Unit 7: Ideology & Revolution

I. Ideologies- Ideology: the logically related set of ideas that are

the basis of a political or economic theory or system.

- We commonly talk about ideologies as if they ranged on a single “left-right” spectrum, with parties like the Democrats on the left and the Republicans on the right.

- But it may be more useful to evaluate ideologies along multiple spectra at once

- There are many ways to do this; our approach will involve a left-right spectrum and a liberty-authority spectrum

A. The Left-Right Spectrum- During the Estates-General before the French

Revolution, revolutionary and egalitarian delegates sat to the king's left, and conservative aristocrats and monarchists sat to his right

- This seating arrangement continued in subsequent French Assemblies,

- “Left” and “right” became shorthand terms for ideology- Broadly, the left-right

spectrum reflects different views of economic equality

1. The left- Democrats, liberals, or progressives in the U.S. - Leftists favor more economic equality and are optimistic about the possibility of achieving it- Often support more government involvement in the

economy and redistribution of wealth- “Leftist” policies may include: affirmative action, Head

Start, higher minimum wage, SNAP program

2. The right- Republicans or conservatives in the U.S.- Prefer economic freedoms and property rights over the government pursuit of equality - Prefer less government regulation and more

emphasis on individual choice- “Rightist” policies may include: lower taxes, less

regulation on businesses, a smaller economic safety net for the poor

3. Complications- In reality, any attempt to define a left-right spectrum

will involve inconsistencies and blurred lines, like:a. There are plenty of rightist atheists and leftist

believers, for instance, and fascist governments on the far right tend to practice government management of the economy

b. Anarchists support radical equality, but oppose the type of government needed to enforce it, so where do they go?

c. People disagree on the meaning of crucial terms like equality. (Of opportunity? Of results?)

B. The Libertarian-Authoritarian Spectrum

- This spectrum could also be called an individualism-collectivism or a democracy-dictatorship spectrum

- Refers to the one's views on governmental or societal coercion of individuals in the political or social spheres

1. Libertarianism- At one end of the spectrum, anarchists hold that even

democratically enacted laws are coercive, and any coercion is illegitimate

- Political/social libertarians reject or question traditional authorities

- Between 1881 and 1901, anarchists assassinated Tsar Alexander II, French President Carnot, Italian King Umberto VI, and U.S. President McKinley

- More mainstream libertarian policies include broad gun rights, freedom from state interference in religion, gay marriage, and drug legalization

2. Authoritarianism/Collectivism- At the other end of the spectrum are regimes without

democracy, individual rights, personal expression, or parliamentary rule

- Authoritarians force social and political conformity, usually by appealing to a single ideology or religion or ethnic/racial/national ideal

- They tend to defer to traditional authority figures- Mainstream policies that are more authoritarian

include environmental regulations, mandatory ratings for movies, as well government restrictions on guns, drugs, abortions, and voting.

- Modern dictatorships are usually ruled by a single political party (though other parties may be allowed for if they are useful for the rulers)

- Most of these “single-party states” are based on one of two opposing ideologies:

Communism or Fascism (on the left) (on the Right)

3. Two main types of modern dictatorship: a. Authoritarian dictatorships (sorry this word is used

in two slightly different ways!)– power is centralized

– law is arbitrary

– the opposition is repressed

– the people are rallied to support the state and its goals

– But these aren't yet the most coercive governments

b. Totalitarian dictatorships

– The dictator is able to fully exert his will on party, state, and society.

– Committed to radical ideology and program of political, economic, and social change

– There aren't many examples of totalitarian dictatorships. Maybe only Nazi Germany, Stalin's USSR, Mao's China, North Korea...

C. The Far Left1. Marxism- Based on writings of Karl Marx (1818-83)- Holds that human history is based on class struggles between the oppressed masses and those who rule over them- In industrial capitalist societies, those classes are the proletariat and the bourgeoisie- The proletariat is the class of workers who possess

little property and live on their wages- (The person and the adjective are “proletarian”)

- The bourgeoisie is the ruling class of capitalist society: the manufacturers, property owners, bankers, etc.

- (The person and the adjective are “bourgeois”)- Marx thought the bourgeoisie used its ownership of

the “means of production” to oppress the proletariat- The workers would overthrow the capitalist

bourgeoisie and become the new ruling class, which would usher in socialism

- Marx often collaborated with Friedrich Engels- Marx called himself a Communist, not a Marxist- Some Communists began calling themselves

Marxists to distinguish themselves from other Communists

D. Related Ideologies of the Left

1. Leninism- Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) was a Marxist and Russian revolutionary who contributed or spread ideas on political organization to go with Marxist economics:a. “Democratic centralism:” all members of the party would be allowed to form factions and offer their points of view on an issue, but after the leader(s) made a decision, debate was closed and members would have to fully support that decision.b. In an oppressive state, revolutionaries would need to work in independent cells (groups) of three people, so police would have a hard time infiltrating them

c. A “vanguard party” (or leading group) of dedicated revolutionaries could educate and ally with the masses of workers and peasants to form a socialist government without the need for a period of liberal, democratic, bourgeois rule (as Marx expected)

d. The “weakest link” theory held that revolution would occur not in the most advanced capitalist state (as Marx had predicted), but in an underdeveloped country where the struggle between bourgeoisie and proletariat was very acute, during a time when the capitalists powers were in conflict with each other. (How convenient!)

2. Marxism-Leninism- Term created by Stalin, after Lenin's death- It was used to describe whatever happened to be the

official policy of USSR, even when this policy completely distorted the ideas of Marx and Lenin

- Stalin could thus claim to be following their lead3. Stalinism- A term used by historians and opponents of Stalin to

describe the ideas and practices of his rule- It emphasizes the non-Marxist character of Soviet

policy, especially its totalitarian, nationalistic aspects

E. The Far Right- Fascism is often treated as the right-wing

counterpoint to Communism, but the two ideologies show similarities on the Libertarian-Authoritarian spectrum

- Analysis is complicated by the lack of a coherent, unified fascist philosophy (like, say, the Communist Manifesto)

- Key tenets of Fascism include: 1. Ultra-nationalism: an extreme belief in the

superiority of one's own country or ethnic group, often expressed as racism or anti-semitism

2. Militarism and the use of war to advance the goals of the state3. Support for capitalism and a commitment to the destruction of socialist, communist, and labor groups4. Placing the needs and the rights of the state and the

nation above those of the individual5. An emphasis on “national rebirth” based on

traditional moral and religious values- Notable examples of Fascist regimes include

Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany (and, Mr. Heider would argue, Putin's Russia)

II. Russia and its People before 1914

1. Geography

- Tsarist Russia covered 1/6 of the world's land

- Much of the Empire had only been conquered in the mid-1800s: the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Far East

- Large parts were barely populated, and the Northern part was frozen most of the year

- There were few paved roads outside the cities

- Rivers and the Trans-Siberian railway were the major means of long-distance transportation

- Ethnic Russians formed about half the population, and most lived in the European part (west of the Ural Mountains)

- Non-Russians were subject to a policy of russification, which required the use of Russian language, clothes, and customs

- These “national minorities” resented russification, especially in western areas like Finland, Latvia, and Poland

- The 1800s saw repeated uprisings and protests from national groups seeking autonomy or independence

2. Social Structure in 1900a. Nobility (1% of population)- owned 25% of all land, many were extremely rich- Spent most of their time in St. Petersburg or Moscow engaging in social events- Occupied important government and military

positions, though frequently not due to meritb. Middle class (1.5%)- A small but growing class of merchants, bankers,

industrialists, bureaucrats, and professionals- Enjoyed the Westernized cultural life of the cities

c. Urban working class (5%?)- Mostly young and male, concentrated in the major cities- Fairly literate and open to revolutionary ideas- Endured low wages, poor and dangerous working

conditions, filthy and crowded living conditionsd. Peasants (over 80%)- Poor, illiterate, uneducated, superstitious- Worked on small patches of land or nobles' estates- Suffered disease and famine- Most still owed money to the nobility to pay off their emancipation

3. The Tsarist Regime- Tsar Nicholas II assumed the throne after his father, the commanding, conservative Alexander III, died in 1894- Nicholas was indecisive, unorganized, and not very

interested in the business of governing- He saw himself as an absolute ruler (an autocrat)

with God-given, supreme power over his subjects- An Imperial Council advised him and a cabinet of

ministers ran the various government departments, but they served at his pleasure answered only to him

- The bureaucracy was huge, corrupt, indifferent to the people's welfare, rigidly hierarchical, and inefficient

- The Russian Orthodox Church admonished believers to obey the Tsar as the agent of God

- Opposition was not allowed, political parties were illegal, and newspapers and books were censored

- The secret police (the “Okhrana”) rooted out dissidents, who were imprisoned or exiled to Siberia

- The Cossacks, a fiercely independent people who came from Southern Russia, formed the ruthless cavalry units that suppressed protests, strikes, or riots

III. Modernization1. Russia’s needs- In 1900, Russia was a backward, agricultural

country compared to the U.S., Germany, the U.K., or France.

- To play a major role on the world stage, it needed to build the industrial base that could provide its military with modern weapons, ships, and munitions

- Russian agriculture was hugely inefficient and reliant on traditional methods; Hundreds of thousands of peasants could die in famines, and survivors often rose up against the Tsar

2. Sergei Witte’s Program- The Tsar tapped Witte (his Finance Minister from 1892-1903) to modernize Russia- Witte invested heavily in railways, which would tie the country together and build the market for Russia’s coal, iron, and steel- Witte also imported huge amounts of industrial equipment

from Western Europe to equip factories- To pay for this, Witte negotiated massive foreign loans,

especially from France- He kept urban workers’ wages low, so industry could

reinvest its profits- He squeezed more tax revenue out of the peasantry, hoping

rising living standards would prevent unrest

3. Problems of modernization- The growth of an educated middle class would

create pressure for political liberalization, which the Tsar opposed

- Urbanization and industrialization created large pools of unsatisfied, potentially militant workers

- The peasants had been squeezed so hard that they didn’t have the money to buy the products made in Russia’s factories, causing an industrial slump and urban unrest

- Bad harvests in 1900 and 1902, and the resulting starvation, led peasants to violently rise up against landowners; the Tsar forcibly repressed them

IV. The Revolution of 1905- The Tsar tried to divert attention from the economic

depression by starting the Russo-Japanese War- But Russia suffered disasters on the battlefield, and

inflation and shortages on the home front- As tensions grew, the Tsar’s troops fired on

peaceful protesters in St. Petersburg in January 1905 (a.k.a. Bloody Sunday)

- In reaction, strikes, demonstrations, and riots spread to other cities and the countryside

- Bourgeois Liberals demanded representative government and elections

- Workers’ councils (“soviets”)formed to coordinate strikes and make more radical demands,especially the St. Petersburg Soviet, led by Leon Trotsky- The Tsar finally issued the conciliatory October

Manifesto, promising freedom of speech, the end of censorship, the right to form political parties, and a parliament (“Duma”) elected by the people

- The Liberals were now satisfied, and supported the Tsar as he violently crushed the soviets and the peasant uprisings throughout 1906

V. 1906-19141. The Duma- It couldn't pass laws, control finance, or hold

government ministers accountable- Gave outsized representation to the well-off at the

expense of workers and peasants- Revolutionary parties boycotted it2. The countryside- Land reforms allowed prosperous peasants

(derisively called “kulaks,” or fists) to buy up and consolidate the land of less efficient peasants

- Somewhat increased agricultural production, but also alienated the poorest peasants

3. Industry

- Coal, oil, and iron production all boomed

- Huge factories grew up the cities

- Owners reaped large profits

- Workers' conditions barely improved, and the number of strikes increased greatly in the years before World War I

VI. The February Revolution A. Key Political Groups

1. The Liberals- The well-established, middle-class and bourgeois opposition to the Tsar- Parties included the Kadets and the Octobrists- Active in the Duma and in local democratic town

councils called “zemstvos”- Wanted constitutional monarchy, civil rights,

universal male suffrage- Non-violent- Supported only in the large, cosmopolitan cities

2. The Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)- A large, loosely-organized movement- Mostly intellectuals who supported democracy and

the redistribution of land to the peasants- The peasants couldn't read the propaganda distributed by the SRs but liked them anyway- Methods included terrorism and assassination of government officials

3. The Social Democrats- Marxists who focused on the urban working class- Due largely to Lenin's abrasive personality, they split into two main factions in 1903:a. The Bolsheviks (meaning majoritarians)- Led by Lenin- Relied on a centralized, militant, professional revolutionary party to rally the proletariatb. The Mensheviks (minoritarians)- More democratic, with a broad base of support- Allowed anyone to join- Supported non-revolutionary trade unions- Expected a long period of bourgeois democratic government before an eventual socialist revolution

B. Long-Term Causes1. The Tsar: weak, unpopular, ineffective, stubborn 2. The Political System: autocratic, repressive,

corrupt, outdated3. The Middle Classes: growing, seeking a larger role

in national government4. The Proletariat: growing in number, increasingly

alienated and often Marxist5. The Peasantry: poor and hungry for more land;

many were losing what they had to kulaks

C. The Short-Term Cause: World War I

1. Military failures- Heavy defeats and huge numbers of Russians killed in 1914 and 1915 embittered the population.- The Tsar went to the Front in 1915 to take charge of the army; he was a bad commander, and now was held personally responsible for defeats- Army morale declined, and soldiers increasingly deserted or refused to fight

2. The Tsarina and Rasputin- The Tsar left his wife in charge of the government in his absence- She, in turn, relied on Rasputin, the debauched monk reputed to have the mystical power to control her son's hemophilia- They dismissed capable ministers and ran the country incompetently- Salacious rumors spread about their relationship,

hurting the regime's reputation even more- Rasputin was murdered by discontented noblemen in

1916, but the damage had been done

3. Rural decline- Peasants grew angry about the conscription of all the young men, who seldom returned from the Front- Loss of young workers and animals to the army undermined food production4. Urban unrest- Economic mismanagement meant that food, fuel, goods, and raw materials were in short supply- Prices skyrocketed and factories closed, created an mass of cold, hungry men with nothing to do. Uh-oh.

D. The Immediate Cause- On Feb. 23 (International Women's Day!), a crowd of women marched in Petrograd to protest bread rationing- They heckled the workers of the industrial district into joining them, and soon a general strike/demonstration developed that pulled in people of all classes- The Tsar ordered his troops to fire on the crowd, but the soldiers mostly joined it instead

- Soldiers then turned on and crushed the city's repressive police force. - About 1500 people were killed in the violence- The Tsar ordered his generals to march on Petrograd- They refused, effectively forcing him to abdicate- The Liberals in the Duma moved to form a new government- Meanwhile, socialists established a parallel governing body that would represent the interests of the workers: The Soviet

VII. The Provisional Government A. Dual Power (“Dvoevlastie”)

1. The Duma

- Formed a Provisional Government in early March

- Run by moderates and Liberals, like the Kadet party

- Came to be led by Alexander Kerensky, a popular SR who was also a member of the Soviet

- Recognized by foreign powers

- Continued involvement in World War I

- Opposed real land redistribution

2. The Petrograd Soviet- Composed of Marxist

intellectuals, workers,

and soldiers

- Dominated by moderate SRs and Mensheviks

- It claimed control over all weapons (as the representative body of the soldiers)

- Declared that soldiers would only obey orders from the Provisional Government if the Soviet agreed

- Co-ordinated with other soviets throughout Russia

3. Cooperation...- The two bodies both met in the Tauride Palace, with

Kerensky, the only member of both, liaising- In the first months, the Provisional Government's

policies met with Soviet and public approval:a. The arrest of Tsarist ministers, officials, and policeb. The dissolution of the Okhranac. Amnesty for political prisonersd. Civil rights and freedoms of press and speeche. Abolition of discrimination and the death penaltyf. An agreement to hold a fair, universal vote that

would determine the future, permanent government

B. Lenin's Return- Lenin was in Switzerland in February 1917, and was

completely surprised by the Revolution- Germany, hoping to undermine the Provisional

Government, put Lenin in a sealed train and sent him back to Russia

- Lenin dismayed the Provisional Government (and even his fellow socialists) by immediately announcing his “April Theses”

- The April Theses called for:1. an immediate end to the war2. an end to cooperation with the Provisional

Government3. the Soviet to take power4. land to be given to the peasants5. worldwide socialist revolution- The Bolsheviks now provided a radically different

alternative to the moderates in power- Their program was summed up in two ubiquitous

slogans: “Bread, peace, and land!” and “All power to the Soviets!”

C. Rising Tensions- As 1917 went on, the Provisional Government lost support over four issues1. The War- Kerensky launched a summer offensive at the urging

of Britain and France- His propaganda campaign mobilized some new

groups, like the middle class shock battalions and the Women's Death Battalion

- But it fell apart is days, with hundreds of thousands dead and many deserting

2. Land- With the collapse of central authority, there was no one

to stop the peasants from taking the land- The Provisional Government tried to delay redistribution

until there was a legal framework, but the peasants proceeded anyway

3. Competing Nationalisms- Non-Russian groups demanded independence or

autonomy (especially in Ukraine), but liberal parties insisted on maintaining a centrally governed state

4. The Economy- As long as Russia remained in the War, the government

could do little to confront urban shortages and unrest- Hungry, unemployed workers continued to radicalize

D. The Kornilov Affair- The Bolsheviks attracted many new members over the summer (most importantly, Trotsky)- The frustrations of radical workers and soldiers

erupted into a short, intense riot called the July Days- Kerensky suppressed the riot, and arrested many top

Bolsheviks suspected of complicity (Lenin escaped)- The Provisional Government experienced a surge of

popularity, and decided to bring in a mass of loyal troops to restore order in Petrograd and to deal with the Bolsheviks

- General Kornilov, conservative leader of the Army, seeing a chance to establish military control (and possibly seize the government himself), marched his troops towards Petrograd- Kerensky panicked, and called on the Soviets (thus the

Bolsheviks) to protect the city (which they did)- As a result of the Kornilov Affair in August 1917:1. Kerensky's reputation for leadership was destroyed

(and the officer corps would no longer fight for him)2. Moderate socialists were discredited by association3. Liberals were seen as counter-revolutionaries4. Bolsheviks gained support and control of the Soviets

VIII. The October Revolution- Lenin decided that the time had come to seize

power, and convinced other top Bolsheviks of his plan

- Kerensky tried (too late) to move against them by closing the Bolshevik press, cutting off Petrograd's radical neighborhoods, and subduing the “Red Guard” paramilitary units

- The night of October 24-25, the Bolsheviks began a mostly bloodless coup under Trotsky's supervision

- Units of the Red Guard and like-minded soldiers seized the key strategic points in Petrograd: bridges, telephone exchanges, power stations, and railway stations

- The next night, Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace and arrested what remained of the Provisional Government- At the same time, Lenin and Trotsky were trying to

persuade the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (containing representatives from soviets across the country) to form a new government

- The Mensheviks and moderate SRs walked out in disagreement, leaving Lenin with the majority he needed

- After some bloody fighting in Moscow and other cities, the Bolsheviks were in control (barely) of the country

IX. Consolidating Power A. Bolshevik weakness

- Most expected the new government to fall quickly- Opposition socialists controlled important levers of

power throughout the country- Bolsheviks had no power in the countryside- Civil servants mounted strikes in Petrograd- It even took ten days to force the State Bank to

open its vaults so the Bolsheviks could get operating money

B. The Sovnarkom- Lenin formed a new governing body, the Council

of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom), bypassing the Soviet and excluding Mensheviks and SRs

- Early decrees of the Sovnarkom:- Authorized peasants (retroactively) to seize land- Gave workers control of factories- Granted self-determination to national minorities- Democratized the army- Banned the opposition press- Enshrined social insurance and the 8-hour day- Legalized divorce, granted gender equality,

secularized marriage, and allowed abortion

C. The Opposition- The Constituent Assembly, recently elected to

establish Russia’s democratic government, was dissolved

- Leading Kadets, followed by Mensheviks and SRs, were arrested or (rarely, for now) killed

- The legal system was abolished and replaced by arbitrary revolutionary justice, and those accused of being “burzhui” (bourgeois) were at risk of arrest or attack

- The Cheka, Lenin’s new secret police force, began a campaign of terror against suspected class enemies in the bureaucracy and the army

D. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk- The Bolsheviks signed the humiliating Treaty of

Brest-Litovsk, which gave away a large chunk of Russia’s land, resources and population in the West

- Lenin’s decision to stop fighting capitalist, imperialist Germany further alienated the SRs, who wanted to spread the revolution to Western Europe

- The Treaty also united many patriotic or nationalistic Russians across the political spectrum against the Bolsheviks

- All the opposition to the Treaty essentially made civil war inevitable…