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Unit 5 Review of Key Concepts and Terms

Learning Describe Pavlov’s classic experiment with dogs. (Classical Conditioning)

• Pavlov noticed that dogs salivated (UCR) to various stimuli associated with meat (UCS). He then paired the ringing bell with the giving of the meat. After several repetitions, Pavlov found that the dogs salivated (CR) to the sound of the bell.

Explain what is meant by

• Extinction: occurs when CS is disconnected from the US and no longer causes the CR to occur • Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of an extinguished response • Generalization: responding the same way to similar but not identical stimuli • Discrimination: responding differently to stimuli that are not similar

Explain the Little Albert Experiment

• John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned a little boy named Albert to fear a white rat. • Loud noise (US) elicits natural response of fear (UR). • white rat (originally NS) becomes the CS and the CR is crying. • known as aversive conditioning because Albert conditioned to have negative response

Explain the differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

• Classical- learning is involuntary and automatic • Operant- learn through your own action

Explain the role of Edward Thorndike in learning.

• conducted experiments using a cat in a puzzle box. Watched how cat learned to get out of the cage in order to get food (reinforcer)

• the time required for the cat to get our o the box decreased over a series of trials • law of effect: if the consequences of a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response connection

will be strengthened and the likelihood of the behavior will increase. The reverse is also true. • coined his findings as instrumental learning because Thorndike believed that learning

consequences is instrumental in shaping future behaviors. Describe B.F. Skinner’s role in operant conditioning

• coined the term operant conditioning • invented the Skinner box to use in his research • use food as a reinforcer

Name the types of reinforcers

• Primary, secondary • Positive, negative • punishment

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Describe how punishment impacts learning • escape learning • avoidance learning

How are fixed schedules of reinforcement different from variable schedules?

• Fixed ratio- the reward is given after a fixed number of responses • Fixed interval- reward is given after a fixed amount of time has passed • In the variable schedules, both the ratio and interval may vary

Describe other examples of learning by

• observational: The Bandura BoBo doll study: illustrated that children learn by watching others who display aggression (modeling)

• Wolfgang Kohler’s study of insight: chimpanzee’s use insight to reach the banana • Latent learning (Edward Tolman): learning becomes obvious only once reinforcement is given

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV!

o Unconditioned Stimulus (US): brings about response w/o needing to be learned (food) o Unconditioned Response (UR): response that naturally occurs w/o training (salivate) o Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that normally doesn’t evoke a response (bell) o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once neutral stimulus that now brings about a response (bell) o Conditioned Response (CR): response that, after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate) o Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, NS/CS must be presented immediately BEFORE the US o Acquisition: process of learning the response pairing o Extinction: previously conditioned response dies out over time o Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of time the CR comes back out of nowhere o Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar sounding bell) o Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS

• CONTINGENCY MODEL: Rescorla & Wagner – classical conditioning involves cognitive

processes • CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION (ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John Garcia – Innate

predispositions can allow classical conditioning to occur in one trial (food poisoning) • COUNTERCONDITIONING: Little Albert and John Watson (father of behaviorism) –

conditioned a fear in a baby (only to countercondition – remove it- later on)

OPERANT CONDITIONING: SKINNER!

O LAW OF EFFECT (Thorndike): Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken a behavior (cat in the puzzle box)

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• PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING: O Pos. Reinforcement: Add something nice to increase a behavior (gold star for turning in HW) O Neg. Reinforcement: Take away something bad/annoying to increase a behavior (put on

seatbelt to take away annoying car signal) O Pos. Punishment: Add something bad to decrease a behavior (spanking) O Neg. Punishment: Take away something good to decrease a behavior (take away car keys) O Primary Reinforcers: innately satisfying (food and water) O Secondary Reinforcers: everything else (stickers, high-fives)

Token Reinforcer: type of secondary- can be exchanged for other stuff (game tokens or money) O Generalization: respond to similar stimulus for reward O Discrimination: stimulus signals when behavior will or will not be reinforced (light on means

response are accepted) O Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: same as classical conditioning O Premack Principle: high probability activities reinforce low probability activities (get extra min

at recess if you everyone turns in their HW) O Overjustification Effect: reinforcing behaviors that are intrinsically motivating causes you to

stop doing them (give a child 5$ for reading when they already like to read – they stop reading) O Shaping: use successive approximations to train behavior (reward desired behaviors to teach a

response – rat basketball) O Chaining: tie together several behaviors O Continuous Reinforcement schedule: Receive reward for every response O Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X number of response (every 10 envelopes stuffed get $$) O Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks get a

paycheck) O Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded after a random number of responses (slot machine O Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded after a random amount of time has passed (fishing) O Variable schedules are most resistant to extinction (how long will keep playing a slot machine

before you think its broken?)

SOCIAL (OBSERVATIONAL) LEARNING: BANDURA!

• Modeling Behaviors: Children model (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo dolls to demonstrate the following

Prosocial – helping behaviors Antisocial – mean behaviors

MISC LEARNING TYPES

O Latent learning (Tolman) – learning is hidden until useful (rats in maze get reinforced half way through, performance improved Cognitive maps – mental representation of an area, allows navigation if blocked

O Insight learning (Kohler) – some learning is through simple intuition (chimps with crates to get bananas)

o Learned Helplessness (Seligman) – no matter what you do you never get a positive outcome so you just give up (word scrambles)

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Reinforcement Schedules Compared Schedule of

Reinforcement Response Rate Pattern of Responses Resistance to Extinction

Fixed-ratio schedule Very high

Steady response with low ratio. Brief pause after each reinforcement with very high ratio.

The higher the ratio, the more resistance to extinction.

Variable-ratio schedule Highest response rate Constant response pattern,

no pauses Most resistance to extinction.

Fixed-interval schedule Lowest response rate

Long pause after reinforcement, followed by gradual acceleration.

The longer the interval, the more resistance to extinction.

Variable-interval schedule Moderate Stable, uniform response.

More resistance to extinction than fixed-interval schedule with same average interval.

The Effects of Reinforcement and Punishment Reinforcement

(increase or strengthens a behavior) Punishment

(decrease or suppresses a behavior)

Adding a Positive (positive reinforcement)

Presenting food, money, praise, attention, or other rewards.

Adding a Negative (positive punishment)

Delivering a pain-producing or otherwise aversive stimulus, such as a spanking or electric shock.

Subtracting a Negative (negative reinforcement)

Removing or terminating some pain-producing or otherwise aversive stimulus, such as an electric shock

or taking medicine for a headache

Subtracting a Positive (negative punishment)

Removing some pleasant stimulus or taking away privileges such as TV watching or use of automobile.

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Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning: What’s the Difference?

In summary, the processes of generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery occur in both classical and operant conditioning. Both types of conditioning depend on associative learning. IN classical conditioning, an association is formed between two stimuli – for example, a tone and form, a white rate and a loud noise, a product and a celebrity. In operant conditioning, the association is eatablished between a response and its consequences – studying hard and a high test grade, or, in the world of rats, bar pressing and food. In classical conditioning, the focus is on what precedes the response. Pavlov focused on what led up to the salivation in his dogs, not on what happened after they salivated. In operant conditioning, the focus is on what follows the response. If a rat’s bar pressing or your studying is followed by a reinforcer, that response is more likely to occur in the future. Generally, in classical conditioning, the subject is passive and responds to the environment rather than acting on it. In operant conditioning, the subject is active and operate on the environment. Children do something to get their parents’ attention or their praise.

Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared Characteristics Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Types of association Between two stimuli Between a response and its consequences

State of subject Passive Active

Focus of attention On what precedes the response On what follow the response

Types of response typically involved Involuntary or reflexive response Voluntary response

Bodily response typically involved

Internal responses; emotional and glandular reactions

External responses; muscular and skeletal movement and verbal responses

Range of responses Relative simple Simple to highly complex

Reponses learned Emotional reactions: fear, likes, dislikes Goal-oriented responses

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Some Visuals to Help you Remember

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Important Data Explain how the graph to the right, based on Pavlov’s experiments with salivating dogs, demonstrates generalization and discrimination. Pavlov conditioned salivation to stimulation of the thigh. The graph shows the greatest number of drops of saliva correlated to the stimulation of the thigh. When Pavlov began to stimulate other areas of the dog’s body, he found that the closer to the thigh the stimulation occurred, the more saliva was emitted. The dog generalized its salivary response to electric stimulation of nearby parts—the pelvis, the trunk. The dog discriminated its response when the stimulation occurred very far from the thigh —the front paw stimulation yielded significantly fewer drops of saliva. Explain how the graph to the right demonstrates extinction and spontaneous recovery. The strength of the conditioned response in Pavlovian conditioning increases during the training phase as the US is presented with the NS. Once the CR reaches a peak, the CS is then presented without the US. The response wears off until it is extinguished. There is a time break and then when the CS is reintroduced, there is spontaneous recovery of the CR, although at a lower strength than the previous peak and then with repeated introduction of the CS without the US, the CR extinguishes once again. Explain how the graph to the right demonstrates the impact of various reinforcement schedules of learning.

1. Ratio schedules (number of responses) produce higher numbers of responses than interval schedules.

2. Fewer reinforcers are needed with variable ratio schedules than with fixed ratio schedules to achieve the same # of responses.

3. Responses increase near times of reinforcement in fixed interval schedules 4. Variable schedules produce more consistent responding than fixed schedules.

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Explain how the graph to the right demonstrates Thorndike’s law of effect. Performance improves with more success. Behaviors that worked become more likely.

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Motivation Motivation: a psychological process that directs and maintains behavior towards a goal.

Motive: needs or desires that energize behavior.

Instinct: complex, inherited behavior patterns characteristic of a species that is unlearned.

Imprinting: an attachment to the first moving thing seen or heard after birth (for birds).

Homeostasis: a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. Need: a necessity, especially a physiological.

Desire: something that is wanted, but not needed.

Primary drive: drives that are innate such as hunger, thirst, and sex.

Secondary drive: drives that are learned through conditioning such as working for money.

Arousal: the level of alertness, wakefulness, an activation caused by activity in the CNS.

Motivation

Theory Description Strength Weakness

Instinct/ Evolutionary

According to instinct theories, people are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are evolutionarily programmed to do so. William James created a list of human instincts that included such things as attachment, play, shame, anger, fear, shyness, modesty and love.

Evolutionary theory may provide an explanation for the adaptive value of behaviors.

Instinct theory is incomplete because it simply names types of behavior as instincts, as opposed to explaining the motivation for these behaviors.

Drive-Reduction

According to the drive theory of motivation, people are motivated to take certain actions in order to reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs. For example, you might be motivated to drink a glass of water in order to reduce the internal state of thirst.

Effectively explains motivations to satisfy basic biological needs required for survival.

Does not explain the motivation behind certain behaviors, such as curiosity or risk taking. In addition, fails to account for the importance of external incentives – for examples, why after we are full from eating Thanksgiving dinner, we are still motivated to eat apple pie.

Incentive

The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards. For example, you might be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward of being paid. Behavioral learning concepts such as association and reinforcement play an important role in this theory of motivation.

Effectively explains motivations that are not related to maintaining biological homeostasis, such as the motivation for achievement, adventure, and affiliation.

Not all behavior can be explained by incentives – for example, altruistic (unselfish) behaviors.

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Arousal According to this theory, we are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this level can vary based on the individual or the situation.

Effectively explains how personal needs for preferred levels of excitement (arousal) motivate individuals to engage in various behaviors.

Does not effectively explain some biological motivations which are better accounted for by drive-reduction theory.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of

Needs

First, people are motivated to fulfill basic biological needs for food and shelter, as well as those of safety, love, and esteem. Once the lower level needs have been met, the primary motivator becomes the need for self-actualization, or the desire to fulfill one's individual potential.

Effectively demonstrates how basic biological and safety needs often have to be met before individuals are motivated toward higher level needs.

Evidence supporting the idea that individuals proceed sequentially through the levels in the same way has not been found. Self-actualization has proven difficult to explain and measure objectively. Some individuals are motivated to focus on higher-level needs before achieving lower level needs.

Yerkes-Dodson Law: people perform best at a moderate level of arousal. The location of the U-shaped curve changes with the complexity of the task (simple tasks = curve shifts to the right; complex task = curve shifts to the left) Sensation seeking: searching for a certain level of sympathetic nervous system of arousal. Primary incentives: motivates behavior to satisfy a physiological need. Secondary incentive: motivates behavior to satisfy a desire.

Intrinsic motivation: doing something because you generally like to do it. Extrinsic motivation: doing something because of a promise or a reward or a threat of punishment. Overjustification effect: the effect or promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do and then losing interest in it.

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Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. Achievement: the drive to succeed, especially when in competition. Sociobiology: relates social behaviors to evolutionary biology.

**************************************************************************************************** Hunger Motivation

Satiety: the feeling of being full and not hungry that results in decreasing the likelihood that an individual will be motivated to eat. (Satiety = satisfied) Glucose: the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. Lateral hypothalamus (LH): the “on” button for eating. *Remember: If it is lesioned, people will not feel hungry and they will become little (LH). Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): the “off” button for eating. *Remember: If it is lesioned, people will not feel full and they will become very huge (VMH) Appetite hormone: controls the levels of glucose and the hunger of people. Set point: the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. Basil metabolic rate: the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure. Anorexia nervosa: an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve. Bulimia nervosa: an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

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Binge-eating disorder: significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa. Body Mass Index (BMI): the percentage of a person’s body fat. Obesity: a disorder characterized by being excessively overweight, usually considered to have a BMI of over 30%; it is not characterized as a “mental illness” but is often associated with other mental illnesses including depression and schizophrenia. *************************************************************************************************************

Sexual Motivation Sexual response cycle: the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson – excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. Refractory period: a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. Puberty: the onset of sexual maturity. Estrogen: sex hormone secreted in greater amount by females than males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity. Testosterone: the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. Sexual orientation: sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation), both sexes (bisexual), or the opposite sex (heterosexual orientation).

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Social Motivation Achievement Motivation: a desire to meet some internalized standard or excellence. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): David McClelland used this test (first developed by Henry Murray) to measure achievement motivation; people with a high need for achievement choose moderately challenging tasks to satisfy their needs; people low in achievement motivation choose easy or impossible goals so they are not responsible for their failures Affiliation Motivation: the need to be with others; drive to develop social bonds and seek connections Intrinsic Motivation: the desire to perform a behavior out of internal genuine interest rather than any potential benefit Extrinsic Motivation: performing a behavior in order to obtain a reward or avoid punishment

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Emotion Emotion: a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience. Primary Emotions: fear, anger, joy, sadness, disgust, contempt, and surprise (universally recognized across cultures); some theorists also believe shame, shyness, and guilt should be in this category James-Lange theory: our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. Cannon-Bard theory (Thalamic Theory): an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion. Schachter-Singer theory (Schachter-Two Factor): to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal. Opponent-Process Theory: Richard Solomon (1980) views emotions as pairs of opposites (for example, fear-relief, pleasure-pain). The opponent-process theory states that when one emotion is experienced, the other is suppressed. Example: skydivers are frightened on their first jump but after repeated jumps they become more relieved and even overjoyed. Possible contributing factor of drug addiction. Example: first dose of heroin must be very pleasurable but over time the opponent negative reaction of withdrawal takes over; to avoid this unpleasant condition, the addict must take larger and larger doses of the drug.

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Cognitive-Appraisal Theory: Our emotional experience depends on our interpretation of the situation we are in.

1. Primary appraisal: appraise a situation of whether or not you want to do something based on the consequences.

2. Secondary appraisal: deciding to do something based on the primary appraisal and your current emotion.

Valence: how pleasant something is. Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon: when we feel happy we are more willing to help others. Well-being: self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people’s quality of life. Tend and befriend: a behavior exhibited by some animals, including humans, when under threat. It refers to protection of offspring (tending) and seeking out the social group for mutual defense (befriending). Adaptation-level phenomenon: our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience. Relative deprivation: the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves. Behavioral medicine: an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavior and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease. Health Psychology: a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine. Facial feedback: the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness. Ekman’s Cross-Cultural Research: 90% of participants in several different countries agreed that the same specific facial expressions are associated with the emotions of happiness, disgust, and surprise. Also wide agreement on the facial expressions of sadness, anger, and fear. Provides evidence that emotions are at least partially innate (natural, born with). Display rules: culturally accepted learned guidelines for when and how emotions can be expressed in particular social situations (i.e. public displays of affection) Catharsis: emotional release. The catharsis hypothesis maintains that “releasing’ aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges. Polygraph (lie detector machine): a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, which measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).

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Stress Stress: the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, which we appraise as threatening or challenging. Stressor: anything that brings on the reaction to stress. Acute stressor: fleeting, short-term stress. Chronic stressor: persistent and enduring stress. Distress: bad stress such as losing a job, a loved one, divorce, etc. Eustress: good stress such as going on a vacation, the holidays, getting married, etc. Glucocorticoids: hormones that produce an array of effects in response to stress. Cortisol: known as “the stress hormone” because it’s secreted in higher levels during the body’s ‘fight or flight’ response to stress, and is responsible for several stress-related changes in the body. Small increases of cortisol have some positive effects: a quick burst of energy for survival reasons, heightened memory functions, a burst of increased immunity, lower sensitivity to pain, and helps maintain homeostasis in the body. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases – alarm, resistance, exhaustion. *Remember: Selye’s three stages ARE (alarm, resistance, exhaustion) a GAS.

1. Alarm stage: encounter threatening stimulus, fight or flight activated. If threat avoided, stage ends

2. Resistance stage: if the threat is not avoided there’s prolonged state of stress. Activation of stress cannot be kept up indefinitely.

3. Exhaustion stage: energy and strength are used up by maintaining resistance, can become vulnerable to illness, fatigue & injury.

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Cognitive appraisal of stress: stress is not merely a stimulus or a response. It is a process by which we appraise and cope with environmental threats and challenges. When short-lived or taken as a challenge, stressors may have positive effects. However, if stress is threatening or prolonged, it can be harmful

Primary appraisal of stress: assess the potential threat or harm posed by the situation at hand. Secondary appraisal of stress: if the event or situation is perceived as harmful or threatening, individuals assess their ability to cope with the event and the resources available to deal with the stressor. Coronary heart disease: the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in North America. Type A: Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people. Type B: Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people. Type D: the tendency to experience increased negative emotions across time and situations and tend not to share these emotions with others, because of fear of rejection or disapproval. The letter D stands for 'distressed'. Psychophysiological illness: literally, “mind-body” illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches. Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI): the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health. Lymphocytes: the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system; B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

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B lymphocytes: fight bacterial infections. T lymphocytes: attack cancer cells and viruses. Microphages: ingests foreign substances. Problem-focused coping: reducing stress by changing events that cause stress or by changing how we react to stress. Emotion-focused coping: when we cannot change a stressful situation, and we respond by attending to our own emotional needs. Acute Stress disorder: diagnosed with in the 1st month after exposure to a traumatic event. The person experiences depression and/or anxiety. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience. Four Types of Motivational Conflict

Conflict Description Example

Approach-Approach

An individual is forced to make a choice between two equally desirable goals. Both options are appealing, which makes the choice difficult.

You are accepted to both Harvard and Dartmouth. Which do you chose?

Avoidance-Approach

An individual is forced to make a choice between two equally undesirable or threatening options. Neither choice is good, so the individual is essentially choosing the lesser of two evils.

Mow the lawn or wash the dishes?

Approach-Avoidance

An individual is both attracted to and repelled by the same goal. Within one particular situation there are both positive and negative parts.

You like to eat spicy food but it gives you heart burn.

Multiple Approach-Avoidance

An individual must choose between two different options, both of which have positive and negative parts.

You receive acceptance letters from two colleges and must choose to go to college in California or New York. Attending college in California allows you to be close to your family but New York has a better program for your area of interest.

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Motivation, Emotion, and Stress Key People:

• Charles Darwin: believed in natural selection and survival of the fittest.

• William James: functionalist who looked at the instinctual functions of the body (Why does the nose smell?)

• William McDougall: behavior is instinctual, such as aggression.

• Sigmund Freud: personality is instinctual that stems from the unconscious.

• Konrad Lorenz: studied the critical attachment period and imprinting in birds.

• Clark Hull: drive reduction is a major cause of learning and behavior.

• David McClelland: studied achievement motivation in which he said some people are more motivated by achievement than others.

• Abraham Maslow: Humanist who developed the Hierarchy of Needs.

• Cannon-Washburn: came up with the stomach contraction theory which states that we know we are

hungry when our stomach contracts. In the notorious balloon study, Washburn trained himself to swallow a balloon which was attached to a tube, then the balloon was inflated inside of his stomach. When the balloon was inflated, he did not feel hungry. Later this theory was opposed by the fact that people whose stomach was removed still felt hungry.

• Y.C. Tsang: removed rat stomachs, connected the esophagus to the small intestines, and the rats still felt

hungry (and ate food).

• Paul Ekman: conducted the most extensive research on the facial expressions of basic emotions, said there are 6 basic emotions and a universal “facial language”.

• Carol Izard: isolated 10 emotions. Most of them are present in infancy, except for contempt,

shame, and guilt.

• Hans Selye: developed the General Adaptation Syndrome.

• Walter Cannon: proposed that the stress response (fast) was a fight-or-flight response marked by the outpouring of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the inner adrenal glands, increasing heart and respiration rates, mobilizing sugar and fat, and dulling pain.

• Richard Lazarus & Susan Folkman: cognitive appraisal of stress, how we respond to stress

depends on 2 cognitive factors, primary and secondary appraisal.

• Kurt Lewin: developed the types of social conflicts: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance, multiple approach-avoidance

• Meyer Friedman & R.H. Rosenman: studied health risks and personality types.

• Shelley Taylor: tend and befriend behavior model.

• Thomas Holmes: developed the stress scale, the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), of

43 stressful life events that can contribute to illness.