Unit III - Prevention Measures for Intentional Introductions · UNIT III – Prevention Measures for Intentional Introductions 109 Introduction A typical port of entry is an official

UNIT III – Prevention Measures for Intentional Introductions

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Unit Objectives:

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

1. Understand and discuss exclusion strategies for authorized intentional introductions

2. Understand and discuss exclusion strategies for

unauthorized intentional introductions (smuggling, mail)


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Unit III - Table of Contents

Introduction

Session 1. Authorized Introductions – Approaches for

Exclusion 3.1. Preclearance - Pre-border Inspection and Certification

3.2.2. Preclearance of Agriculture and Forestry Products and

Species 3.2. Border Clearance of Authorized Introductions - Port of Entry

Inspection 3.2.1. Case Study: Fumigation of Brass Artware from Bombay,

India 3.2.2. Case Study: Animals in the Pet Trade - Pythons in the

Florida Everglades 3.3. International Standards for Importation and Release of Exotic

Biological Control Agents

3.3.1. Case Study: Overview of the U.S. Biological Control Approval Process

3.4. Phytosanitary Certification of Exported Products

Session 2. Unauthorized Intentional Introductions by Mail and Transport 3.5. Introductions by Mail

3.5.1. Case Study: Illegal Introductions of the Northern

Snakehead Fish in the Eastern U.S. 3.5.2. Catalog and E-Commerce Marketing of Invasive Species

3.6. Smuggling via Sea, Air, Road, and Rail

3.6.1. Case Study: Smuggling of Parrots from Mexico into the USA

Major Concepts in Unit III

Unit III. Lab Exercises


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Introduction

A typical port of entry is an official entry point for import and

export of goods to and from a country. Plant Quarantine and

Customs officials provide a filter through which this large array of

goods is passed. At first glance, it would seem impossible to

effectively regulate the introduction of IAS in such a

large diversity of shipments. However, experience has shown

that IAS typically enter a country in one of two ways –

- Intentional introductions (shipments that are either authorized or

smuggled), or as, - Unintentional contaminants of another shipment.

This session will cover IAS that are intentionally introduced through

the port of entry or by mail.

Session 1. Authorized Introductions –

Approaches for Exclusion

3.1. Preclearance - Pre-border Inspection and

Certification

Clearly, the most effective way to safeguard a country from

introduced IAS is to deal with potential problems before they

arrive at the port of entry. This is usually accomplished by

certification of pest free status, and / or inspection and pre-

clearance of a shipment by border clearance officials at ports of

exports. The main advantage of this approach is that problems

http://www.unb.ca/web/transpo/mynet/Halifa_cont_Port.jpg

Port of Entry. Cadiz, Spain

http://www.tylersterritory.com/travel/europe/spain/cadiz/cadiz-01c-0788.jpg


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with a shipment can be cleared up before it is transported to the

receiving country. It also helps to expedite the border clearance process as a shipment passes through a port of entry.

3.1.1. Preclearance of Agriculture and Forestry Species and

Products

Raw agricultural and forestry products such as grain, lumber, and logs, pose a

very high risk for spreading IAS around the world. In addition, large, bulk

shipments of such products are difficult to inspect and treat at a port of entry.

Therefore, the most effective way to deal with them is to require that they be pest

free as a condition of entry in a receiving

country. Inspecting and certifying that a product is produced in a pest free

environment is generally the responsibility of the official plant

quarantine agency in an exporting country – an agency that is recognized

by the official plant quarantine agency in the receiving country.

See also (Cock, 2003).

3.2. Border Clearance of Authorized Introductions -

Port of Entry Inspection

Generally speaking, plants and animals that are authorized entry into a country enter as a miscellaneous commodity (not otherwise restricted

as a vector or known harbinger of a plant pest (i.e., prohibited insect or disease); OR, as a certified commodity under a certain kind of

permit. Here are two examples.

Miscellaneous Commodity: Bags of Ornamental River Rocks from France

Certified Commodity: Beef or Pork from a Foot and Mouth Disease Free Country

http://www.jugoinspekt.co.yu/thke.htm


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In either case, both types of commodities are subject to inspection to

make sure they don’t carry hitchhiking pests or stowaways. A container found to be covered with prohibited snails will be a definite

problem – regardless of the type of commodity (certified or otherwise) that it might carry.

Certification of certain commodities by export officials certainly helps

to expedite the border clearance process in a port of entry. However, sometimes certificates cannot be taken at face value, and it is often

wise to inspect a ‘certified’ shipment just to make sure the certificate is valid.

3.2.1. Case Study: Fumigation of Brass Artware from Bombay,

India. In the 1980s, shipments of brass artware from India were often certified as having been fumigated

for khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium)

prior to shipment to the United States. However, since it was quite common to

intercept live Khapra beetle in such shipments, they were fumigated again, as

a condition of entry. Apparently, such shipments were fumigated and then

stored in an infested warehouse prior to shipment to the U.S., or were never

actually fumigated at all.

http://www.gardenscapeinc.com/images/stone_products.jpg

http://www.patagoniabeef.com/img/img-01.jpg

Brass Artware.

http://www.buddycom.com/asia/nepalbrass.jpg


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3.2.2. Case Study: Animals in the Pet Trade - Pythons in the Florida Everglades). Considering the large number of intentionally

introduced plants and animals that have become IAS in some regions of the world, there is clear

evidence to suggest that every new plant or animal that is

proposed for importation should be pre-screening for

invasiveness. The booming trade in exotic animals has

opened the floodgates for

invasive species to enter into the United States and other

countries. Miami International Airport receives at least 70

foreign shipments of exotic animals per day – such as

tarantulas, lizards, and snakes. While some of the species are illegally imported, many exotic animals are permitted entry into the U.S. U.S.

residents can legally own 22 or the 24 python species found around the world.

Burmese pythons are popular— and legal — pet snakes in the United

States. In the past five years, more than 144,000 Burmese pythons have been imported into the U.S. Hatchlings sell for as little as

$20.00. They make nice little pets. But once a cute baby snake grows

into a 15 foot long (5 meters) monster, some owners decide to get rid of the problem by dumping them into natural areas. Since the mid-

1990s, park rangers with the Everglades National Park in Florida, have captured or killed 68 Burmese pythons. They have been found eating

gray squirrels, opossums, black rats, and birds. They could also be competing with the eastern indigo snake for food and space. The

eastern indigo snake is listed as threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Lovgren, 2004).

KKeeeepp aa SShhaarrpp EEyyee!! Every walk through a container yard in

a port of entry may be the last time that a container is seen before release – the last chance to stop the introduction of a

devastating pest. A sharp eye is often the last defense against biological invasion.

Burmese Python

http://www.honoluluzoo.org/images/monty5.htm


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3.3. International Standards for Importation and

Release of Exotic Biological Control Agents

Once an IAS becomes well established and widespread within a

country, there are a number of management strategies that are used for addressing it. These include mechanical control (e.g., plowing,

mowing), cultural control (such as crop rotation), chemical control (with pesticides – including biopesticides such as BT (Bacillus

thuringensis), and classical biological control with natural enemies

of the pest. The simple definition of biological control is “suppression of a pest

outbreak due to intentional introduction and manipulation of natural enemies of a pest”. Natural enemies of a pest include predators,

parasites, and pathogens that co-evolved with the pest in its native range.

Over the past decade, increasing concerns have been raised about the

possible negative impacts of introduced biological control agents on non-target species. To address these concerns, a code of conduct for

the importation and release of exotic biological control agents was developed over a six year period, and endorsed by FAO member

countries in 1995. ISPM 3 – (2005) - Guidelines for the Export, Shipment, Import, and Release of Biological Control Agents and other

Beneficial Organisms, an updated version of the guidelines, is available

from the IPPC at the following website:

URL: https://www.ippc.int/servlet/BinaryDownloaderServlet/76047_ISPM_3

_E.pdf?filename=1146657660135_ISPM3.pdf&refID=76047

ISPM #3 describes responsibilities of authorities of governments, importers, and exporters for the import and release of exotic biological

control agents for plants and plant pests. The key recommendations from the guidelines are:

� A national body should be designated to administer the

biocontrol regulatory process (usually the National Plant

Protection Organization with a country)

� A dossier should be prepared for each proposed introduction,

with details on the pest (identification, importance, known

natural enemies), the natural enemy (identification, host specificity, hazards to non-target hosts, its natural enemies, and


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possible contaminants), human and animal health and safety

issues, and protocols for the introduction.

� Exporters of biological control agents should conform to local

legislation and legislation of the importing country regarding labeling and packaging of the agents for shipment.

� The national body of the importing country should encourage

proper documentation, deposition of voucher specimens by the importer, encourage monitoring of the release and its impacts,

and monitor for subsequent impacts and take corrective action if necessary.

� Importers of biological control agents should ensure that

relevant staff are properly trained, should disseminate information on safety and environmental impacts, should publish

results of field studies, and should notify authorities of problems, and help to find solutions (Kairo et al., 2003A; Kairo et al,

2003B; Anonymous, 2005).

3.3.1. Case Study: Overview of the U.S. Biological Control

Approval Process. A good example of the permitted listing approach for exclusion of foreign pests is the system that is used by the United

States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA APHIS) to regulate the importation of biological control

agents into the United States. Before a new biological control agent is approved for release in the country, petitioners must first do a

comprehensive analysis of the taxonomy of the weed to be controlled to determine if there are any native relatives that the biocontrol agent

might also attack. Once this is completed, the scientist develops a plant test list which is evaluated by APHIS

personnel as well as the U.S. Biocontrol Technical Advisory Group (BC-TAG). Prior

to field release, research is conducted in a

certified containment facility to determine if the biocontrol agent will feed on any of

the approved test plants (native near relatives of the target weed).

The BC-TAG is an independent volunteer

committee that was first set up in 1957 to provide advice to researchers on the

importation of biocontrol agents. The BC-TAG is currently composed of biologists from other U.S. federal agencies (e.g., National Park

Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, USDA Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Land Management, and etc.). TAG

members review petitions for biological control of weeds, and provide

Sawfly ((Heteroperreyia hubrichi). Photo by Stephen D. Hight. http://www.forestryimages.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=0002014


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an exchange of information, and

advice to petitioners, and to officials in APHIS who are responsible for issuing

permits for importation, testing, and field release of biological control

agents of weeds.

Currently, the U.S. BC-TAG is evaluating a petition for testing the

effectiveness and selectivity of the sawfly (Heteroperreyia hubrichi Malaise) for Brazilian Pepper (native to

South American – devastating in South Florida) and other native plants that are near relatives. Field observations have determined

that the sawfly feeds almost exclusively on Brazilian pepper in its home range. In preliminary tests that were conducted in a biocontrol

quarantine facility in Florida, it was found that the sawfly could only

complete its life cycle on Brazilian Pepper and the Hawaiian Sumac (Rhus sandwicensis). Based on this research, a petition was submitted

to APHIS for limited field release of the sawfly for control of Brazilian pepper. In this case, field release of the sawfly in Florida appears

justified. However, since it is known to also feed on Hawaiian Sumac, it would be prudent to issue a permit allowing field release of the

sawfly in the continental United States only. For more about the work of the University of Florida and the USDA Agriculture Service on

Brazilian Pepper, refer to the following online article:

Addition Information Sources: Brazilian Peppertree. By S. Hight, J. Cuda, and J. Medal. 2002.

http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/21251/BRAZILIAN%20PEPPERTREE%202002.pdf#search=%22hawaiian%20sumac%22

3.4. Phytosanitary Certification of

Exported Plants and Plant Products Phytosanitary certificates are issued by

exporting countries to indicate that shipments of regulated plants and associated products meet

specified phytosanitary import requirements and are in conformity with the certifying statement

of the appropriate International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) model certificate. This

includes regulated commodities such as plants, bulbs and tubers, seeds for propagation, fruits

Brazilian Pepper photo by Amy Ferriter. http://www.forestryimages.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=1461044

Fruit Inspection. http://www.agrostandard.cl/


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and vegetables, cut flowers and branches, grain, and growing medium.

Phytosanitary certificates are also used for plant products that have a potential for introducing regulated pests (e.g., cotton, wood, wool,

etc.). A certificate is sometimes also issued for other articles where Figure

Phytosanitary measures are justified (e.g., empty containers, vehicles, etc.). Phytosanitary certificates are not issued for plant products have

been fully processed and pose no risk for introducing regulated pests, or for other articles that require no Phytosanitary measures

(Anonymous, 2001).

Model IPPC Phytosanitary Certificate

No. ________ Plant Protection Organization of _______________________________________________

TO: Plant Protection Organization(s) of _________________________________________

I. Description of Consignment

Name and address of exporter: ________________________________________________ Declared name and address of consignee:

________________________________________ Number and description of packages: ___________________________________________ Distinguishing marks:

_______________________________________________________ Place of origin: _____________________________________________________________

Declared means of conveyance: ________________________________________________ Declared point of entry: ______________________________________________________

Name of produce and quantity declared: _________________________________________ Botanical name of plants:

_____________________________________________________ This is to certify that the plants, plant products or other regulated articles described herein have been inspected and/or tested according to appropriate official procedures and are considered to be free from the quarantine pests specified by the

importing contracting party and to conform with the current phytosanitary requirements of the importing contracting party, including those for regulated non-quarantine pests. They are deemed to be practically free from other pests.*


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II. Additional Declaration

III. Disinfestation and/or Disinfection Treatment

Date ________ Treatment ___________

Chemical (active ingredient) __________________ Duration and temperature ______________________________________________

Concentration ___________________________________________________________________

Additional information _________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

Place of issue________________________________________________________ (Stamp of Organization) Name of authorized officer _________________________

Date _______________ (Signature)_______________________________ No financial liability with respect to this certificate shall attach to (name of Plant

Protection Organization) or to any of its officers or representatives.* * Optional clause


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Session 2. Unauthorized Intentional

Introductions – By Mail and Transport –

Strategies and Case Studies

3.5. Introductions by Mail

International mail and parcel post represent two major pathways for spread of IAS around the world. Unlike cargo and commodity

inspection at ports of export and ports of entry, mail is generally

controlled by a federal postal system in a country. Regulations

on inspection of mail vary from country to country. In the United

States and Australia, international mail is routinely X-rayed and

scanned, and may be opened by a Customs Officer. However, the

sheer volume of international mail makes inspection for IAS a

very difficult task. In the future,

high tech scanning devices will improve the ability of postal officials and border clearance officials to detect prohibited items in

international parcels.

3.5.1. Case Study: Illegal Introductions of the Northern Snakehead Fish in the Eastern U.S. In 2002, the capture of a

Northern Snakehead fish (Channa argus) in Crofton Pond, in Maryland, about 20 miles north of Washington, D.C., caused a lot of concern in

the United States. The snakehead is a voracious predator that decimates native fish populations. That population of snakehead was

eradicated by the state of Maryland. However,

since that time, the snakehead has been

found in a few other

locations around the Washington, D.C. area,

and appears to have established a breeding

population in the Potomac River, which forms the boundary between Maryland and Virginia. In addressing this problem, investigators

Northern Snakehead Fish. Artist: Susan Trammel. http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.asp?speciesID=2265

Mail Inspection http://www.skehan.com/usps2/images/DSC_0659.jpg


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learned that the snakehead is a traditional food in Asia. It was illegally

imported by Asian-Americans for that purpose. It was also learned that a number of the fish had been intentionally released in the U.S. as

part of a prayer ritual by well intended Asian-Americans. Such behavior is certainly not malicious. However, this shows the very real

need to educate the public – and especially new immigrants of the danger of IAS. While the snakehead has been officially prohibited

under federal and state laws for a number of years, these laws are no better than the ethics of the people they are enacted to protect.

Therefore, education is one of the most important elements of a national strategy to address issues of IAS.

Additional Information Sources:

- Maryland Department of Natural Resources – Snakehead Information Page:

http://www.dnr.state.md.us/fisheries/snakeheadinfosheet.html

- CSA Guide to Discovery: http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/snakehead/overview.php

3.5.2. Catalog and E-Commerce Marketing of Invasive Species

Catalogs have been used as an effective direct marketing tool for plants and animals

for a very long time. Most companies do not intentionally market prohibited species, and

will quickly remove such a species from inventory upon being reminded. However,

most IAS in the world are not

regulated, and

some have clear economic value.

These species, which are often

too wide spread in a country to

be regulated, pose a special challenge to border

clearance officials, and to others who are working to protect managed and natural

ecosystems and resources. Here again, education is an important key for helping

http://www.forestfarm.com/

http://www.bonniesplants.com/PondPlants1.html


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people to make the right decisions about purchasing and using non-

regulated IAS in regions where they may pose a problem.

Our newest challenge related to spread of IAS by mail and parcel post is marketing of plants and animals by e-commerce – the internet. At a

national meeting on IAS and E-Commerce that was hosted by Sandy Lloyd and Rod Randall of the Western Australia Department of

Agriculture in Perth, in 2000, it was estimated that there are at least 5,000 internet websites involved in commercial sale and/or trading of

over 50,000 species and varieties of plants. The plethora of such plant nursery websites can be confirmed by a quick search of the Google

Internet Search Engine for recognized IAS such as giant salvinia (Salvinia molesta).

3.6. Smuggling IAS via Sea, Air, Road, and Rail

Most people are honest. However, some people will go to great lengths to try to subvert Customs and Plant Quarantine rules as they

enter a country. This ranges from hiding prohibited items in baggage and personal effects to mislabeling of commercially imported plant and

animal products that are shipped through the international mail system, by sea, air, road, and rail. As with other prohibited products,

a prohibited IAS or product can be regulated (taken off the market)

within the country where it originates. However, this does not help other countries that regulate such as species. Unless such an

imported shipment is truthfully declared and inspected upon arrival at a port of entry, the chances are great that an imported IAS might

never be detected before it is received by the consignee. This is a major reason why postal officials and border clearance officials need

permission to inspect all types of international mail, as well as authority to levy stiff penalties on

violators.

3.6.1. Case Study: Smuggling of Parrots from Mexico to the United

States. Due to serious diseases such as avian influenza (bird flu)

(http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/) and

exotic Newcastle disease (http://www.oie.int/eng/maladies/fic

hes/a_A160.htm), most countries have strict rules and regulations on

http://www.maj.com/gallery/DaRkSiDe/animals/parrot.jpg


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the importation of poultry and birds. In 1971, an epidemic of exotic

Newcastle disease in a major poultry-producing area of southern California was eradicated - at a cost of $56 million. However, the high

value of parrots and related birds provides an incentive for some people to skirt these laws. It is estimated by about 2 million parrots

are traded legally or illegally each year. From 1982-1988, over 1.8 million parrots were legally traded in international commerce, of which

80% were imported into the United States. Each year, about 250,000 parrots are imported into the United States for sale as pets. An

additional 25,000 wild parrots are smuggled across the Texas border each year. Moreover, an additional 25,000 parrots die of suffocation

or inhumane treat while being smuggled across the border.

Theoretically, trade in Mexican and South American parrots was virtually eliminated under the Wild Bird

Conservation Act passed by the U.S.

Congress in 1992. However, enforcement of the new federal law is very difficult due to the

lucrative profits that are made on imported birds, and the lack of funding for inspections

at the Mexican border. Parrots that cost $15 each in Mexico sell for $250 to $1,500 in the

United States and some are sold as high as $10,000 at flea markets and pet stores. Due

to such illicit profits, parrot smuggling is the second largest illegal border business in the

United States next to drug smuggling.

Parrot smuggler’s techniques are especially inhumane. For example, U.S. plant quarantine inspectors find illegal

parrots stuffed into wheel covers and other hidden compartments in

vehicles crossing the U.S-Mexican border (e.g., inside the engine air filter compartment; in sealed door panels). People also swim the birds

across the Rio Grande River, floating the cages on inner tubes. Larger smuggling operations hide the birds in crates among other cargo such

as fruits and vegetables in trucks that are not air conditioned. This is not only illegal, but it is also cruel to the animals which are often

sedated for the trip across the border.

Another reason why trade in neotropical birds should be limited is the impact that smuggling is having on wild populations in Mexico and

South America. Neotropical parrots are now one of the most threatened groups of birds due to international trade and habitat

destruction. At least 42 (30%) of the 140 parrot species found in the

http://www.cbc.ca/cgi-bin/templates/email.cgi?/2003/03/19/borders030319


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Western Hemisphere are now threatened with extinction for various

reasons.

Table 1. Primary Threats to 42 Endangered Neotropical Parrots in the Western Hemisphere.

Threat # Species Threatened % of Total

Habitat Destruction 17 40% International Trade and Smuggling 7 17%

Habitat Destruction and Trade 15 36% Other Factors 3 7%

Primary Information Source: http://www.american.edu/ted/parrot.htm

Other Information Sources: - U.S. Government Returns Smuggled Parrots to Mexico: Associated

Press News Story – December 21, 2004. http://www.freeparrots.net/article.php?story=20050113003131167

Link to Website on Wild Parrot Trade in Europe and Indonesia:

http://www.kookycongos.ca/wptrade.htm#Parrot%20Hormones

IUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species:

http://www.iucnredlist.org/


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Major Concepts in Unit III

1. Preclearance of a commodity in the exporting country is a very effective means of preventing the spread of IAS to other

countries. 2. Preclearance or certification of commodities by export officials

helps to expedite the border clearance process in a port of entry.

3. The booming trade in exotic animals has further accelerated the spread of IAS around the world.

4. Biological control is suppression of a pest outbreak due to intentional introduction and manipulation of natural enemies of

a pest. 5. ISPM 3 – The Code of Conduct for the Import and Release of

Exotic Biological Control Agents was developed by IPPC to

provide guidance for importation of biological control agents. 6. Phytosanitary certificates are issued by exporting countries to

indicate that shipments of regulated plants and associated products meet specified phytosanitary import requirements and

are in conformity with the certifying statement of the appropriate International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)

model certificate. 7. International mail and parcel post represent two major

pathways for spread of IAS around the world. 8. The newest challenge related to spread of IAS by mail and

parcel post is marketing of plants and animals by e-commerce – the internet.

9. Unless such an imported shipment is truthfully declared and inspected upon arrival at a port of entry, the chances are great

that an imported IAS might never be detected before it is

received by the consignee. This is a major reason why postal officials and border clearance officials need permission to

inspect all types of international mail, as well as authority to levy stiff penalties on violators.

10. From 1982-1988, over 1.8 million parrots were legally traded in international commerce, of which 80% were imported into

the United States.


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Unit III. Lab Exercises Answer the following questions.

1. Make a list of the major agricultural products that are imported through your local port, including country of origin.

2. Make a list of the major agricultural products that are exported

through your local port, including countries of destination.

3. Make a list of miscellaneous commodities that are imported through

your port of entry.

4. Make a list of certified commodities that are imported through your port of entry (e.g., meat).

5. Make a list of invasive plants that are being controlled by imported

biological control agents in your country.

6. What agency or organization is responsible for the biological control regulatory process in your country?

7. List plant and animal products that have been illegally imported into

your country via mail or other parcel post system.

8. List some of the invasive plants and animals that are being sold in

the horticultural trade in your country.

Documents

Unit III - Prevention Measures for Intentional Introductions · UNIT III – Prevention Measures for Intentional Introductions 109 Introduction A typical port of entry is an official