Unit IV: Political Organization

of Space

Political Geography

• The study of the organization and distribution

of political phenomena

Territory

• The effort to control territory is a

central motivate of humans

• The territory of the world is almost

completely divided into national units

– Antarctica debated

Territoriality

• Territoriality is a key component of

modern political culture

• Territorial Integrity –

a government has the right to keep the

borders and territory of a state in tact and

free from attack.

State

1.an independent political unit occupying

a defined territory

2. permanently populated territory

3. full sovereignty (independence to

control internal affairs)

4. must be recognized by other states

World States

• 195 states (only 50 in the 1940s)

• 192 recognized by the United Nations

• Over 250 different nations

Issues defining states

• Political differences can cause some

territories to not be recognized as

independent.

Examples:

– Korea (2 states)

– China and Taiwan-2 states?

– Western Sahara

(currently part of Morocco)

Nation

• A group of people with a common culture

occupying a particular territory, bound together

by a strong sense of unity arising from shared

beliefs and customs

• Nations are “imagined communities” -Benedict

Anderson

-imagined = you will never meet all the people in your nation

-community = you see yourself as part of it

The nations we perceive as “natural” and “always existing” are

relatively recent phenomena.

In 1648, Europe was divided into dozens of small territories.

The Nation-State

• A state whose territorial extent coincides

with that occupied by a distinct nation or

people

• An entity whose members feel a natural

connection by sharing language, religion, or

some other cultural trait

• Iceland, Portugal, Poland, Japan

Stateless Nation

• Nations that do not possess a national

territory even with a larger multinational

state

– Palestine, Kurds

Multinational State

The Former Yugoslavia

•A state with more

than one nation.

Multistate Nation

Transylvania – homeland for both Romanians and Hungarians.

•A nation with more than one state

• Largest Size

– Russia 17.1 million square kilometers

– Others: China,

Canada,

United States,

and Australia

Spatial Characteristics of

States

Spatial Characteristics of

States • Smallest Size

– City-state: sovereign state compromised entirely of a city and it’s countryside

• Singapore, Monaco, San Marino

– Microstates: very small land areas

• Smallest: Monaco

-1.5 square kilometers

• Singapore, Andorra,

and Bahrain

Spatial Characteristics of

States

• 5 basic shapes

– Compact

– Prorupt

– Elongated

– Fragmented

– Perforated

Shape – Compact

Compact

• Most efficient form is a circle with a

capital in the center

• Compact size

• Uruguay, Zimbabwe, Poland

A

C

B

E

D

Shape - Prorupt

• Nearly compact but posses one or more

narrow extensions of territory

• Proruptions can be natural or artificial

• An isolate a portion of a state

A

C

B

E

D

Shape - Elongated

• Long and Narrow

• Distance from the capital is greater

• A large amount of diversity of climate,

resources, and people

• National cohesion difficult

• Norway, Vietnam, Chile

A

C

B

E

D

Shape - Fragmented

• Countries composed entirely of islands

(Philippines, Indonesia)

• Partly on Islands (Malaysia)

• Mainland – but separated

• Weakness centralized control

A

C

B

E

D

Shape - Perforated

• State that completely surrounds

another one

• Example: South Africa

– Surrounds Lesotho

– Completely dependent on South Africa

for imports and exports

A

C

B

E

D

Relative Location

• Size and shape are affected by a state’s absolute and relative location

• Canada & Russia are large, yet their absolute northern location reduces the agricultural productivity of the land

• Iceland has a compact shape but its location near the artic makes much of its land barren

Relative Location

• Landlocked countries are at a major

developmental disadvantage

– Many in Africa due to remnants of colonialism

– Must arrange to use another country’s sea port

• Coast lines can be a major advantage

-Singapore (224 sq miles) is located at a

crossroads of shipping and trade

The Modern State Idea

• The idea of a state that is tied to a particular

territory with defined boundaries came out

of Europe and diffused outward from there.

– A change from society defining territory to

territory defining society.

– Modern States evolved in the late 1600s.

Rise of the Modern State

1. The European model

a) The Norman invasion of 1066 produced a whole new political order

b) On the European continent, the strength of some rulers produced national cohesiveness in more stable domains

c) Economic revival and so called Dark Ages were over

d) Treaties signed at the end of the Thirty Years' War contained fundamentals of statehood and nationhood

- Peace at Westphalia

e) Western Europe’s strong monarchies began to represent something more than authority

Rise of the Modern State

Mercantilism

a) promotion of commercialism and trade with other states

b) City-based merchants, not the nobility, gained wealth

c) As money and influence were concentrated in the cities, land as a measure of affluence began to lose its relevance

European Colonialism

and the Modern State

• Colonialism

– a physical action in which one state takes over control of another, taking over the government and ruling the territory as its own.

• Why? – Organized political states forming

– Wealth from mercantilism to expand

– Gained more wealth, territory, and power through colonialism

Diffusion of the Nation-State Model

• European Colonization influenced

– State model

• the European model became the international

model

– Economic structure

• colonies and colonizers became

interdependent in a capitalist world economy

Two Waves of European Colonialism:

1500 - 1825

1825 - 1975

Dominant Colonial Influences, 1550-1950

This map shows the dominant influence, as some places

were colonized by more than one power in this time period.

What happened to state

size?

Two Waves of Decolonization

First wave – focused on decolonization of the Americas

Second wave – focused on decolonization of Africa and Asia

Construction of the World Economy

Capitalism – people, corporations, and states produce goods

and services and exchange them in the world market, with the

goal of achieving profit.

Commodification – the process of placing a price on a

good and then buying, selling, and trading the good.

Colonialism – brought the world into the world economy,

setting up an interdependent global economy.

The Capitalist World-Economy

The World-Economy

is more than the

sum of its parts. It is

composed of “dots”

but we must also

understand the

“whole.”

Sunday on La Grande Jatte by Georges Pierre Seurat

Immanuel Wallerstein’s World-Systems Theory:

1. The world economy has one market and a global

division of labor.

2. Although the world has multiple states, almost

everything takes place within the context of the

world economy.

3. The world economy has a three-tier structure.

Three Tier Structure Core Processes that incorporate higher

levels of education, higher salaries,

and more technology

* Generate more wealth in the world

economy

Semi-periphery Places where core and periphery

processes are both occurring.

Places that are exploited by the core

but then exploit the periphery.

* Serves as a buffer between core and

periphery

Periphery Processes that incorporate lower levels

of education, lower salaries, and

less technology

* Generate less wealth in the world

economy

Core

• Most states have assumed their current

shape following centuries of growth

• Examples: North America, Western

Europe, Japan, Australia

Periphery

• The benefits of the core area thin the

farther you move outward

• Any resource benefits of the periphery

are typically shipped backed to the core

• Examples: Africa (except South Africa),

SE Asia, Western South America

Semi-Periphery

• Exploited by the core, and exploit the

periphery

• Examples: Mexico, Brazil, Russia,

Eastern Europe, China, India

Boundaries

• Vertical lines that establish the limit of

each state’s jurisdiction and authority

• Claims and boundaries are 3

dimensional

– Subsoil Resource disputes

– Airspace extends into airline traffic

(satellites next?)

The Evolution of Boundaries

• Definition: the official establishment or

documentation of a boundary

– Treaty

– Legal document

– Example: 2000 Macedonia-Serbia and

Montenegro delimitation agreement

The Evolution of Boundaries

Delimitation: placing of the boundary on a

map

The Evolution of Boundaries

Demarcation: marking of the boundary by

some method on the ground

Boundary Types

• Natural (physical): based on

recognizable physiographic features

– Mountains, rivers, and lakes

– Can cause disputes

Boundary Types

• Law of the Sea

– Territory

• 12 Nautical miles

– Contiguous Zone

• 12 Nautical miles

– Exclusive Economic Zone

• 200 Nautical Miles

Boundary Types

• Geometric (Artificial): follows

parallels of latitude and meridians of

longitude

– 49th parallel United States & Canada

– Africa, Asia, Americas

Boundary Types

• Cultural: separate groups by a common

cultural trait

– India and Pakistan

Boundary Origins

• Antecedent: border drawn before it

was well populated

– United States & Canada

• Subsequent: border drawn after the

development of the cultural landscape

– 2 types:

• Consequent

• Superimposed

Boundary Origins

• Consequent (ethnographic): border drawn to

accommodate existing religious, linguistic,

or ethnic differences

– N. Ireland and Ireland

Boundary Origins

• Subsequent Superimposed Boundaries:

forced on an existing cultural

landscape, country, or people by a

conquering colonial power

– Unconcerned about preexisting cultural

patterns

– Great Britain = India/Pakistan

Boundary Origins

• Relict/relic Boundary: former

boundary that no longer functions

– Differences on each side of the border are

still evident

Boundary Origins

Definitional/Positional Boundary

Disputes

• Focus on the legal language of the boundary agreement

• A boundary agreement may base a boundary on a landmark that has moved or no longer

visible

• Argentina and Chile

Locational Boundary Disputes

• The delimitation and possible

demarcation of the border is in dispute

Operational/Functional Disputes

• Neighboring states disagree over

policies to be applied along a boundary

• Immigration

Allocation/Resource Disputes

• Neighboring states can argue about the

distribution of resources

• United States v. Mexico

• Iraq v. Kuwait

Territorial Disputes

• A subsequent boundary divides and

ethnically homogenous group

• Irredentism- advocating annexation of

territories administered by another state on

the grounds of common ethnicity or prior

historical possession

• Germany, Somalia, Kashmir

Capitals

• Typically are centrally located to allow for equal access

• Many capitals have become distant to many areas due to growth: Washington D.C.

• Some capitals have been relocated to make the more accessible

Capitals

• Usually located in the core area and

frequently the focus of it

• Capital cities are also frequently the

largest or the Primate City

• Primate City: dominates the economic

structure of the entire country

Forward-Thrust capital City

• Deliberately sited in a state’s interior

• Brazil relocated its capital from Rio de

Janeiro to a new city called Brasilia

• Nigeria – Abula

• Kazakhstan – Astana

Brasilia

Brasilia

Brasilia

Nigeria - Abuja

Nigeria - Abuja

Kazakhstan – Astana

Kazakhstan – Astana

Geopolitics

• Considers the strategic value of land and sea

area in the context of national economic and

military power and ambitions – power relationships: past, present, and future

• Manifest Destiny, Monroe Doctrine,

“Greater East-Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere”

Geopolitics – German School

Ratzel’s Organic Theory

a) Held that a nation which is an aggregate of organisms would itself function and behave as an organism

b) Nourishment of organism provided by acquisition of territories and people

c) Territory is essential to life.

d) Nazi expansion policies based on some of Ratzel’s ideas.

Sir Halford Mackinder Heartland Theory

a) Believed a land-based power, not a sea power,

would ultimately rule the world

b) Pivot area extended from Eastern Europe to

eastern Siberia

Geopolitics – British/American School

Mackinder – Heartland Theory

• The Heartland is impenetrable

• Resource rich

• Provided a base for world conquest

Mackinder – Heartland Theory

–“Who rules East Europe commands the

Heartland”

–“Who rules the Heartland commands

the World Island”

–“Who rules the World Island

commands the World”

Geopolitics

Nicholas Spykman - Rimland Theory

• Critic of Mackinder

• Argued that the Eurasian rim, not its

heart, held the key to global power

Spykman-Rimland

• Fragmented zone

• Divided rimland key to balance of

world power

• Dense population, abundant resources,

controlling access to both the sea and

the interior

• “Who controls the Rimland controls

Eurasia”

• “Who rules Eurasia controls the destiny

of the world”

Spykman-Rimland

Recent Geopolitical Developments

Bipolar World

• Post WWII – Heartland =

U.S.S.R

NATO

CENTO

SEATO

• U.S. practiced Containment

• Confining the U.S.S.R by means of alliances with Rimland

• Military intervention

• Domino Theory

Geopolitics Today

• Current world events have rendered

older geopolitical ideas obsolete

• End of the Cold War, Nuclear

Technology, and Japan, China, W.

Europe becoming world powers

• Unilateralism – United Sates dominance

• Will this last???

Current Geopolitics

2 Main Forms of Competition

1. Economic rivalry: core countries versus peripheral states

2. Conflicts between “Civilizations”

• Western, Confucian, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic, Latin America, African

• Differences are antagonistic

• Enduring differences in history, language, culture, and religion

How do States Spatially Organize

their Governments?

Key Question:

Internal Structure

1. The needs of a well-functioning state

a) Clearly bounded territory served by an

adequate infrastructure

b) Effective administrative framework, a

productive core area, and a prominent

capital

2. All states confront divisive forces

Forms of Government

• Unitary – highly centralized government

where the capital city serves as a focus of

power.

• Federal – a government where the state is

organized into territories, which have

control over government policies and funds.

Unitary and Federal Systems

1.Early European nation-states were

unitary states:

a)Governments were highly centralized

and powerful

b)Capital cities represented authority that

stretched to the limits of the state

Unitary and Federal Systems

2. The federal state arose in the New World

a) Newness of the culture, and emergence of

regionalism due to the vast size of territories

b) Conditions did not lend themselves to unitary

systems of government

c) Absence of an old primate city

d) Lack of a clear core area and the vastness of

national territory

Nigeria’s Federal Government – Allows states within the state to determine

whether to have Shari’a Laws

Shari’a Laws

Legal systems

based on

traditional

Islamic laws

Minnesota’s

concealed

weapons law

requires the posting

of signs such as this

on buildings that do

not allow concealed

weapons.

The U.S. Federal Government – Allows states within the state to determine “moral” laws such as

death penalty, access to alcohol, and concealed weapons.

Forces of Fragmentation and

Cohesion:

Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

Centripetal Forces

• Promoting State Cohesion

• Nationalism

• Unifying Institutions

• Organization and Administration

• Transportation and Communication

• Supranationalism

Centrifugal Forces

• Challenges to State Authority

• Nationalism

• Devolution, Regionalism

• Peripheral Location

• Social and Economic Inequality

Devolution – Movement of power from the central government

to regional governments within the state.

What causes devolutionary movements?

Ethnocultural forces

Economic forces

Spatial forces

Ethnocultural Devolutionary Movements

Eastern Europe devolutionary forces

since the fall of

communism

Economic

Devolutionary

Movements

Catalonia, Spain Barcelona is the center

of banking and

commerce in Spain and

the region is much

wealthier than the rest of

Spain.

Spatial

Devolutionary

Movements

Honolulu, Hawai’i A history apart from the

United States, and a

desire to live apart in

order to keep traditions

alive.

Electoral Geography

1.Electoral geographers

a) Study spatial configuration of

electoral districts

b) Voting patterns

c) Influence of voting patterns on

social and political affairs

Electoral Geography

Gerrymandering - redrawing of voting

districts in such a way as to give one

political party maximum political advantage

• Creating of majority-minority districts

Gerrymandering

• Stacked: drawing circuitous boundaries to enclose pockets of strength or weakness

• Excess vote: concentrates the votes of the opposition in a few districts which they can win easily, but leaves them few potential seats elsewhere

• Wasted vote: diffuses opposition’s vote

Supranational Organizations

A separate entity composed of three or more

states that forge an association and form an

administrative structure for mutual benefit

in pursuit of shared goals.

* How many supranational organizations

exist in the world today? At least 60

United Nations

• Background: League of Nations – 1919,

idea of Woodrow Wilson but…

• Basics:

– Cooperate with internationally approved

standards

– 191 members

– Aid: refugees, poverty, troops, human rights

Global Scale – The United Nations

Regional Scale - Europe

• Benelux: Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemberg

• Marshall Plan: US aid to Western European Courntries

• Organization of European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)

to

European Economic Community (EEC)

to

European Community (EC)

to

European Union (EU)

Regional Scale - Europe

• European Union: domestic, military, and

certain sovereign policies that govern all

members

– 12 European Community (EC) members

established the EU – 1992

– Euro introduced in 2002

– Problems facing the EU?

• Subsidies, Germany, Turkey

Germany,

France, UK,

Italy,

Portugal,

Spain,

Greece,

Netherlands,

Belgium,

Luxemburg,

Denmark

and Ireland

Regional Scale – The European Union

Supranationalism Elsewhere…

• NAFTA, ACS, APEC, CIS…

• Treaties to reduce tariffs and facilitate

trade

• None like the European Union