UNIT : I

Data Movement Instructions

Introduction

• This chapter concentrates on the data

movement instructions.

• The data movement instructions include MOV,

MOVSX, MOVZX, PUSH, POP, BSWAP,

XCHG, XLAT, IN, OUT, LEA, LDS, LES, LFS,

LGS, LSS, LAHF, SAHF.

• String instructions: MOVS, LODS, STOS, INS,

and OUTS.

MOV Revisited

• In this chapter, the MOV instruction introduces

machine language instructions available with

various addressing modes and instructions.

• It may be necessary to interpret machine

language programs generated by an

assembler.

• Occasionally, machine language patches are

made by using the DEBUG program available

with DOS and Visual for Windows.

Machine Language

• Native binary code microprocessor uses as its

instructions to control its operation.

– instructions vary in length from 1 to 13 bytes

• Over 100,000 variations of machine language

instructions.

– there is no complete list of these variations

• Some bits in a machine language instruction

are given; remaining bits are determined for

each variation of the instruction.

Figure 1 The formats of the 8086–Core2 instructions. (a) The

16-bit form and (b) the 32-bit form.

– 80386 and above assume all instructions are 16-

bit mode instructions when the machine is

operated in the real mode (DOS).

– in protected mode (Windows), the upper byte of

the descriptor contains the D-bit that selects either

the 16- or 32-bit instruction mode

The Opcode

• Selects the operation (addition, subtraction,

etc.,) performed by the microprocessor.

– either 1 or 2 bytes long for most instructions

• Figure 2 illustrates the general form of the first

opcode byte of many instructions.

– first 6 bits of the first byte are the binary opcode

– remaining 2 bits indicate the direction (D) of the

data flow, and indicate whether the data are a

byte or a word (W)

Figure 2 Byte 1 of many machine language instructions,

showing the position of the D- and W-bits.

Figure 3 Byte 2 of many machine language instructions, showing the position of the

MOD, REG, and R/M fields.

MOD Field

• Specifies addressing mode (MOD) and

whether a displacement is present with the

selected type.

– If MOD field contains an 11, it selects the register-

addressing mode

– Register addressing specifies a register instead

of a memory location, using the R/M field

• If the MOD field contains a 00, 01, or 10, the

R/M field selects one of the data memory-

addressing modes.

• All 8-bit displacements are sign-extended into

16-bit displacements when the processor

executes the instruction.

– if the 8-bit displacement is 00H–7FH (positive),

it is sign-extended to 0000H–007FH before

adding to the offset address

– if the 8-bit displacement is 80H–FFH (negative),

it is sign-extended to FF80H–FFFFH

• Some assembler programs do not use the 8-

bit displacements and in place default to all

16-bit displacements.

Register Assignments

• Suppose a 2-byte instruction, 8BECH,

appears in a machine language program.

– neither a 67H (operand address-size override

prefix) nor a 66H (register-size override prefix)

appears as the first byte, thus the first byte is the

opcode

• In 16-bit mode, this instruction is converted to

binary and placed in the instruction format of

bytes 1 and 2, as illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4 The 8BEC instruction placed into bytes 1 and 2 formats from Figures 2 and

3. This instruction is a MOV BP,SP.

– the opcode is 100010, a MOV

instruction

– D and W bits are a logic 1, so a word moves into

the destination register specified in the REG field

– REG field contains 101, indicating register BP, so

the MOV instruction moves data into register BP

R/M Memory Addressing

• If the MOD field contains a 00, 01, or 10, the

R/M field takes on a new meaning.

• Figure 5 illustrates the machine language

version of the 16-bit instruction MOV DL, [DI]

or instruction (8AI5H).

• This instruction is 2 bytes long and has an

opcode 100010, D=1 (to REG from R/M),

W=0 (byte), MOD=00 (no displacement),

REG=010 (DL), and R/M=101 ([DI]).

Figure 5 A MOV DL,[DI] instruction converted to its machine language form.

– If the instruction changes to MOV DL, [DI+1], the

MOD field changes to 01 for 8-bit displacement

– first 2 bytes of the instruction remain the same

– instruction now becomes 8A5501H instead of

8A15H

• Because the MOD field contains a 11, the

R/M field also indicates a register.

• = 100(SP); therefore, this instruction moves

data from SP into BP.

– written in symbolic form as a MOV BP,SP

instruction

• The assembler program keeps track of the

register- and address-size prefixes and the

mode of operation.

Special Addressing Mode

• A special addressing mode occurs when

memory data are referenced by only the

displacement mode of addressing for 16-bit

instructions.

• Examples are the MOV [1000H],DL and MOV

NUMB,DL instructions.

– first instruction moves contents of register DL

into data segment memory location 1000H

– second moves register DL into symbolic data

segment memory location NUMB

• When an instruction has only a displacement,

MOD field is always 00; R/M field always 110.

– You cannot actually use addressing mode [BP]

without a displacement in machine language

• If the individual translating this symbolic

instruction into machine language does not

know about the special addressing mode, the

instruction would incorrectly translate to a

MOV [BP], DL instruction.

Figure 6 The MOV [1000H],DI instruction uses the special addressing mode.

– bit pattern required to

encode the MOV

[1000H],DL instruction

in machine language

Figure 7 The MOV [BP],DL instruction converted to binary machine language.

– actual form of the MOV [BP],DL instruction

– a 3-byte instruction with

a displacement of 00H

32-Bit Addressing Modes

• Found in 80386 and above.

– by running in 32-bit instruction mode or

– In 16-bit mode by using address-size prefix 67H

• A scaled-index byte indicates additional forms

of scaled-index addressing.

– mainly used when two registers are added to

specify the memory address in an instruction

• A scaled-index instruction has 215 (32K)

possible combinations.

• Over 32,000 variations of the MOV instruction

alone in the 80386 - Core2 microprocessors.

• Figure 8 shows the format of the scaled-index

byte as selected by a value of 100 in the R/M

field of an instruction when the 80386 and

above use a 32-bit address.

• The leftmost 2 bits select a scaling factor

(multiplier) of 1x, 2x, 4x, 8x.

• Scaled-index addressing can also use a

single register multiplied by a scaling factor.

Figure 8 The scaled-index byte.

– the index and base fields both

contain register numbers

An Immediate Instruction

• An example of a 16-bit instruction using

immediate addressing.

– MOV WORD PTR [BX+1000H] ,1234H moves a

1234H into a word-sized memory location

addressed by sum of 1000H, BX, and DS x 10H

• 6-byte instruction

– 2 bytes for the opcode; 2 bytes are the data of

1234H; 2 bytes are the displacement of 1000H

• Figure 9 shows the binary bit pattern for each

byte of this instruction.

Figure 9 A MOV WORD PTR, [BX=1000H] 1234H instruction converted to binary

machine language.

• This instruction, in symbolic form, includes

WORD PTR.

– directive indicates to the assembler that the

instruction uses a word-sized memory pointer

• If the instruction moves a byte of immediate

data, BYTE PTR replaces WORD PTR.

– if a doubleword of immediate data, the DWORD

PTR directive replaces BYTE PTR

• Instructions referring to memory through a

pointer do not need the BYTE PTR, WORD

PTR, or DWORD PTR directives.

Segment MOV Instructions

• If contents of a segment register are moved by

MOV, PUSH, or POP instructions, a special

bits (REG field) select the segment register.

– the opcode for this type of MOV instruction is

different for the prior MOV instructions

– an immediate segment register MOV is not

available in the instruction set

• To load a segment register with immediate

data, first load another register with the data

and move it to a segment register.

Figure 10 A MOV BX,CS instruction converted to binary machine language.

• Figure 10 shows a MOV BX,CS instruction

converted to binary.

• Segment registers can be moved between

any 16-bit register or 16-bit memory location.

• A program written in symbolic assembly

language (assembly language) is rarely

assembled by hand into binary machine

language.

• An assembler program converts symbolic

assembly language into machine language.

The 64-Bit Mode for the Pentium 4

and Core2

• In 64-bit mode, a prefix called REX (register

extension) is added.

– encoded as a 40H–4FH, follows other prefixes;

placed immediately before the opcode

• Purpose is to modify reg and r/m fields in the

second byte of the instruction.

– REX is needed to be able to address registers R8

through R15

• Figure 11 illustrates the structure and

application of REX to the second byte of the

opcode.

• The reg field can only contain register

assignments as in other modes of operation

• The r/m field contains either a register or

memory assignment.

• Figure 12 shows the scaled-index byte with

the REX prefix for more complex addressing

modes and also for using a scaling factor in

the 64-bit mode of operation.

Figure 11 The application of REX without scaled index.

Figure 12 The scaled-index byte and REX prefix for 64-bit

operations.

PUSH/POP

• Important instructions that store and retrieve

data from the LIFO (last-in, first-out) stack

memory.

• Six forms of the PUSH and POP instructions:

– register, memory, immediate

– segment register, flags, all registers

• The PUSH and POP immediate & PUSHA and

POPA (all registers) available 80286 - Core2.

PUSH and POP instructions

• Register addressing allows contents of any

16-bit register to transfer to & from the stack.

• Memory-addressing PUSH and POP

instructions store contents of a 16- or 32 bit

memory location on the stack or stack data

into a memory location.

• Immediate addressing allows immediate data

to be pushed onto the stack, but not popped

off the stack.

• Segment register addressing allows contents

of any segment register to be pushed onto the

stack or removed from the stack.

– ES may be pushed, but data from the stack may

never be popped into ES

• The flags may be pushed or popped from

that stack.

– contents of all registers may be pushed or

popped

PUSH

• Always transfers 2 bytes of data to the stack;

– 80386 and above transfer 2 or 4 bytes

• PUSHA instruction copies contents of the

internal register set, except the segment

registers, to the stack.

• PUSHA (push all) instruction copies the

registers to the stack in the following order: AX,

CX, DX, BX, SP, BP, SI, and DI.

• PUSHF (push flags) instruction copies the

contents of the flag register to the stack.

• PUSHAD and POPAD instructions push and

pop the contents of the 32-bit register set in

80386 - Pentium 4.

– PUSHA and POPA instructions do not function in

the 64-bit mode of operation for the Pentium 4

Figure 13 The effect of the PUSH AX instruction on ESP and

stack memory locations 37FFH and 37FEH. This instruction is

shown at the point after execution.

• PUSHA instruction pushes all the internal 16-

bit registers onto the stack, illustrated in 14.

– requires 16 bytes of stack memory space to

store all eight 16-bit registers

• After all registers are pushed, the contents of

the SP register are decremented by 16.

• PUSHA is very useful when the entire register

set of 80286 and above must be saved.

• PUSHAD instruction places 32-bit register set

on the stack in 80386 - Core2.

– PUSHAD requires 32 bytes of stack storage

Figure 14 The operation of the PUSHA instruction, showing the

location and order of stack data.

POP

• Performs the inverse operation of PUSH.

• POP removes data from the stack and places

it in a target 16-bit register, segment register,

or a 16-bit memory location.

– not available as an immediate POP

• POPF (pop flags) removes a 16-bit number

from the stack and places it in the flag register;

– POPFD removes a 32-bit number from the stack

and places it into the extended flag register

• POPA (pop all) removes 16 bytes of data from

the stack and places them into the following

registers, in the order shown: DI, SI, BP, SP,

BX, DX, CX, and AX.

– reverse order from placement on the stack by

PUSHA instruction, causing the same data to

return to the same registers

• Figure 15 shows how the POP BX instruction

removes data from the stack and places them

into register BX.

Figure 15 The POP BX instruction, showing how data are

removed from the stack. This instruction is shown after

execution.

Initializing the Stack

• When the stack area is initialized, load both

the stack segment (SS) register and the stack

pointer (SP) register.

• Figure 16 shows how this value causes data

to be pushed onto the top of the stack

segment with a PUSH CX instruction.

• All segments are cyclic in nature

– the top location of a segment is contiguous

with the bottom location of the segment

Figure 16 The PUSH CX instruction, showing the cyclical nature of the stack

segment. This instruction is shown just before execution, to illustrate that the stack

bottom is contiguous to the top.

• Assembly language stack segment setup:

– first statement identifies start of the segment

– last statement identifies end of the stack segment

• Assembler and linker programs place correct

stack segment address in SS and the length

of the segment (top of the stack) into SP.

• There is no need to load these registers in

your program.

– unless you wish to change the initial values for

some reason

• If the stack is not specified, a warning will

appear when the program is linked.

• Memory section is located in the program

segment prefix (PSP), appended to the

beginning of each program file.

• If you use more memory for the stack, you

will erase information in the PSP.

– information critical to the operation of your

program and the computer

• Error often causes the program to crash.

LEA

• Loads a 16- or 32-bit register with the offset

address of the data specified by the operand.

• Earlier examples presented by using the

OFFSET directive.

– OFFSET performs same function as LEA

instruction if the operand is a displacement

• LEA and MOV with OFFSET instructions are

both the same length (3 bytes).

• Why is LEA (LOAD EFFECTIVE ADDRESS )

instruction available if OFFSET accomplishes

the same task?

– OFFSET functions with, and is more efficient than

LEA instruction, for simple operands such as LIST

– Microprocessor takes longer to execute the LEA

BX,LIST instruction the MOV BX,OFFSET LIST

• The MOV BX,OFFSET LIST instruction is

actually assembled as a move immediate

instruction and is more efficient.

LOAD EFFECTIVE ADDRESS

• LEA instruction loads any 16-bit register with

the offset address

– determined by the addressing mode selected

• LDS and LES load a 16-bit register with offset

address retrieved from a memory location

– then load either DS or ES with a segment

address retrieved from memory

• In 80386 and above, LFS, LGS, and LSS are

added to the instruction set.

Load-effective address instructions

LDS, LES, LFS, LGS, and LSS

• Load any 16- or 32-bit register with an offset

address, and the DS, ES, FS, GS, or SS

segment register with a segment address.

– instructions use any memory-addressing modes

to access a 32-bit or 48-bit memory section that

contain both segment and offset address

• Figure 17 illustrates an example LDS BX,[DI]

instruction.

Figure 17 The LDS BX,[DI] instruction loads register BX from addresses 11000H and

11001H and register DS from locations 11002H and 11003H. This instruction is shown

at the point just before DS changes to 3000H and BX changes to 127AH.

• This instruction transfers the 32-bit number,

addressed by DI in the data segment, into

the BX and DS registers.

• LDS, LES, LFS, LGS, and LSS instructions

obtain a new far address from memory.

– offset address appears first, followed by the

segment address

• This format is used for storing all 32-bit

memory addresses.

• A far address can be stored in memory by the

assembler.

• The most useful of the load instructions is the

LSS instruction.

– after executing some dummy instructions, the old

stack area is reactivated by loading both SS and

SP with the LSS instruction

• CLI (disable interrupt) and STI (enable

interrupt) instructions must be included to

disable interrupts.

STRING DATA TRANSFERS

• Five string data transfer instructions: LODS,

STOS, MOVS, INS, and OUTS.

• Each allows data transfers as a single byte,

word, or doubleword.

• Before the string instructions are presented,

the operation of the D flag-bit (direction), DI,

and SI must be understood as they apply to

the string instructions.

The Direction Flag

• The direction flag (D, located in the flag

register) selects the auto-increment or the

auto-decrement operation for the DI and SI

registers during string operations.

– used only with the string instructions

• The CLD instruction clears the D flag and the

STD instruction sets it .

– CLD instruction selects the auto-increment mode

and STD selects the auto-decrement mode

DI and SI

• During execution of string instruction, memory

accesses occur through DI and SI registers.

– DI offset address accesses data in the extra

segment for all string instructions that use it

– SI offset address accesses data by default

in the data segment

• Operating in 32-bit mode EDI and ESI

registers are used in place of DI and SI.

– this allows string using any memory location in

the entire 4G-byte protected mode address space

LODS

• Loads AL, AX, or EAX with data at segment

offset address indexed by the SI register.

• A 1 is added to or subtracted from SI for a

byte-sized LODS

• A 2 is added or subtracted for a word-sized

LODS.

• A 4 is added or subtracted for a doubleword-

sized LODS.

• Figure 18 shows the LODSW instruction.

Figure 18 The operation of the LODSW instruction if DS=1000H, D=0,11000H,

11001H = A0. This instruction is shown after AX is loaded from memory, but before SI

increments by 2.

STOS

• Stores AL, AX, or EAX at the extra segment

memory location addressed by the DI register.

• STOSB (stores a byte) stores the byte in AL

at the extra segment memory location

addressed by DI.

• STOSW (stores a word) stores AX in the

memory location addressed by DI.

• After the byte (AL), word (AX), or doubleword

(EAX) is stored, contents of DI increment or

decrement.

STOS with a REP

• The repeat prefix (REP) is added to any

string data transfer instruction except LODS.

– REP prefix causes CX to decrement by 1 each

time the string instruction executes; after CX

decrements, the string instruction repeats

• If CX reaches a value of 0, the instruction

terminates and the program continues.

• If CX is loaded with 100 and a REP STOSB

instruction executes, the microprocessor

automatically repeats the STOSB 100 times.

MOVS

• Transfers a byte, word, or doubleword a data

segment addressed by SI to extra segment

location addressed by SI.

– pointers are incremented or decremented, as

dictated by the direction flag

• Only the source operand (SI), located in the

data segment may be overridden so another

segment may be used.

• The destination operand (DI) must always be

located in the extra segment.

INS

• Transfers a byte, word, or doubleword of data

from an I/O device into the extra segment

memory location addressed by the DI register.

– I/O address is contained in the DX register

• Useful for inputting a block of data from an

external I/O device directly into the memory.

• One application transfers data from a disk

drive to memory.

– disk drives are often considered and interfaced

as I/O devices in a computer system

• Three basic forms of the INS.

• INSB inputs data from an 8-bit I/O device and

stores it in a memory location indexed by SI.

• INSW instruction inputs 16-bit I/O data and

stores it in a word-sized memory location.

• INSD instruction inputs a doubleword.

• These instructions can be repeated using the

REP prefix

– allows an entire block of input data to be stored

in the memory from an I/O device

OUTS

• Transfers a byte, word, or doubleword of data

from the data segment memory location

address by SI to an I/O device.

– I/O device addressed by the DX register as with

the INS instruction

• In the 64-bit mode for Pentium 4 and Core2,

there is no 64-bit output

– but the address in RSI is 64 bits wide

MISCELLANEOUS DATA TRANSFER

INSTRUCTIONS

• Used in programs, data transfer instructions

detailed in this section are XCHG, LAHF,

SAHF, XLAT, IN, OUT, BSWAP, MOVSX,

MOVZX, and CMOV.

XCHG

• Exchanges contents of a register with any

other register or memory location.

– cannot exchange segment registers or

memory-to-memory data

• Exchanges are byte-, word-, or doubleword

and use any addressing mode except

immediate addressing.

• XCHG using the 16-bit AX register with

another 16-bit register, is most efficient

exchange.

LAHF and SAHF

• Seldom used bridge instructions.

• LAHF instruction transfers the rightmost 8 bits

of the flag register into the AH register.

• SAHF instruction transfers the AH register into

the rightmost 8 bits of the flag register.

• SAHF instruction may find some application

with the numeric coprocessor.

• As legacy instructions, they do not function in

the 64-bit mode and are invalid instructions.

XLAT

• Converts the contents of the AL register into a

number stored in a memory table.

– performs the direct table lookup technique often

used to convert one code to another

• An XLAT instruction first adds the contents of

AL to BX to form a memory address within the

data segment.

– copies the contents of this address into AL

– only instruction adding an 8-bit to a 16-bit number

Figure 19 The operation of the XLAT instruction at the point just before 6DH is loaded

into AL.

IN and OUT

• IN & OUT instructions perform I/O operations.

• Contents of AL, AX, or EAX are transferred

only between I/O device and microprocessor.

– an IN instruction transfers data from an external

I/O device into AL, AX, or EAX

– an OUT transfers data from AL, AX, or EAX to an

external I/O device

• Only the 80386 and above contain EAX

• Often, instructions are stored in ROM.

– a fixed-port instruction stored in ROM has its port

number permanently fixed because of the nature

of read-only memory

• A fixed-port address stored in RAM can be

modified, but such a modification does not

conform to good programming practices.

• The port address appears on the address bus

during an I/O operation.

• Two forms of I/O device (port) addressing:

• Fixed-port addressing allows data transfer

between AL, AX, or EAX using an 8-bit I/O

port address.

– port number follows the instruction’s opcode

• Variable-port addressing allows data transfers

between AL, AX, or EAX and a 16-bit port

address.

– the I/O port number is stored in register DX,

which can be changed (varied) during the

execution of a program.

Figure 20 The signals found in the microprocessor-based system for an OUT 19H,AX

instruction.

BSWAP

• Takes the contents of any 32-bit register and

swaps the first byte with the fourth, and the

second with the third.

– BSWAP (byte swap) is available only in 80486–

Pentium 4 microprocessors

• This instruction is used to convert data

between the big and little endian forms.

• In 64-bit operation for the Pentium 4, all 8

bytes in the selected operand are swapped.

CMOV

• Many variations of the CMOV instruction.

– these move the data only if the condition is true

• CMOVZ instruction moves data only if the

result from some prior instruction was a zero.

– destination is limited to only a 16- or 32-bit register,

but the source can be a 16- or 32-bit register or

memory location

• Because this is a new instruction, you cannot

use it with the assembler unless the .686

switch is added to the program

SEGMENT OVERRIDE PREFIX

• May be added to almost any instruction in any

memory-addressing mode

– allows the programmer to deviate from the

default segment

– only instructions that cannot be prefixed are jump

and call instructions using the code segment

register for address generation

– Additional byte appended to the front of an

instruction to select alternate segment register

ASSEMBLER DETAIL

• The assembler can be used two ways:

– with models unique to a particular assembler

– with full-segment definitions that allow complete

control over the assembly process and are

universal to all assemblers

• In most cases, the inline assembler found in

Visual is used for developing assembly code

for use in a program

– occasions require separate assembly modules

using the assembler

Directives

• Indicate how an operand or section of a

program is to be processed by the assembler.

– some generate and store information in the

memory; others do not

• The DB (define byte) directive stores bytes of

data in the memory.

• BYTE PTR indicates the size of the data

referenced by a pointer or index register.

• Complex sections of assembly code are still

written using MASM.

Storing Data in a Memory Segment

• DB (define byte), DW (define word), and DD

(define doubleword) are most often used

with MASM to define and store memory data.

• If a numeric coprocessor executes software in

the system, the DQ (define quadword) and

DT (define ten bytes) directives are also

common.

• These directives label a memory location with

a symbolic name and indicate its size.

• Memory is reserved for use in the future by

using a question mark (?) as an operand for a

DB, DW, or DD directive.

– when ? is used in place of a numeric or ASCII

value, the assembler sets aside a location and

does not initialize it to any specific value

• It is important that word-sized data are placed

at word boundaries and doubleword-sized

data are placed at doubleword boundaries.

– if not, the microprocessor spends additional

time accessing these data types

ASSUME, EQU, and ORG

• Equate directive (EQU) equates a numeric,

ASCII, or label to another label.

– equates make a program clearer and simplify

debugging

• The THIS directive always appears as THIS

BYTE, THIS WORD, THIS DWORD, or THIS

QWORD.

• The assembler can only assign either a byte,

word, or doubleword address to a label.

• The ORG (origin) statement changes the

starting offset address of the data in the data

segment to location 300H.

• At times, the origin of data or the code must

be assigned to an absolute offset address

with the ORG statement.

• ASSUME tells the assembler what names

have been chosen for the code, data, extra,

and stack segments.

PROC and ENDP

• Indicate start and end of a procedure

(subroutine).

– they force structure because the procedure is

clearly defined

• If structure is to be violated for whatever

reason, use the CALLF, CALLN, RETF, and

RETN instructions.

• Both the PROC and ENDP directives require a

label to indicate the name of the procedure.

• The PROC directive, which indicates the start

of a procedure, must also be followed with a

NEAR or FAR.

– A NEAR procedure is one that resides in the

same code segment as the program, often

considered to be local

– A FAR procedure may reside at any location in

the memory system, considered global

• The term global denotes a procedure that can

be used by any program.

• Local defines a procedure that is only used by

the current program.

Memory Organization

• The assembler uses two basic formats for

developing software:

– one method uses models; the other uses full-

segment definitions

• Memory models are unique to MASM.

• The models are easier to use for simple tasks.

• The full-segment definitions offer better control

over the assembly language task and are

recommended for complex programs.

Models

• There are many models available to the

MASM assembler, ranging from tiny to huge.

• Special directives such as @DATA are used to

identify various segments.

• Models are important with both Microsoft

Visual and Borland development systems if

assembly language is included with programs.

Full-Segment Definitions

• Full-segment definitions are also used with the

Borland and Microsoft environments for

procedures developed in assembly language.

• The names of the segments in this program

can be changed to any name.

• Always include the group name ‘DATA’, so the

Microsoft program CodeView can be used to

symbolically debug this software.

• To access CodeView, type CV, followed by the

file name at the DOS command line; if

operating from Programmer’s WorkBench,

select Debug under the Run menu.

• If the group name is not placed in a program,

CodeView can still be used to debug a

program, but the program will not be

debugged in symbolic form.

THE END