Upload
mike-bb
View
225
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
1/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 1/23
Search Wikipedia
Unit 731
Unit 731 (Japanese : 731 Hepburn : Nana-san-ichi Butai ? ) was a covert biological and
chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that
undertook lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)
of World War II . It was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes carried out by
Japan . Unit 731 was based at the Pingfang district of Harbin , the largest city in the Japanese
puppet state of Manchukuo (now Northeast China ).
Unit 731
The Unit 731 complex
Location Pingfang , China
Coordinates 45.6°N 1 26.63 °E
Date 1935–1945
Attack type Human experim entation
Biological warfa re
Chemical warfa reWeapons Biological weap ons
Chemical weap ons
Explosives
Deaths Over 3,000 from inside experiments and tens of thousands from field experiments
Perpetrators General Shirō Ishii
Lt. General Masaji Kitano
Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic_Prevention_and_Water_Purification_Departmenthttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingfanghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unit_731_-_Complex.jpghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unit_731_-_Complex.jpghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unit_731_-_Complex.jpghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unit_731_-_Complex.jpghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unit_731_-_Complex.jpghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic_Prevention_and_Water_Purification_Departmenthttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaji_Kitanohttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_Generalhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishiihttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfarehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfarehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_subject_researchhttps://tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Unit_731¶ms=45.6_N_126.63_E_https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_systemhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingfanghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unit_731_-_Complex.jpghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:MobileMenuhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_Chinahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchukuohttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_statehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbinhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingfanghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_war_crimeshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_Warhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_subject_researchhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armyhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfarehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfarehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Installing_Japanese_character_setshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanizationhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
2/23
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
3/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 3/23
Building on the site of the Harbin bioweapon facilityof Unit 731
Formation
Activities
Vivisection
Germ warfare attacks
Frostbite testing
Rape, syphilis and forced pregnancy
Weapons testing
Other experiments
Biological warfare
Known unit members
Divisions
Facilities
Tokyo
Guangzhou
Related units
Contents
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121201.JPG
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
4/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 4/23
Surrender and immunity
Destruction of evidence
American grant of immunity
Separate Soviet trials
After World War II
Official silence under Occupation
Post-Occupation Japanese media coverage and debate
Official government response in Japan
Abroad
Books
Films
Music
Television
See also
Pacific War (World War II)
Other human experimentation
References
Further reading
External links
Formation
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
5/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 5/23
Shiro Ishii , commander of Unit 731
In 1932, General Shirō Ishii ( Ishii Shirō ), chief medical officer of the Japanese Army
and protégé of Army Minister Sadao Araki was placed in command of the Army Epidemic
Prevention Research Laboratory . Ishii organized a secret research group, the "Tōgō Unit",
for various chemical and biological experimentation in Manchuria. Ishii had proposed the
creation of a Japanese biological and chemical research unit in 1930, after a two-year study
trip abroad, on the grounds that Western powers were developing their own programs. One
of Ishii's main supporters inside the army was Colonel Chikahiko Koizumi , who later became
Japan's Health Minister from 1941 to 1945. Koizumi had joined a secret poison gas research
committee in 1915, during World War I , when he and other Japanese army officers were
impressed by the successful German use of chlorine gas at the second battle of Ypres ,
where the Allies suffered 15,000 casualties as a result of the chemical attack. [13]
Unit Tōgō was implemented in the Zhongma Fortress , a prison/experimentation camp in
Beiyinhe, a village 100 km (62 mi) south of Harbin on the South Manchurian Railway . A
jailbreak in autumn 1934 and later explosion (believed to be an attack) in 1935 led Ishii to
shut down Zhongma Fortress. He received the authorization to move to Pingfang,
approximately 24 km (15 mi) south of Harbin, to set up a new and much larger facility. [14]
In 1936, Hirohito authorized, by imperial decree, the expansion of this unit and its integration
into the Kwantung Army as the Epidemic Prevention Department. [15] It was divided at the
same time into the "Ishii Unit" and "Wakamatsu Unit" with a base in Hsinking . From August
1940, all these units were known collectively as the "Epidemic Prevention and Water
Purification Department of the Kwantung Army ( )"[16] or "Unit 731" (
731 ) for short.
http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hsinkinghttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwantung_Armyhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirohitohttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Manchurian_Railwayhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbinhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongma_Fortresshttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_Ihttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypreshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine_gashttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Ihttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_of_Health,_Labour,_and_Welfarehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chikahiko_Koizumihttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadao_Arakihttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_War_of_Japanhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishiihttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiro_Ishiihttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shiro-ishii.jpg
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
6/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 6/23
The ruins of a boiler building
A special project code-named Maruta used human beings for experiments. Test subjectswere gathered from the surrounding population and were sometimes referred to
euphemistically as "logs" ( maruta ? ), used in such contexts as "How many logs fell?".
This term originated as a joke on the part of the staff because the official cover story for the
facility given to the local authorities was that it was a lumber mill. However, in an account by
a man who worked as a "junior uniformed civilian employee" of the Japanese Army in Unit
731, the project was internally called "Holzklotz", which is the German word for maruta. [17]
The test subjects were selected to give a wide cross-section of the population and includedcommon criminals, captured bandits and anti-Japanese partisans, political prisoners, and
also people rounded up by the Kempeitai for alleged "suspicious activities". They included
infants, the elderly, and pregnant women.
Vivisection
Prisoners, including one known POW, [18] were subjected to vivisection without anesthesia. [19]
Vivisections were performed on prisoners after infecting them with various diseases.
Researchers performed invasive surgery on prisoners, removing organs to study the effects
of disease on the human body. These were conducted while the patients were alive because
it was feared that the decomposition process would affect the results. [20] The infected and
vivisected prisoners included men, women, children, and infants, including pregnant women
and their infants impregnated by Japanese surgeons. [21]
Activities
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisectionhttp://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Installing_Japanese_character_setshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121178a_%E3%83%9C%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E6%A5%9D%E8%B7%A1.JPG
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
7/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 7/23
Prisoners had limbs amputated in order to study blood loss. Those limbs that were removed
were sometimes re-attached to the opposite sides of the body. Some prisoners' limbs were
frozen and amputated, while others had limbs frozen, then thawed to study the effects of the
resultant untreated gangrene and rotting.
Some prisoners had their stomachs surgically removed and the esophagus reattached to the
intestines. Parts of the brain, lungs, liver, etc. were removed from some prisoners. [19]
Japanese army surgeon Ken Yuasa suggests that the practice of vivisection on human
subjects (mostly Chinese Communists) was widespread even outside Unit 731, [6] estimating
that at least 1,000 people were involved in the practice in mainland China. [22]
Germ warfare attacks
Prisoners were injected with inoculations of disease, disguised as vaccinations , to study their
effects. To study the effects of untreated venereal diseases , male and female prisoners were
deliberately infected with syphilis and gonorrhea , then studied. Prisoners were also
repeatedly subject to rape by guards. [23]
Plague fleas, infected clothing, and infected supplies encased in bombs were dropped on
various targets. The resulting cholera , anthrax , and plague were estimated to have killed
around and possibly more than 400,000 Chinese civilians. [24] Tularemia was tested on
Chinese civilians. [25]
Unit 731 and its affiliated units ( Unit 1644 and Unit 100 among others) were involved in
research, development, and experimental deployment of epidemic-creating biowarfare
weapons in assaults against the Chinese populace (both civilian and military) throughout
World War II. Plague-infested fleas, bred in the laboratories of Unit 731 and Unit 1644, were
spread by low-flying airplanes upon Chinese cities, coastal Ningbo in 1940, and Changde ,
Hunan Province, in 1941. This military aerial spraying killed thousands of people with bubonicplague epidemics. [26]
Frostbite testing
Some Japanese justify their experiments with "a discovery of a new treatment methodology
for frostbite," made possible by the human experimentation conducted in Unit 731. Japan
intended to prepare to battle the looming threat of the Soviet Union, which “meant that the
http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plaguehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunanhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changdehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningbohttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_100https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_1644http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tularemiahttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthraxhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholerahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_Plaguehttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonorrheahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syphilishttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venereal_diseasehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccinehttp://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Yuasahttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esophagushttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangrene
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
8/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 8/23
Japanese military had to be ready to treat large numbers of its soldiers for frostbite". So
physiologist Yoshimura Hisato conducted experiments by taking captives outside, dipping
various appendages into water, and allowing the limb to freeze. Once frozen, which
testimony from a Japanese officer said "was determined after the 'frozen arms, when struck
with a short stick, emitted a sound resembling that which a board gives when it is struck'", [27]
ice was chipped away and the area doused in water. The effects of different water
temperatures were tested by bludgeoning the victim to determine if any areas were still
frozen. Variations of these tests in more gruesome forms were performed. However, the best
way to treat frostbite, which is used today, was established to be by immersing the affected
area in water with a temperature between 100–122 °F (38–50 °C). This method differed
substantially from previous treatment of rubbing afflicted areas. The aim and breadth of this
research was in response to the historical flaws of other colonial powers' attempts to invade
Russia. [28]
Rape, syphilis and forced pregnancy
Women were used in specific experiments in Unit 731. In order to respond to the growing
threat of syphilis among Japanese troops, “among whom the prevalence of syphilis was high
due to the systematic rape of women and the widespread use of sex slaves,” women at Unit
731 were either raped or infected with a serum containing virulent strains of syphilis. [29] In
documentation of these experiments, doctors remarked that syphilitic infection of the women
was the result of self-perpetuated prostitution, rather than the serum that had been
administered to them. External reactions—change in skin and organ appearance—as well as
internal changes were studied. In the case of the body’s internal reaction to infection, patients
were vivisected or killed with autopsies being conducted immediately afterward. Forced
pregnancy was also used to determine the effects of vertical transmission of the disease.
Weapons testing
Human targets were used to test grenades positioned at various distances and in different
positions. Flame throwers were tested on humans. Humans were tied to stakes and used as
targets to test germ-releasing bombs , chemical weapons , and explosive bombs. [30][31]
Other experiments
http://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weaponshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_warfarehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame_throwerhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenadehttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
9/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 9/23
In other tests, subjects were deprived of food and water to determine the length of time until
death; placed into high-pressure chambers until death; experimented upon to determine the
relationship between temperature, burns, and human survival; placed into centrifuges and
spun until death; injected with animal blood; exposed to lethal doses of x-rays ; subjected to
various chemical weapons inside gas chambers; injected with sea water to determine if it
could be a substitute for saline solution ; and burned or buried alive. [32]
An unidentified victim of Unit 731human experimentation.
Japanese researchers performed tests on prisoners with Bubonic plague , cholera , smallpox ,
botulism , and other diseases. [33] This research led to the development of the defoliation
bacilli bomb and the flea bomb used to spread bubonic plague. [34] Some of these bombs
were designed with porcelain shells, an idea proposed by Ishii in 1938.
These bombs enabled Japanese soldiers to launch biological attacks, infecting agriculture,
reservoirs, wells, and other areas with anthrax , plague-carrier fleas, typhoid , dysentery ,
cholera, and other deadly pathogens. During biological bomb experiments, researchers
dressed in protective suits would examine the dying victims. Infected food supplies and
clothing were dropped by airplane into areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces. In
addition, poisoned food and candies were given out to unsuspecting victims, and the resultsexamined.
In 2002, Changde , China, site of the flea spraying attack, held an "International Symposium
on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare" which estimated that at least 580,000 people died
as a result of the attack. [35] The historian Sheldon Harris claims that 200,000 died. [36] In
addition to Chinese casualties, 1,700 Japanese in Chekiang were killed by their own
biological weapons while attempting to unleash the biological agent, which indicates serious
Biological warfare
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chekianghttp://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changdehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysenteryhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoidhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthraxhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcelainhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defoliation_bacilli_bombhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botulismhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpoxhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholerahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plaguehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unit_731_victim.jpghttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saline_(medicine)https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rayhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifuge
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
10/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 10/23
issues with distribution. [2]
During the final months of World War II, Japan planned to use plague as a biological weapon
against San Diego, California . The plan was scheduled to launch on September 22, 1945, but
Japan surrendered five weeks earlier. [37][38][39][40]
Lieutenant General Shirō Ishii
Lieutenant Colonel Ryoichi Naito , founder of the pharmaceutical company Green Cross
Masaji Kitano
Yoshio Shinozuka
Yasuji Kaneko
Unit 731 was divided into eight divisions:
Division 1: Research on bubonic plague , cholera , anthrax , typhoid and tuberculosis using
live human subjects. For this purpose, a prison was constructed to contain around three to
four hundred people.
Division 2: Research for biological weapons used in the field, in particular the production of
devices to spread germs and parasites.
Division 3: Production of shells containing biological agents. Stationed in Harbin.
Division 4: Bacteria mass production and storage. [41]
Division 5: Training of personnel.Divisions 6–8: Equipment, medical and administrative units.
Known unit members
Divisions
Facilities
http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosishttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoidhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthraxhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholerahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plaguehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasuji_Kanekohttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshio_Shinozukahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaji_Kitanohttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Cross_(Japan)https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ryoichi_Naito&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishiihttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Cherry_Blossoms_at_Nighthttp://-/?-
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
11/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 11/23
One of the buildings is open to visitors
The Unit 731 complex covered six square kilometers and consisted of more than 150
buildings. The design of the facilities made them hard to destroy by bombing. The complex
contained various factories. It had around 4,500 containers to be used to raise fleas , six
cauldrons to produce various chemicals, and around 1,800 containers to produce biological
agents. Approximately 30 kg of bubonic plague bacteria could be produced in several days.
Some of Unit 731's satellite facilities are in use by various Chinese industrial concerns. A
portion has been preserved and is open to visitors as a War Crimes Museum.
Tokyo
A medical school and research facility belonging to Unit 731 operated in the Shinjuku District
of Tokyo during World War II. In 2006, Toyo Ishii—a nurse who worked at the school during
the war—revealed that she had helped bury bodies and pieces of bodies on the school's
grounds shortly after Japan's surrender in 1945. In response, in February 2011 the Ministry
of Health began to excavate the site. [42]
China requested DNA samples from any human remains discovered at the site. The
Japanese government—which has never officially acknowledged the atrocities committed by
Unit 731—rejected the request. [43]
Guangzhou
The related Unit 8604 was operated by the Japanese Southern China Area Army and
stationed at Guangzhou (Canton). This installation conducted human experimentation in food
and water deprivation as well as water-borne typhus . According to postwar testimony, this
facility served as the main rat breeding farm for the medical units to provide them with
bubonic plague vectors for experiments. [44]
Related units
http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plaguehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhushttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhouhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Southern_China_Area_Armyhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_8604http://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Health,_Labour_and_Welfare_(Japan)https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japanhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyohttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinjuku,_Tokyohttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731.jpg
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
12/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 12/23
Unit 731 was part of the Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department which dealt
with contagious disease and water supply generally.
Information sign at the site today.
Operations and experiments continued until the end of the war. Ishii had wanted to use
biological weapons in the Pacific War since May 1944, but his attempts were repeatedly
snubbed.
Destruction of evidence
With the coming of the Red Army in August 1945, the unit had to abandon their work inhaste. The members and their families fled to Japan.
Ishii ordered every member of the group "to take the secret to the grave", threatening to find
them if they failed, and prohibiting any of them from going into public work back in Japan.
Potassium cyanide vials were issued for use in the event that the remaining personnel were
captured.
Skeleton crews of Ishii's Japanese troops blew up the compound in the final days of the war to destroy evidence of their activities, but most were so well constructed that they survived
somewhat intact.
American grant of immunity
Among the individuals in Japan after their 1945 surrender was Lieutenant Colonel Murray
Sanders, who arrived in Yokohama via the American ship Sturgess in September 1945.
Surrender and immunity
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_cyanidehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Warhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harbin_Gedenkplakette_Einheit731.JPGhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic_Prevention_and_Water_Purification_Department
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
13/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 13/23
Sanders was a highly regarded microbiologist and a member of America's military center for
biological weapons. Sanders’ duty was to investigate Japanese biological warfare activity. At
the time of his arrival in Japan he had no knowledge of what Unit 731 was. [45] Until Sanders
finally threatened the Japanese with bringing communism into the picture, little information
about biological warfare was being shared with the Americans. The Japanese wanted to
avoid the Soviet legal system so the next morning after the threat Sanders received a
manuscript describing Japan's involvement in biological warfare. [46] Sanders took this
information to General Douglas MacArthur, who was the Supreme Commander of the Allied
Powers responsible for rebuilding Japan during the Allied occupations. MacArthur struck a
deal with Japanese informants [47]—he secretly granted immunity to the physicians of Unit
731, including their leader, in exchange for providing America, but not the other wartime
allies, with their research on biological warfare and data from human experimentation. [10]
American occupation authorities monitored the activities of former unit members, including
reading and censoring their mail. [48] The U.S. believed that the research data was valuable.
The U.S. did not want other nations, particularly the Soviet Union, to acquire data on
biological weapons .[49]
The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal heard only one reference to Japanese experiments with
"poisonous serums" on Chinese civilians. This took place in August 1946 and was instigated
by David Sutton, assistant to the Chinese prosecutor. The Japanese defense counsel argued
that the claim was vague and uncorroborated and it was dismissed by the tribunal president,
Sir William Webb , for lack of evidence. The subject was not pursued further by Sutton, who
was probably unaware of Unit 731's activities. His reference to it at the trial is believed to
have been accidental.
Separate Soviet trials
Although publicly silent on the issue at the Tokyo Trials, the Soviet Union pursued the case
and prosecuted twelve top military leaders and scientists from Unit 731 and its affiliatedbiological-war prisons Unit 1644 in Nanjing, and Unit 100 in Changchun, in the Khabarovsk
War Crime Trials . Included among those prosecuted for war crimes , including germ warfare,
was General Otozō Yamada , the commander-in-chief of the million-man Kwantung Army
occupying Manchuria.
The trial of those captured Japanese perpetrators was held in Khabarovsk in December
1949. A lengthy partial transcript of the trial proceedings was published in different languages
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khabarovskhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwantung_Armyhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otoz%C5%8D_Yamadahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crimeshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khabarovsk_War_Crime_Trialshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Webb_(judge)https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_War_Crimes_Tribunalhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfarehttp://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_from_prosecutionhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
14/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 14/23
the following year by a Moscow foreign languages press, including an English language
edition. [50] The lead prosecuting attorney at the Khabarovsk trial was Lev Smirnov , who had
been one of the top Soviet prosecutors at the Nuremberg Trials . The Japanese doctors and
army commanders who had perpetrated the Unit 731 experiments received sentences from
the Khabarovsk court ranging from two to 25 years in a Siberian labor camp . The U.S.
refused to acknowledge the trials, branding them communist propaganda. [51]
After World War II, the Soviet Union built a biological weapons facility in Sverdlovsk using
documentation captured from Unit 731 in Manchuria. [52]
Official silence under Occupation
As above, under the American occupation the members of Unit 731 and other experimental
units were allowed to go free. One graduate of Unit 1644 , Masami Kitaoka, continued to do
experiments on unwilling Japanese subjects from 1947 to 1956 while working for Japan's
National Institute of Health Sciences. He infected prisoners with rickettsia and mental health
patients with typhus .[53]
Post-Occupation Japanese media coverage and debate
Japanese discussions of Unit 731's activity began in the 1950s, after the end of the American
occupation of Japan. In 1952, human experiments carried out in Nagoya City Pediatric
Hospital , which resulted in one death, were publicly tied to former members of Unit 731. [54]
Later in that decade, journalists suspected that the murders attributed by the government to
Sadamichi Hirasawa were actually carried out by members of Unit 731. In 1958, Japanese
author Shusaku Endo published the book The Sea and Poison about human
experimentation, which is thought to have been based on a real incident.
The author Morimura Seiichi published The Devil's Gluttony ( ) in 1981, followed
by The Devil's Gluttony: A Sequel in 1983. These books purported to reveal the "true"
operations of Unit 731, but actually confused them with that of Unit 100 , and falsely used
unrelated photos attributing them to Unit 731, which raised questions about its
accuracy. [55][56] Also in 1981 appeared the first direct testimony of human vivisection in
After World War II
http://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_100https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiichi_Morimurahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shusaku_Endohttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadamichi_Hirasawahttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nagoya_City_Pediatric_Hospital&action=edit&redlink=1http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhushttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickettsiahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_1644http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sverdlovsk_anthrax_leakhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulaghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberiahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Trialshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lev_Smirnov&action=edit&redlink=1http://-/?-
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
15/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 15/23
China, by Ken Yuasa . Since then many more in-depth testimonies have appeared in
Japanese. The 2001 documentary Japanese Devils was composed largely of interviews with
14 members of Unit 731 who had been taken as prisoners by China and later released. [57]
Official government response in Japan
See also: List of war apology statements issued by Japan
Since the end of the Allied occupation, the Japanese government has repeatedly apologized
for its pre-war behavior in general, but specific apologies and indemnities are determined on
the basis of bilateral determination that crimes occurred, which requires a high standard of
evidence. Unit 731 presents a special problem, since unlike Nazi human experimentation
which the U.S. publicly condemned, the activities of Unit 731 are known to the general public
only from the testimonies of willing former unit members, and testimony cannot be employed
to determine indemnity in this way. The American retrieval of the highly documentedexperimentations of Unit 731 is covert and not something either the U.S. or Japan are willing
to admit has happened in the first place. The Nazis and Japanese collaborated in their
experiments. [citation needed ]
Japanese history textbooks usually contain references to Unit 731, but do not go into detail
about allegations, in accordance with this principle. [58][59] Saburo Ienaga 's New History of
Japan included a detailed description, based on officers' testimony. The Ministry for
Education attempted to remove this passage from his textbook before it was taught in public
schools, on the basis that the testimony was insufficient. The Supreme Court of Japan ruled
in 1997 that the testimony was indeed sufficient and that requiring it to be removed was an
illegal violation of freedom of speech .[60]
In 1997, the international lawyer Kōnen Tsuchiya filed a class action suit against the
Japanese government, demanding reparations for the actions of Unit 731, using evidence
filed by Professor Makoto Ueda of Rikkyo University . All Japanese court levels found that the
suit was baseless. No findings of fact were made about the existence of human
experimentation, but the decision of the court was that reparations are determined by
international treaties and not by national court cases.
In October 2003, a member of the House of Representatives of Japan filed an inquiry.
Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi responded that the Japanese government did not
then possess any records related to Unit 731, but the government recognized the gravity of
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junichiro_Koizumihttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_Japanhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikkyo_Universityhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_actionhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speechhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Japanhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saburo_Ienagahttp://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentationhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_war_apology_statements_issued_by_Japanhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Devilshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Yuasa
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
16/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 16/23
the matter and would publicize any records that were located in the future. [61]
Abroad
Books
Forest sea (pol. Leśne morze ) (1960) a novel by a Polish writer and educator Igor Newerly .The first book outside Asia which refers to atrocities committed in the Unit.
Films
There have been several films about the atrocities of Unit 731.
Men Behind the Sun (1988), China, directed by Tun Fei Mou .
Philosophy of a Knife (2008), Russia, directed by Andrey Iskanov .
731: Two Versions of Hell (2007), produced by James T. Hong ; documentary about Unit
731 told from the Chinese and Japanese sides. [62]
Music
"The Breeding House" (1994), Bruce Dickinson . Segment of the CD-single Tears of the
Dragon , describing the atrocities committed by Unit 731 and the immunity granted by the
Americans to the physicians of the Unit.
"Unit 731" (2009), American thrash metal band Slayer . Song on the album World Painted
Blood , describing the events and atrocities that occurred at Unit 731.
Television
The X-Files episode "731" (1995). Former members of Unit 731 secretly continue their
experiments on humans under control of a covert U.S. government agency.
ReGenesis episode "Let it burn" (2007). Outbreaks of anthrax and glanders are traced to
World War II Japan.
"Warehouse 13 " episode "The 40th Floor" (2011). General Shoro Ishii's Medal from Unit
731 simulated drowning when applied to a victim's skin.
Human subject research
See also
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_subject_researchhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warehouse_13https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReGenesishttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/731_(The_X-Files)https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Painted_Bloodhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slayerhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tears_of_the_Dragonhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Dickinsonhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_T._Honghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrey_Iskanov&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_a_Knifehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tun_Fei_Mouhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_Behind_the_Sunhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Newerlyhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_languagehttp://-/?-
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
17/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 17/23
War crime
Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services
Pacific War (World War II)
Changde chemical weapon attack
Japanese war crimes
Kaimingjie germ weapon attack
Second Sino-Japanese War
Other human experimentation
Nazi human experimentation
Josef Mengele
North Korean human experimentation
Unethical human experimentation in the United States
Porton Down
1. ^ Japan unearths site linked to human experiments. Some historians estimate up to
250,000 people were subjected to experiments. ,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/21/japan-excavates-site-human-experiments
2. ^ a b David C. Rapoport. "Terrorism and Weapons of the Apocalypse". In James M. Ludes,
Henry Sokolski (eds.), Twenty-First Century Weapons Proliferation: Are We Ready?
Routledge, 2001. pp. 19, 29
3. ^ Khabarovsk War Crime Trials . Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of theJapanese Army Charged with Manufacturing and Employing Biological Weapons , Moscow:
Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950. p. 117
4. ^ Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors , Westviewpress, 1996, p.138
5. ^ The Imperial Japanese Medical Atrocities and Its Enduring Legacy in Japanese
Research Ethics
References
http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/IAB8.htmlhttp://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khabarovsk_War_Crime_Trialshttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/21/japan-excavates-site-human-experimentshttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porton_Downhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation_in_the_United_Stateshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korean_human_experimentationhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Mengelehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentationhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_Warhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaimingjie_germ_weapon_attackhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_war_crimeshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changde#Biological_and_chemical_attackshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_laboratory_of_the_Soviet_secret_serviceshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
18/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 18/23
6. ^ a b Kristof, Nicholar D. (17 March 1995). "Unmasking Horror — A special report. Japan
Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity" . New York Times .
7. ^ AII The War Crime "Unit 731" and Chinese, Korean Civilian. ci
8. ^ Seiichi Morimura, The Devil's Gluttony , 1981
9. ^ The devil unit, Unit 731.10. ^ a b c Hal Gold, Unit 731 Testimony , 2003, p. 109
11. ^ Harris, S.H. (2002) Factories of Death. Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932—1945, and
the American Cover-up , revised edn. Routledge, New York, USA.
12. ^ The World: Revisiting World War II Atrocities; Comparing the Unspeakable to the
Unthinkable . New York Times
13. ^ Williams, Peter, and Wallace, David (1989). Unit 731 . Grafton Books, p. 44. ISBN 0-586-20822-4
14. ^ Harris, Sheldon H. (1994). Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45
and the American Cover-Up . California State University, Northridge: Routledge. pp. 26–33.
ISBN 0-415-09105-5 . “Page 26: Zhong Ma Prison Camp's creation; Page 33: Pingfang site's
creation.”
15. ^ Daniel Barenblat, A plague upon humanity , 2004, p.37.
16. ^ Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors , 1996, p.136
17. ^ Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F. (1992). Japan at war : an oral history (1 ed.).
New York, NY: New Press. p. 162. ISBN 1-56584-014-3 .
18. ^ One known case of US POWS used in experiments were a B-29 crew captured May 5,
1945
19. ^ a b Richard Lloyd Parry (February 25, 2007). "Dissect them alive: order not to be
disobeyed" . London: Times Online.
20. ^ Interview with former Unit 731 member Nobuo Kamada at the Wayback Machine
(archived November 19, 2006)
21. ^ Nicholas D. Kristof New York Times , March 17, 1995. "Unmasking Horror: A special
report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity"
22. ^ "Vivisectionist recalls his day of reckoning"
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/10/24/reference/vivisectionist-recalls-his-day-of-reckoning/http://-/?-http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE2D71630F934A25750C0A963958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=printhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machinehttps://web.archive.org/web/20061119053825/http://www.technologyartist.com/unit_731/http://-/?-http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ecehttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/usprisoners_japancomp.htm#fn88http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56584-014-3https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09105-5https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0586208224http://-/?-http://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/07/weekinreview/world-revisiting-world-war-ii-atrocities-comparing-unspeakable-unthinkable.htmlhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp/~tamura/731butai.htmhttp://-/?-http://www.x-libri.ru/elib/morim000/00000036.htmhttp://-/?-http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/sinboj/sinboj2002/8/0826/81.htmhttp://-/?-http://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=2http://-/?-http://-/?-
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
19/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 19/23
23. ^ Unit 731: One of the Most Terrifying Secrets of the 20th Century
24. ^ Christopher Hudson (2 March 2007). "Doctors of Depravity" . Daily Mail.
25. ^ Video adapted from "Biological Warfare & Terrorism: The Military and Public Health
Response", Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Retrieved October 21, 2007
26. ^ Barenblatt, Daniel. A Plague Upon Humanity: the Secret Genocide of Axis Japan'sGerm Warfare Operation , HarperCollins, 2004. ISBN 0-06-018625-9
27. ^ Kristof, Nicholas D. “Unmasking Horror -- A special report.; Japan Confronting
Gruesome War Atrocity” The New York Times(1995)
28. ^ Baader, Gerhard, Susan E. Lederer, Morris Low, Florian Schmaltz, and Alexander V.
Schwerin. “Pathways to Human Experimentation, 1933-1945: Germany, Japan, and the
United States.” Osiris (2005): 205-231.
29. ^ E. Cuerda-Galindo, X. Sierra-Valentí, E. González-López, and F. López-Muñoz,
"Syphilis and Human Experimentation From the First Appearance of the Disease to World
War II: A Historical Perspective and Reflections on Ethics," Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas
(English Edition) 105, no. 8 (2014): 765-67.
30. ^ Monchinski, Tony (2008). Critical Pedagogy and the Everyday Classroom . Volumen 3
de Explorations of Educational Purpose. Springer, p. 57. ISBN 1402084625
31. ^ Neuman, William Lawrence (2008). Understanding Research . Pearson/Allyn andBacon, p. 65. ISBN 0205471536
32. ^ "The Nanjing Massacre and Unit 731" . Advocacy & Intelligence Index For POWs-
MIAs Archives. 2001. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved
28 September 2010.
33. ^ Biological Weapons Program-Japan Federation of American Scientists
34. ^ Review of the studies on Germ Warfare Tien-wei Wu A Preliminary Review of Studiesof Japanese Biological Warfare and Unit 731 in the United States
35. ^ Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity , 2004, p.xii, 173.
36. ^ Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death (London, Routledge, 1994)
37. ^ Naomi Baumslag, Murderous Medicine: Nazi Doctors, Human Experimentation, and
Typhus , 2005, p.207
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/germwar/731rev.htmhttp://-/?-https://fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/http://-/?-http://www.aiipowmia.com/731/731holocaust.htmlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071017024440/http://www.aiipowmia.com/731/731holocaust.htmlhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0205471536http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1402084625http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060186259http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Preventionhttp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/epr/historyofbt/wmcc/07_tularemia_cc.wmvhttp://-/?-http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=439776&in_page_id=1770http://-/?-https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.htmlhttp://-/?-
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
20/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 20/23
38. ^ "Weapons of Mass Destruction: Plague as Biological Weapons Agent" .
GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved December 21, 2014.
39. ^ Amy Stewart (April 25, 2011). "Where To Find The World's Most 'Wicked Bugs':
Fleas" . National Public Radio.
40. ^ Russell Working (June 5, 2001). "The trial of Unit 731" . The Japan Times.
41. ^ "Unit 731: One of the Most Terrifying Secrets of the 20th Century" . Retrieved
November 8, 2015.
42. ^ Associated Press , "Work starts at Shinjuku Unit 731 site ", Japan Times , 22 February
2011, p. 1.
43. ^ The Economist , "Deafening silence ", 24 February 2011, p. 48.
44. ^ Gold, Hal. Unit 731: Testimony . Tuttle Publishing, 2006, p. 50
45. ^ Gold, Hal (2011). Unit 731 Testimony. (1st ed.). New York: Tuttle Pub. pp. 94–95.
ISBN 9781462900824 .
46. ^ Gold, Hal (2011). Unit 731 Testimony. (1st ed.). New York: Tuttle Pub. p. 96.
ISBN 9781462900824 .
47. ^ Gold, Hal (2011). Unit 731 Testimony. (1st ed.). New York: Tuttle Pub. p. 97.
ISBN 9781462900824 .
48. ^ Kyodo News , "Occupation censored Unit 731 ex-members' mail: secret paper ", Japan
Times , February 10, 2010, p. 3.
49. ^ BBC News - Unit 731: Japan's biological force.
50. ^ Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged with
Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons (Moscow: Foreign Languages
Publishing House, 1950). (French language: Documents relatifs au procès des anciens
Militaires de l'Armée Japonaise accusés d'avoir préparé et employé l'Arme Bactériologique /Japanese language:
/ Chinese language: )
51. ^ Takashi Tsuchiya. "The Imperial Japanese Experiments in China". The Oxford
Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics , pp, 35, 42. Oxford University Press, 2011.
52. ^ Ken Alibek and S. Handelman. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biohazard_(book)https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Alibekhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/correspondent/1796044.stmhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Timeshttp://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100210f3.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed:%20japantimes%20%28The%20Japan%20Times:%20All%20Stories%29https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyodo_Newshttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781462900824https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781462900824https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781462900824https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.economist.com/node/18237081?story_id=18237081&CFID=159016485&CFTOKEN=88221649https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economisthttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Timeshttp://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110221x1.htmlhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Presshttp://-/?-https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.htmlhttp://-/?-http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2001/06/05/commentary/world-commentary/the-trial-of-unit-731/http://-/?-http://www.npr.org/2011/04/25/135638924/where-to-find-the-worlds-most-wicked-bugshttp://-/?-http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/bio_plague.htmhttp://-/?-
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
21/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 21/23
Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World - Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it .
1999. Delta (2000) ISBN 0-385-33496-6 .
53. ^ 43 1968 pp.126-134
54. ^ 43 1968 pp.134-136
1982 pp.94-111;
55. ^ Nozaki, Yoshiko (2000). Textbook controversy and the production of public truth:
Japanese education, nationalism, and Saburo Ienaga's court challenges . University of
Wisconsin--Madison. pp. 300, 381.
56. ^ Keiichi Tsuneishi (1995). . p. 171.
ISBN 4-06-149265-9 .
57. ^ ― ISBN4915237362
58. ^ Yoshiko Nozaki and Mark Selden, The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus "Japanese
Textbook Controversies, Nationalism, and Historical Memory: Intra- and Inter-national
Conflicts"
59. ^ Kathleen Woods Masalski (November 2001). "EXAMINING THE JAPANESE HISTORY
TEXTBOOK CONTROVERSIES" . Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural
Education. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
60. ^ Asahi Shinbun editorial, August 30, 1997
61. ^
October 10, 2003.
62. ^ Alexander Street Press, Academic Video Store 731: Two Versions of Hell
Barenblatt, Daniel. A Plague Upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ
Warfare Operation , HarperCollins, 2004. ISBN 0-06-018625-9 .
Barnaby, Wendy. The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare , Frog Ltd,
1999. ISBN 1-883319-85-4 , ISBN 0-7567-5698-7 , ISBN 0-8264-1258-0 , ISBN 0-8264-1415-
X.
Further reading
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/082641415Xhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0826412580https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0756756987https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1883319854https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060186259http://www.filmakers.com/index.php?a=filmDetail&filmID=1578http://-/?-http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_shitsumon.nsf/html/shitsumon/b157024.htmhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asahi_Shinbunhttp://-/?-http://spice.stanford.edu/docs/134http://-/?-http://www.japanfocus.org/-Mark-Selden/3173http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4915237362http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-06-149265-9https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/activity/document/civil_liberties/year/1955/1955_4.htmlhttp://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0385334966https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biohazard_(book)
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
22/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 22/23
Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F., Japan at war: an oral history , New York: New
Press: Distributed by Norton, 1992. ISBN 1-56584-014-3 . Cf. Part 2, Chapter 6 on Unit 731
and Tamura Yoshio.
Endicott, Stephen and Hagerman, Edward. The United States and Biological Warfare:
Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea , Indiana University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-253-
33472-1 .
Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony , Charles E Tuttle Co., 1996. ISBN 4-900737-39-9 .
Grunden, Walter E., Secret Weapons & World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science ,
University Press of Kansas, 2005. ISBN 0-7006-1383-8 .
Handelman, Stephen and Alibek, Ken. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest
Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World—Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It ,
Random House, 1999. ISBN 0-375-50231-9 , ISBN 0-385-33496-6 .Harris, Robert and Paxman, Jeremy. A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of
Chemical and Biological Warfare , Random House, 2002. ISBN 0-8129-6653-8 .
Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932–45 and the
American Cover-Up , Routledge, 1994. ISBN 0-415-09105-5 , ISBN 0-415-93214-9 .
Lupis, Marco. Orrori e misteri dell'Unità 731: la "fabbrica" dei batteri killer , La Repubblica,
14 aprile 2003, on line too.
Mangold, Tom; Goldberg, Jeff, Plague wars: a true story of biological warfare , Macmillan,
2000. Cf. Chapter 3, Unit 731.
Moreno, Jonathan D. Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans , Routledge, 2001.
ISBN 0-415-92835-4 .
Nie, Jing Bao, et al. Japan's Wartime Medical Atrocities: Comparative Inquiries in Science,
History, and Ethics (2011) excerpt and text search
Williams, Peter. Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II , Free Press,
1989. ISBN 0-02-935301-7 .
The Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working
Group (IWG) —The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).
External links
http://www.archives.gov/iwg/https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0029353017http://www.amazon.com/Japans-Wartime-Medical-Atrocities-Transformations/dp/0415682282/https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415928354https://books.google.com/books?id=y69nhn-9FqcC&printsec=frontcoverhttp://www.repubblica.it/online/cronaca/virustre/fabbrica/fabbrica.htmlhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415932149https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415091055https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0812966538https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0385334966https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0375502319https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0700613838https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4900737399https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253334721https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1565840143
8/19/2019 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation
23/23
11/21/2015 Unit 731 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History of the Unit 731 UNIT 731 information site.
History of Japan's biological weapons program —The Federation of American Scientists
(FAS).
History of United States' biological weapons program —The Federation of American
Scientists (FAS).
Unit 731, Nightmare in Manchuria , a World Justice documentary, Video on YouTube
Unit 731: Auschwitz of the East at the Wayback Machine (archived October 24, 2007)—
AII POW-MIA images.
Army Doctor —a firsthand account by Yuasa Ken.
Theodicy - through the Case of "Unit 731" by Eun Park (2003).
US paid for Japanese human germ warfare data , Australian Broadcasting CorporationNews Online .
Japan's sins of the past by Justin McCurry (2004), The Guardian .
The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731 by Shane Green (2002), The Age .
War Crimes: Never Forget —review of the book Unit 731 by Peter Williams and David
Wallace
Read in another language
Last edited 1 day ago by Yaush
® Mobile Desktop
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted.
Terms of Use Privacy
https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policyhttps://m.wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Terms_of_Usehttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unit_731&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktophttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:UserProfile/Yaushhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:History/Unit_731https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:MobileLanguages/Unit_731http://kalimao.blogspot.com/2009/12/war-crimes-never-forget.htmlhttp://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/08/28/1030508070534.htmlhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1338296,00.htmlhttp://www.abc.net.au/news/2005-08-15/us-paid-for-japanese-human-germ-warfare-data/2080618http://people.bu.edu/wwildman/WeirdWildWeb/courses/thth/projects/thth_projects_2003_parkeun.htmhttp://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/confess/demondoc.htmlhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machinehttps://web.archive.org/web/20071024123028/http://www.aiipowmia.com/https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTubehttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YdQ5HJl5XMUhttps://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/cbw/bw.htmhttps://fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/http://www.unit731.org/