

• Associated exercises in different planes and axis

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Assessment requirements Internal assignment This unit will be assessed by an internal assignment.

Learners must demonstrate their understanding of:

• the forces acting on the human body during sport and exercise performance • the effects of linear motion on the human body during sport and exercise performance • the effects of angular motion on the human body during sport and exercise performance

In order to pass this unit, learners must achieve all pass criteria. The pass criteria relate to the proficient demonstration of skills and knowledge.

Learning outcome The learner will:

Pass The assessment criteria are the pass requirements for this unit. The learner can:

LO1 Know the forces acting on the human body during sport and exercise performance

P1 Explain Newton’s three laws of motion and how these apply to the human body during sport and exercise performance

P2 Describe the implications of friction for performance in sport and exercise

P3 Describe the effects of air resistance on sport and exercise

LO2 Know the effects of linear motion on the human body during sport and exercise performance

P4 Describe the effects of linear motion in sport and exercise

P5 Describe the effects of speed, velocity, acceleration and deceleration in sport and exercise

LO3 Understand the effects of angular motion on the human body during sport and exercise performance

P6 Explain the relationship between centre of mass and stability and its effects in sport and exercise

P7 Explain the different types of levers and axes of rotation and their application to sport and exercise movements

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Assessment guidance Assessors must use the amplified assessment guidance in this section to judge whether assessment and grading criteria have been achieved.

P1 Explain Newton’s three laws of motion and how these apply to the human body during sport and exercise performance

Learners will show that they understand different Newton’s three laws of motion by identifying examples of each law in action and providing an expansion of how each law is being applied. They will provide explanations of how different forces (see LO1 content) act on sport and exercise performers and/or their equipment. They will use practical examples to identify where each law of motion is acting and offer an associated explanation for each example. They will clearly differentiate between different forces and make connections between the different laws of motion in an applied context.

P2 Describe the implications of friction for performance in sport and exercise

Learners will outline the implications of at least two different types of friction for sports performance and exercise. For example: Materials used in footwear design. Different footwear has different rubber compounds on the sole to provide the ‘right’ amount of grip for the activity and surface. Soft rubber compounds increase the amount of friction by increasing the surface area of the footwear in contact with the playing surface and is more suited to sports like climbing where a high level of friction is required. A harder rubber compound will provide less friction as less of the sole of the footwear will come into direct contact with the ground. This may be better suited to activities like road running, where excessive friction would increase contact times with the ground and predispose runners to injury.

P3 Describe the effects of air resistance on sport and exercise

Learners will outline the effects of air resistance for sports performance and exercise, giving reference to projectiles and different types of flow. For example: Air acts like a fluid at high speeds, as the molecules in air create resistance to a moving object and have to ‘flow’ around it, as water would flow around a pebble in a stream. Depending on the shape and motion of an object through air, the speed at which the air molecules flow around the object may be different on different aspects of the object. This principle was described by Bernoulli and is exploited to create lift in the design of airplane wings and sports cars. If an object is shaped such that the air moving across the top surface flows faster than the air beneath it, this will produce an upwards vertical force called lift, due to the difference in air pressure. For this reason sports cars are designed in a streamlined shape, to allow air to flow over them smoothly and produce lift. However, for some cars this can create too much lift and reduce the amount of friction between the back tyres and the road, this is why a spoiler may be used – to slow down the air flow above the rear of the car and create a downwards force the increases the friction between the back wheels and the road. In effect using Bernoulli’s law in two different ways in the same vehicle design to achieve optimal balance between lift and downforce to increase speed.

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P4 Describe the effects of linear motion in sport and exercise

Learners will give an accurate description/definition of each of the types of linear motion and provide basic information about how they apply to their selected sport and fitness activities (See LO2 content).

P5 Describe the effects of speed, velocity, acceleration and deceleration in sport and exercise

Learners should describe the effects of speed, velocity, acceleration and deceleration, momentum and inertia and should give specific examples that present in their selected sport and exercise activities.

P6 Explain the relationship between centre of mass and stability and its effects in sport and exercise

Learners will give an account of the location of the centre of mass of an object, and explain how the centre of mass of the human body changes as its position changes (see LO3 content). They will identify examples where changes in the centre of mass of the body affect performance and offer an associated explanation of the impact of this change in position.

P7 Explain the different types of levers and axes of rotation and their application to sport and exercise movements

Learners will give an account of each of the types of lever and axes of rotation, and provide basic information about how they apply to their selected sport and fitness activity (see LO3 content). They will give at least two examples of specific movements produced by each type of lever present in their selected sport and exercise activity, and differentiate accurately between the different types. Learners will provide examples of movement of the body through each of the axes of rotation in their selected sport and exercise activity, and differentiate accurately between movements in each axis.

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Delivery guidance This unit requires application of knowledge in a wide range of sporting and exercise contexts. Learners will be required to take into account previously acquired knowledge from other units; anatomy and physiology, fitness testing, principles of fitness and training approaches.

Teachers are encouraged to use innovative, practical and engaging delivery methods to enhance the learning experience.

Learners may benefit from the use of:

• Media: DVDs and recording of sport and exercise will offer a useful resource for analysing specific sports and identifying biomechanical principles in action. Learners can observe the motions in specific sports and exercises and break these movements down into their component parts, identifying changes in each type of linear motion. They can use observation of DVDs to analyse how reaction forces, friction forces, air resistance and aerodynamics impact on sports performers and the equipment they use by breaking down specific activities to identify how the forces are acting. They can examine both the negative and positive impact of forces and identify how these can be manipulated to optimise sports performance. They can also use this to explore the interrelationship between the impact of forces and the design of sports clothing and equipment.

• Interactive learning activities and animations found on websites e.g. ‘the physics classroom’ is one example of a resources that can help to bring physics terminology and concepts to life with practical examples and help learners check their learning independently.

• Movement assessment apps e.g. Hudl or Dartfish linked to apple TV and a large screen can be useful to do practical sessions observing individual differences in movement during exercises and analysing the forces involved (e.g. linear movement of bar or machine weight stack and rotational forces at specific joints). This is useful for exploring lever length mechanical advantages and identifying the different planes and axes of movement involved in exercises and sporting actions.

• Workbooks: Learners can use workbooks to record definitions of specific biomechanical terminology and give examples of how different principles effect specific sports and exercises. Workbooks can also be used for calculations.

• Practical demonstrations and workshops: Learners may find it easier to understand some of the physics concepts if they are introduced in a practical way using equipment they are familiar with. Examples might include:

- Demonstrations such as weight as a force = mass x acceleration using a set of weighing scales to demonstrate change to this force when adding mass or moving on the scale (changing acceleration or deceleration forces)

- Using a sled on different surfaces to experience the effects of friction - Rolling medicine balls of different weights using the same force and measuring the

distance travelled to compare the effect of mass - Throwing medicine balls of different weights using the same force and measuring the

distance travelled and filming the parabola to observe the effect of gravity on vector forces

• Field trips: Learners may benefit from visits to equipment manufacturers to explore how equipment and clothing is designed and manufactured with consideration to biomechanical principles, e.g. design of clothing to reduce friction; design of equipment to improve streamlining. Learners may also benefit from a visit to a university laboratory to discuss how sport and exercise scientists use and apply biomechanical principles in the research.

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Resources The resources for this unit must support learners to develop their knowledge and understanding of biomechanical principles and their application to various sports and exercise programmes.

Best practice should be encouraged by giving learners the opportunity to access current research and guidelines that inform the study of biomechanics (e.g. ACSM, BASES, SSESHS).

Recommended text books:

• ACSM (2017). ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 9th edn. American College of Sports Medicine. Philadelphia. USA. Wolters Kluwer.

• Blazevich, A. J. (2017) Sports Biomechanics (second edition). London. UK. Bloomsbury. • Grimshaw. P. (2007) Instant Notes Sports & Exercise Biomechanics. Abingdon. Oxon. UK. Taylor

& Francis Group. • McGinnis, P. M. (1999) Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise. 3rd edn. USA. Human Kinetics. • Watkins, J. (2014) Fundamental Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise. USA. Routledge

NB: This list is not exhaustive. There are many other valuable text books.

Websites:

• American College of Sport Medicine (ACSM): www.acsm.org • British Association of Sport and Exercise Science: www.bases.org.uk • Journal of Biomechanics: www.jbiomech.com • Movement analysis software: popular video capture and movement analysis software with free

trial www.dartfish.com • School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences at Loughborough University (SSESHS):

www.ssehsactive.org.uk • Topend sports: www.topendsports.com/bioemchanics • YouTube: @mendip89 Dr James Shipen www.youtube.com/user/mendip89/videos • YouTube Swing moment: The best golf swing slow motion – online golf lesson

https://youtu.be/2dk5vqZ_7Zg

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Document History

Version Issue Date Changes Role

v1 16/03/2018 First published Qualifications Manager

v2 12/07/2018 Amended following DfE approval Product Administrator

v3 22/08/2019 Unit content amended following technical review

Qualifications and Regulation Co-ordinator