0Unit5:AnatomyandPhysiologyforHealthandSocialCare.

Aimandpurpose

Thisunitaimstoenablelearnerstounderstandaspectsoftheanatomyandphysiologyofhumanbodysystems.Learnerswillbeabletogainanoverviewoftheorganisationofthehumanbodybeforelookingathowbodysystemsworktogethertoprovideenergyforthebody.Learnerswillhavetheopportunitytoinvestigatehowhomeostaticmechanismsoperateinthebody.

Unitintroduction

Thisunitintroducescoreknowledgeofcellularstructureandfunction,andtheorganisationofthebodyasawhole,andthenbuildsonthistodevelopamoredetailedknowledgeofthefineanatomyandphysiologyofthesystemsinvolvedinenergymetabolism.Learnerswillexaminethehomeostaticmechanismsinvolvedinregulatingthesesystemstomaintainhealth.Learnerswillbegiventheopportunitytoundertakepracticalactivitieswhichwillrequirethemtotakemeasurementsofthecardiovascularsystem,therespiratorysystemandofbodytemperature,usingnoninvasivetechniquestoinvestigatenormalresponsestoroutinevariationsinbodyfunctioning.Thisunitprovidesthecoreunderstandingofhumanphysiologythatunderpinsthestudyofthespecialistphysiologyunitswithinthisprogramme.Theunitalsoprovidesanoverviewofbodyfunctioningthatisvaluableforanyoneworkingorintendingtoworkinafieldrelatingtohealthandsocialcare.

Learningoutcomes

Oncompletionofthisunitalearnershould:

1. Knowtheorganisationofthehumanbody

2. Understandthefunctioningofthebodysystemsassociatedwithenergymetabolism

3. Understandhowhomeostaticmechanismsoperateinthemaintenanceofaninternalenvironment.

4. Beabletointerpretdataobtainedfrommonitoringroutineactivitieswithreferencetothefunctioningofhealthybodysystems.

P1Describethefunctionsofthemaincellscomponents

Cellsarethebasicunitsiforganismsinwhichalllivingthingsaremade.Theappearanceofthecellsdependsoftheareaitislocatedatandthefunctionswithinthe

organism.Acellconsistsofmanycomponents.Theseareplasmamembrane,thecytoplasm,theendoreticulum(roughandsmooth),Golgiapparatus,lysosomes,

mitochondrionandthenucleus.Eachofthesepartsofthecell,playanimportantrole,ifitdidnothaveallthesepartsthenthecellwouldnotworkinandwhatitismeantto.

Thecellmembrane(orplasma)isathinskinaroundthecell.Itgivesthecellitsshapeandcontrolswhatgoesintoandoutofthecell.Iftheplasmamembranewastogetdamagedinanyway,anditwouldn'tletanythingenterorexitit,thenwewouldnotbeabletogetoxygeninandletcarbondioxideout.Thismeansthatwewouldn'tbeabletolive,aswehavetoneedoxygenandtoletoutcarbondioxideforrespirationwhichprovidesourbodywiththeenergytogothroughtheprocessesthatitneeds.

Thecytoplasmisthefluidofthecell,whichismostlymadeupofwater.Thisisalsowherechemicalreactionstakeplace,likemetabolism,whichkeepsthecellalive.Thefunctionofthecytoplasmistoprovidestructuretothecell,aplaceforallthe

componentsofthecelltositandtoalsoprovideaplaceforthingslikegrowthtotakeplace.Thejellylikematerialoutsidethecellnucleusinwhichtheorganellesarelocated.Itisrepresentedbythegelatin.

Thenucleusisthelargeststructurewithinthecell,containingmanyorganelles.Itisusuallyfoundinthemiddleofthecell,butinsomeplantcellsitcanbefoundatthebottom.Thefunctionofthenucleusisveryimportantbecauseitcontrolswhatthecelldoes,aswellascontaininginstructionsonhowtomakenewcells.ItisSphericalbodycontainingmanyorganelles,includingthenucleolus.Thenucleuscontrolsmanyofthefunctionsofthecell(bycontrollingproteinsynthesis)andcontainsDNA(inchromosomes).Itisrepresentedbytheplum.

TheGolgiapparatusisaflattened,layered,saclikeorganellewhichlookslikeastackofpancakes.ThemainfunctionoftheGolgiapparatusistoprocessandpackageproteinsandlipidsfordeliverytootherorganellesoroutwardsfromthecell.Itisalsoresponsiblefortheproducinglysosomes.TheGolgibodypackagesproteinsandcarbohydratesintomembraneboundvesiclesfor"export"fromthecell.Itisrepresentedbyfoldedribbonsofhardcandy.

Themitochondriaareasphericaltorodshapedorganelleswithdoubledlayeredmembraneswhicharescatteredroundthecytoplasm.Theinnermembraneisinfoldedmanytimes,formingaseriesofprojections(calledcristae).ThemitochondrionconvertstheenergystoredinglucoseintoATP(adenosinetriphosphate)forthecell.Theyarerepresentedbyraisins.

Centrosomeasmallbodylocatednearthenucleusithasadensecentreandradiatingtubules.Thisiswheremicrotubulesaremade.Duringcelldivision(mitosis),thecentrosomedividesandthetwopartsmovetooppositesidesofthedividingcell.Itisrepresentedbyagumball.

Lysosomeitisalsocalledcellvesicles,anditsroundorganellessurroundedbyamembraneandcontainingdigestiveenzymes.Thisiswherethedigestionofcellnutrientstakesplace.TheyarerepresentedbyM&M's.

Nuclearmembraneitisthemembranethatsurroundsthenucleus.Itisrepresentedbytheplum'sskin.

NucleolusanorganellewithinthenucleusitiswhereribosomalRNAisproduced.Somecellshavemorethanonenucleolus.Itisrepresentedbytheplumpit.

RibosomesmallorganellescomposedofRNArichcytoplasmicgranulesthataresitesofproteinsynthesis.Theyarerepresentedbycandysprinkles.

Roughendoplasmicreticulum(roughER)avastsystemofinterconnected,membranous,infoldedandconvolutedsacksthatarelocatedinthecell'scytoplasm(theERiscontinuouswiththeouternuclearmembrane).RoughERiscoveredwithribosomesthatgiveitaroughappearance.RoughERtransportsmaterialsthroughthecellandproducesproteinsinsackscalledcisternae(whicharesenttotheGolgibody,orinsertedintothecellmembrane).Itisrepresentedbysourgummyworms.

Smoothendoplasmicreticulum(smoothER)avastsystemofinterconnected,membranous,infoldedandconvolutedtubesthatarelocatedinthecell'scytoplasm(theERiscontinuouswiththeouternuclearmembrane).ThespacewithintheERiscalledtheERlumen.SmoothERtransportsmaterialsthroughthecell.Itcontainsenzymesandproducesanddigestslipids(fats)andmembraneproteinssmoothERbudsofffromroughER,movingthenewlymadeproteinsandlipidstotheGolgibody,lysosomes,andmembranes.Itisrepresentedbygummyworms.

Vacuolefluidfilled,membranesurroundedcavitiesinsideacell.Thevacuolefillswithfoodbeingdigestedandwastematerialthatisonitswayoutofthecell.Theyarerepresentedbyjawbreakers.

P2:outlinethestructureofthemaintissuesofthebodyandtheirroleinthefunctioningoftwonamedbodysystems.

Tissuesaregroupsofsimilarcellscarryoutspecificfunctionsinthinunit,anditisalsoanonlivingmaterialcalledintercellularmatrix,fillsthespacesbetweenthecells.

Thesearethetypesoftissues:

Epithelial. Connective. Muscle. Nervous.

Epithelialtissues:theyperformavarietyoffunctionsthatincludesprotectionepitheliaaretheliningsofinternalandexternalsurfacesandbodycavities,includingducts(tubesorchannels)carryingsecretionsfromglands.Theymaybecomposedofseverallayersofcells,calledcompoundepithelia,orjustasinglelayerknowsassimpleepithelia.Thewestorbottomlayerofcellsisattachedtoabasementmembraneforsupportorconnection.Therearenervesuppliestoepitheliabuttheyaresuppliedwithoxygenandnutrientsfromdeepertissuesbydiffusion.Astheyaresurfacetissuesandexposedtofriction,theircapacityforgrowthandrepairisgreaterthanothertissuesand

usuallyoccursduringsleep.

Typesofepithelialtissues:

Simplesquambous_ thistypeofepitheliumisfoundcoveringsurfacesthatarenotexposedtomuchirritation.Forexample,bloodvesselsarelinedbysimplesquamousepithelium(whichismorespecificallycalledendotheliumwhenitlinesabloodvessel).Thefluidfilledbodycavities(orpartsofthecoelom)arealsolinedwithsimplesquamousepithelium,herecalledmesothelium.Thisslideisawholemountofsheetofmesotheliumanddoesnotcontainothertissues.However,rememberthatitisnotacrosssection,soyouarelookingdownoncells.

Simplecuboidal_areepithelialcellsinasinglelayerofcubelikecellswithlarge,sphericalcentralnuclei.Simplecuboidalepitheliaarefoundonthesurfaceofovaries,theliningofnephrons,thewallsoftherenaltubules,andpartsoftheeyeandthyroid.Onthesesurfaces,thecellsperformsecretionandabsorption.Thesecellsprovideprotectionandmaybeactive(pumpingmaterialinoroutofthelumen)orpassive,dependingonthelocationandcellularspecialization.Theyarealsofoundinkidneytubules,glandularducts,ovaries,andthethyroidgland.Simplecuboidalcellsarefoundinsinglerowswiththeirsphericalnucleiinthecenterofthecellsandaredirectlyattachedtothesurface.Simplecuboidalepitheliumcommonlydifferentiatestoformthesecretoryandductportionsofglands.[1]Theyalsoconstitutethegerminalepitheliumwhichproducestheeggcellsinthefemaleovaryandthespermcellsinthemaletestes.[2]Thesecellsoffersomeprotectionandfunctioninabsorptionandsecretion.

Simplecolumnar_Simplecolumnarepithelialcellsarelongerthantheyarewide.Characteristically,theirnucleuiarefoundatthebaseofthecell.Thecellsareconnectedbytightjunctions.Thecellsreceivenutrientsthroughthebasementmembrane,whichseparatesthecellsfromthecapillarybasallayer.Themainfunctionofsimplecolumnarepithelialcellsisprotection.Forexample,theepitheliuminthestomachanddigestivetractprovidesanimpermeablebarrieragainstanybacteriathatcouldbeingestedbutispermeabletoanynecessaryions.Thisfunctionisespeciallyimportantinthecolon.Simplecolumnarepithelialcellscanspecializetosecretmucusthatcoatsandprotectsthesurroundingsurfacefromdamage.Becausetheepitheliumcanbeinnervated,simplecolumnarepitheliumisalsospecializedtoprovidesensoryinput.Thesecellsarefoundinthecornea,innerear,andnose.Finally,simplecolumnarepitheliumsareverygoodatabsorpingandtransportingnutrientsfromlocationslikethesmallintestine.

Stratifiedsquambous_astratifiedsquamousepitheliumconsistsofsquamous(flattened)epithelialcellsarrangedinlayersuponabasementmembrane.Onlyonelayerisincontactwiththebasementmembranetheotherlayersadheretooneanothertomaintainstructuralintegrity.Althoughthisepitheliumisreferredtoassquamous,manycellswithinthelayersmaynotbeflattenedthisisduetotheconventionofnamingepitheliaaccordingtothecelltypeatthesurface.Inthedeeperlayers,thecellsmaybecolumnarorcuboidal.Thistypeofepitheliumiswellsuitedtoareasinthebodysubjecttoconstantabrasion,asitisthethickestandlayerscanbesequentiallysloughedoffandreplacedbeforethebasementmembraneisexposed.Itformstheoutermostlayeroftheskinandtheinnerliningofthemouth,esophagus,andvagina.

Stratifiedcuboidal_itis: rare cubeshaped commonlycellsmakeuptwolayers protectionoflargerductscelllayerssurround/protectglandducts sweatglandsintheskin mammaryglandinthebreast salivaryglandsinthemouth maybeactive(pumpmaterialin/outoflumen)

Pseudostratifiedcolumnar_Pseudostratifiedcolumnarepitheliumislikesimplecolumnarepithelium,onlyithasdifferentnuclearlayersmakingitlookstratified(hencethename).Somecellshaveacentrallylocatednucleusandothershaveamorebasalnucleus.istypicallyfoundliningtherespiratorysystemandisalsofoundinothertissuessuchastheepididymis.Threetypesofcellsmakeupthisepitheliumbasal,columnarandfusiformcells.Thefirsttwoareeasytosee,butfusiformcellsaredifficulttodemonstrateduetotheirshape.Allcellsrestonthebasementmembrane,butvaryinheight,and,asaresult,thenucleiareatdifferentlevelsgivingtheappearanceofstratification.

Tissuesaregroupsofcellswithacommonstructureand

function Inanimals,mostofthebodyscellsarearrangedintotissues Thestructureoftissuesrelatestotheirspecificfunctions Therearefourmaintypesofanimaltissues:epithelial,connective,muscle,

nervous

Epithelialtissuecoversthebodyandlinesitsorgansandcavities Epithelialtissue:sheetsoftightlypackedcellsthatcoverbodysurfacesandline

internalorgansandcavities Thebase(basal)layerofepithelialtissueisattachedtoadenselayerof

extracellularmatrix Containsfibrousproteinsandstickypolysaccharides Thefree(apical)surfacefacestheoutsideorinsideofasurfaceororgan Epithelialtissuesarenamedforthenumberoflayerstheycontainandforthe

shapeoftheircells

Layers CellShape LocationSimple(Onelayer) Squamous(flat)

Cuboidal(cube)

Columnar(column)

Capillaryandairsaclinings.

Kidneytubulesandthyroidgland.

Intestinallining

Stratified(Morethanonelayer)

Squamous(flat)Cuboidal(cube)

Columnar(column)

SkinSweatglandsandmammaryglands.Pharynxandanus

Pseudostratified(onelayerbutlookslikemore)

Columnar Upperrespiratorytract

Connectivetissuebindsandsupportsothertissues Containsfewercells,scatteredthroughoutanextracellularmatrix Matrix: Secretedbythecells Containsaweboffibersembeddedinaliquid,jelly,orsolid Looseconnectivetissue:bindingandpackingmaterialtoholdorgansinplace Fibersaremainlylooselywovencollagenandelastic Fibrousconnectivetissue:tendonsandligaments Fibersaredenselypackedbundlesofcollagen Adiposetissue:padsandinsulatesthebodyandstoresenergy Storesfatwithincells Littlematrix Cartilage:shockabsorberinjoints,nose,andears Manycollagenfibersembeddedinarubberymatrix Bone:supportstructure Collagenfibersembeddedinahardmineralmatrixofcalcium,magnesium,and

phosphate Blood:functionsintransportandimmunity Consistsofcellssuspendedinaliquidmatrix

Thesetissuesarethemostwidelydistributedinthebodyandliebeneaththeepithelialtissues,connectingdifferentpartsoftheinternalstructure.Varioustypesofcellslieinabackgroundmaterialknowasmatrix.Thematrixmaybeliquidasinblood,jellylikeasanareolartissue,firmasincartilageorhardasinbone.Thematrixofatissueisusuallysecretedbytheconnectivetissuecells.Thefunctionsofthesetissuesaretotransportmaterial(asinblood),givesupport(asinareolartissueandcartilage),andstrengthenandprotect(asinbone).Manytissuescontaindifferentfibressecretedbythecellstoprovidespecialcharacteristics.

Muscletissueconsistsofbundlesofmusclecellswhichencloselargenumbersofcontractileproteinsarrangedinparallel

Skeletalmuscle

Attachedtobonesbytendons Responsibleforvoluntarybodymovements Stripedorstriatedappearance Cardiacmuscle Formstheheart Cellsarestriatedandbranched Cellsconnectatspecializedjunctionsforcoordinated

contraction Smoothmuscle Lacksstriations Responsibleforinvoluntaryorganmotions Ex:intestinalmovements(peristalsis)

Nervoustissue:sensesstimuliandrapidlytransmitsinformationfromonepartoftheanimaltoanother

Neuron:structuralandfunctionalunitofnervoustissue Specializedtoconductelectricalimpulses Dendritesconveyinformationtowardtheneuroncellbody Axonsconveyinformationawayfromtheneuroncellbody Nervoustissuealsoincludessupportingcells

ThetwoorgansIchoseare:

Thelungs:Thelungstissuesaremadeupmainlyofsquamousepithelialtissue(calledalveolarepitheliuminthelungs).Thistypeoftissueservesacriticalfunctionwithinthelungsbecauseitallowsthetransferandexchangeofgaseswithlittleornoresistance.

TheadvantagesareashortdistancebetweentheOxygeninthealveoliandthebloodinthecapillaries.

Thelungsalsocontainciliatedepithelium.Afunctionofciliatedepitheliumisstimulationofgobletcellstoproduceamucouslikesubstancethatnotonlylubricatesbutalsotrapspathogensandparticlesinthebronchi.

Thekidneys:

Thekidneysarecomposedofvarioustypesofepithelialtissue.

Theproximalconvulatedtubuleismadeupofsimplecuboidalepitheliumwithmicrovilli.Thedistalconvulatedtubuleismadeupofsimplecuboidalepitheliumwithoutmicrovilli.Thecollectingductismadeupofsimplecuboidalepithelium.Theascendingthinlimbismadeupofsimplesquamousepithelium.

Sources:

http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/kabernd/BerndCV/Lab/EpithelialInfoWeb/Stratified%20Epithelium.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_anatomy

http://ect.downstate.edu/courseware/histomanual/epithelia.htmlhttp://www.cytochemistry.net/microanatomy/epithelia/stratified_squamous.htmhttp://www.cytochemistry.net/microanatomy/epithelia/stratified_columnar.htmhttp://www.courseweb.uottawa.ca/medicinehistology/english/ss_basictissues/epithelia.htmlhttp://microanatomy.net/epithelia/pseudostratified_columnar.htmhttp://www.courseweb.uottawa.ca/medicinehistology/english/ss_basictissues/Connective_Tissue.htmhttp://www.courseweb.uottawa.ca/medicinehistology/english/ss_basictissues/Muscle_Tissue.htmhttp://www.courseweb.uottawa.ca/medicinehistology/english/ss_basictissues/Nervous_Tissue.htm

P3:Outlinethegrossstructureofallthemainbodysystems

IntroductionAsystemismadeupofdifferenttissuesandorgansworkingtogethertoperformaspecificfunctioninthebody.

Skeletalsystem:

Skeletalsystemisthesystemofbones,associatedcartilagesandjointsofhumanbody.Togetherthesestructuresformthehumanskeleton.Skeletoncanbedefinedasthehardframeworkofhumanbodyaroundwhichtheentirebodyisbuilt.Almostallthehardpartsofhumanbodyarecomponentsofhumanskeletalsystem.Jointsareveryimportantbecausetheymakethehardandrigidskeletonallowdifferenttypesofmovementsatdifferentlocations.Iftheskeletonwerewithoutjoints,nomovementwouldhavetakenplaceandthesignificanceofhumanbodynomorethanastone.

ComponentsofHumanSkeleton:HumanskeletoniscomposedofthreemaincomponentsBones,AssociatedcartilagesandJoints.Bones:Boneisatoughandrigidformofconnectivetissue.Itistheweightbearingorganofhumanbodyanditisresponsibleforalmostallstrengthofhumanskeleton.Cartilages:Cartilageisalsoaformofconnectivetissuebutisnotastoughandrigidasbone.Themaindifferenceinthecartilageandboneisthemineralizationfactor.Bonesarehighlymineralizedwithcalciumsaltswhilecartilagesarenot.Joints:Jointsareimportantcomponentsofhumanskeletonbecausetheymakethehumanskeletonmobile.Ajointoccursbetweentwoormorebones,boneandcartilageandcartilageandcartilage.DivisionsofHumanSkeleton:Humanskeletoncanbedividedintotwodivisions.AxialSkeleton:Axialskeletonformstheaxisofhumanbody.ItconsistsofSkull,vertebralcolumnandthoraciccage.Skull:Skullisthatpartofhumanskeletonthatformsthebonyframeworkofthehead.Itconsistsof22differentbonesthataredividedintotwogroups:bonesof

craniumandbonesofface.VertebralColumn:Itisaflexiblecolumnofvertebrae,connectingthetrunkofhumanbodytotheskullandappendages.Itiscomposedof33vertebraewhicharedividedinto5regions:Cervical,Thoracic,Lumbar,Sacral,andCoccygeal.RibCage:Itisabonycageenclosingvitalhumanorgansformedbythesternumandribs.Thereare12pairsofribsthataredividedintothreegroups:Trueribs,Falseribs,andFloatingribs.AppendicularSkeleton:Itistheskeletonofappendagesofhumanbody.ItconsistsofShouldergirdle,Skeletonofupperlimb,PelvicgirdleandSkeletonoflowerlimb.ShoulderGirdle:Itattachestheupperlimbtobodytrunkandisformedbytwobones:clavicleandscapula.Clavicleisamodifiedlongboneandissubcutaneousthroughoutitsposition.Itisalsoknownasthebeautybone.Scapulaisapearshapedflatbonethatcontainstheglenoidfossafortheformationofshoulderjoint.Itpossessesthreeimportantprocesses:Spineofscapula,AcromionprocessandCoracoidprocess.SkeletonofUpperlimb:Theskeletonofeachupperlimbconsistsof30bones.Thesebonesare:Humerus,Ulna,Radius,Carpals(8),Metacarpals(5),andPhalanges(14).PelvicGirdle:Therearetwopelvicgirdles(oneforeachlowerlimb)butunlikethepectoralgirdles,theyarejointedwitheachotheratsymphysispubis.Eachpelvicgirdleisasingleboneinadultsandismadeupofthreecomponents:Ileum,IschiumandPubis.SkeletonofLowerlimb:Theskeletonofeachlowerlimbconsistsof30bones.ThesebonesareFemur,Tibia,Patella,Tarsals(7),Metatarsals(5),Phalanges(14).Functionsofhumanskeleton:Humanskeletonperformssomeimportantfunctionsthatarenecessaryforsurvivalofhumanbeings.1. Strength, support and shape: It gives strength, support and shape to the

body. Without a hard and rigid skeletal system, human body cannot stand upright,anditwillbecomejustabagofsofttissueswithoutanypropershape.

2. Protection of delicate organs: In areas like the rib cage and skull, the skeleton protects inner soft but vital organs like heart and brain from external shocks. Any damage to these organs can prove fatal, therefore protective functionofskeletonisveryimportant

3. Leverage for movements: Bones of the human skeleton in all parts of body provide attachment to the muscles. These muscles provide motor power for

producing movements of body parts. In these movements the parts of skeleton acts like levers of different types thus producing movements according to the needsofthehumanbody.

4. Production of red blood cells: Bones like the sternum, and heads of tibia have hemopoeitic activity (blood cells production). These are the sites of productionofnewbloodcells.

Muscularsystem:MuscularsystemisthesystemofHumanBodythatprovidesmotorpowerforallmovementsofbodyparts.Muscularsystemiscomposedofspecialtissuecalledmusculartissue.Muscleshavetheabilitytocontractactivelytoprovidetheforceformovementsofbodyparts.Muscularsystemisanimportantsystemofhumanbodybecausewithoutit,lifewillcompletelystop.Musclesproducenotonlythosemovementsthatareunderthecontrolofourwillandthatwecanseeandfeel,butalsothosemovementsthatareresponsibleforactivitieslikebreathing,digestionoffood,pumpingofbloodetc.Muscles:Musclesarebodytissuesthatprovidetheforceforallbodymovements.Theyaremadeofspecialtypesofcells.Typesofmuscles:MusclesarebasicallyofthreetypesSkeletalMuscles,SmoothMusclesandCardiacMuscles.

1.SkeletalMuscles:Skeletalmusclesformmostofthehumanbodyweight.Theyareunderthecontrolofhumanwillandallbodymovementsoccurringbyourwillareproducedbyskeletalmuscles.Theyarecalledskeletalmusclesbecausetheyarealmostalwaysfoundattachedtotheskeletonandproducemovementsindifferentpartsoftheskeleton.

2.SmoothMuscles:Smoothmusclesformthesoftbodyorganslikestomach,intestine,bloodvesselsetc.Theyarenotunderthewillofhumanbeingsandareresponsibleforunconsciousbodyactivitieslikedigestionoffood.Theyarecalledsmoothmusclesbecausewhenseenunderthemicroscope,theydonothaveanystriationincontrasttotheothertwotypesofmuscles

3.CardiacMuscles:Cardiacmusclesareexclusivelyfoundinhumanheartandnowhereelse.Theyareextremelystrongandpowerfulmuscles.Theyarenotunderthecontrolofhumanwillandareinvoluntary.Thepumpingofbloodbyhumanheartisbecause

oftheforceprovidedbythecontractionofcardiacmuscles.FunctionsofMuscularSystem:Muscularsystemhasthefollowingimportantfunctionsinhumanbody1. Movementofbodyparts:Skeletalmusclesareresponsibleforallvoluntary

movementsofhumanbodyparts.Theyprovidetheforcebycontractingactivelyattheexpenseofenergy.Inotherwords,musclesaremotorsofbodywherechemicalenergyoffoodisconvertedintomechanicalwork.

2. Stabilityandposture:Skeletalmusclesstabilizehumanskeletonandgiveaproperposturetohumanbeings.Somejointsofhumanbodyareweakandtheyrequirethesupportofmuscularsystemtoachievestability.Skeletalmusclesareveryimportantforsuchjoints.

3. Heatproduction:Alargeshareofbodysenergyisusedbymuscularsystem.Asaresultofhighmetabolicrate,musclesproducegreatamountofheatinthebody.Heatproducedbymusclesisveryimportantincoldclimates.

4. Circulation:Cardiacmusclesprovidethemainforceforcirculationofbloodthroughouthumanbody.Theregularpumpingofheatkeepsthebloodinmotionandnutrientsarereadilyavailabletoeverytissueofhumanbody.

5. Helpindigestion:Smoothmusclesoforganslikestomachandintestinehelpthedigestivesystemintheprocessofdigestionoffood.

Nervoussystem:Nervoussystemisthechiefcontrollingandcoordinatingsystemofthebody.Itcontrolsandregulatesallvoluntaryandinvoluntaryactivitiesofhumanbody.TherearethreecharacteristicpropertiesofnervoussystemofhumanbodySensitivity,ConductivityandResponsiveness

Neuronistheunitofnervoussystem:Thestructuralandfunctionalunitofnervoussystemiscalledneuron.Itisaspecialtypeofcellwithacellbodyandcellprocesses.Partsofnervoussystem:NervoussystemofhumanbodyisdividedbroadlyintotwopartsCentralNervousSystem(CNS)andPeripheralNervousSystem(PNS). Centralnervoussystem:Centralnervoussystemincludesbrainandspinal

cord.

Peripheralnervoussystem:Peripheralnervoussystemincludesallthepartsofnervoussystemexceptbrainandspinalcord.ItisfurtherdividedintotwocomponentsSomaticnervoussystemandAutonomicnervoussystem.

Nerves:Nervesaresolidcordscomposedofbundlesofnervefibers(eachnervefiberisanaxonwithitscoverings)boundtogetherbyconnectivetissue.NervesareoftwotypesSpinalnervesandCranialNerves. SpinalNerves:Spinalnervesarisefromthespinalcord.Thereare31pairsof

spinalnervesinhumanbody.

CranialNerves:Cranialnervesarisefromthebrain.Thereare12pairsofcranialnervesinhumanbody.

Functionsofnervoussystem:1. Controlofallbodyfunctions:Nervoussystemisthemastersystemofhuman

body.Itcontrolstheactivityofallothersystemsinsuchawaythatallthesystemscollectivelymakeahumanbeing.Withoutacontrollingsystem,thereisnoconceptoflifebecauseinsuchcasetherewillbenocoordinationbetweendifferentbodyfunctionsandtheywillallactseparately.Nervoussystemnotonlycontrolsthevoluntaryfunctionsofhumanbodythataredirectedbyhumanwill,butitalsocontrolsthosefunctionsthatarebelowthelevelofconsciousnessofhumanbeings.Controlofafunctionmeansthattheintensityofthatfunctioncanbeincreasedordecreasedaccordingtothedemandsofhumanbody.

2. Coordinationofdifferentbodyorgans:Nervoussystemnotonlyproducescoordinationbetweendifferentsystems,butalsobetweendifferentorgansofasystem.Toformanorgansystem,roleofthecomponentorgansmustalsobecoordinated.Sonervoussystemisnotonlyimportantforformationofanorganismbydifferentorgansystems,butalsoforformationofasystembydifferentorgansofhumanbody.

Respiratorysystem:Respiratorysystemisthesystemofrespiratorypassages,lungsandrespiratorymusclesofhumanbody.Respiratorysystemisresponsibleforexchangeofgasesbetweenthehumanbodyandthesurroundings.Intheprocessofexchangeofgases,humanbodygainsoxygenandgetsridofcarbondioxide.Othergasesoftheatmospherehavenosignificantroleinhumanrespiratorysystem.Respiratorysystemisextremelyimportantforhumanbodybecausetheprocessofrespirationcannotbestroppedevenforafewseconds.Iftheprocessofrespirationstops

evenforaminuteortwo,theconditionwillbecomeseriousandwillultimatelyendindeath.Organsofhumanrespiratorysystem:Themainorgansofhumanrespiratorysystemarelungsandrespiratorypassages.Musclesofrespirationalsoformacomponentofrespiratorysystembutthereimportanceisratherlittleascomparedtolungsandrespiratorypassages.

Lungs:Lungsaretheorgansofhumanbodywheregaseousexchangetakeplace.Humanbeingshavetwolungsknownastherightandleftlungs.Lungsaresoft,spongyandveryelastic.

RespiratoryPassages:Respiratorypassagesorairwaysaretheconductingportionsofhumanrespiratorysystem.Herenoexchangeofgasestakesplace,buttheyguidetheairtogotothelungsandnotanywhereelseinthebody.ConductingportionofthehumanrespiratorysystemconsistsofTraches,Bronchi,Bronchioles,AlveolarsacsandAlveoli.FunctionsofRespiratorySystem:1. Gaseousexchange:Mainfunctionofrespiratorysystemisgaseous

exchange.Throughrespiratorysystemnewairisalwaysbroughtintothebodyandusedairisexpelledout.Inthiswayoxygenisgainedandcarbondioxideislostbythebody.

2. Excretionofcarbondioxide:Respiratorysystemisthemajorsystemforexcretionofcarbondioxidefromthebody.Carbondioxideisproducedasaresultofmetabolicbreakdownofcarbohydratesinbodyandmustbeeliminatedquickly.Carbondioxideisbroughttothelungsbybloodandislostfromthelungsthroughgaseousexchangewithfreshairinlungs.

3. Oxygenationofblood:Oxygenisrequiredbythebodyforbreakdownoffoodandmustbecontinuouslysuppliedforcontinuoussupplyofenergy.Supplyofoxygenismaintainedbyrespiratorysystem.

Cardiovascularsystem:

Components

Heart Hollowmuscularorganprovidingtheforceforflowofbloodthroughouthumanbody

BloodVessels

Pathwaysofbloodflowinhumanbody,hollowtubes,of3types

Arteries Carrybloodawayfromhearttootherbodyparts,verymuscularandelastic

Capillaries

Microscopicbloodvesselswhereexchangeofnutrientswithtissuestakeplace

VeinsCarrybloodtowardstheheartfromotherbodyparts,theirwallsarethinnerascomparedtocorrespondingarteries.

Blood

Specialtypeofbodytissuethatisinfluidform,consistsofthefollowingcomponents

Plasma

Bloodcells

WhiteBloodCells

RedBloodCells Platelets

Functions Providenutrientstobodyparts,RemoveexcretoryProductsfrombodyparts,Protectsbodyagainstinfection,Distributionofheat.

CardiovascularSystem:

Cardiovascularsystemmeansthesystemofheartandbloodvesselsofhumanbody.ThetermcardiovascularisacombinationoftwowordCardioandvascular.ThetermcardioisderivedfromcardiacmeaningHeartandthetermvascularmeansbloodvessels.Sothenameitselfindicatesthatacardiovascularsystemisthesystemofheartandbloodvessels.CardiovascularsystemisalsoknownasCirculatorySystem.

ComponentsofCardiovascularSystem:CardiovascularsystemismadeupofthreemajorcomponentsHeart,Bloodvesselsandblood.

Heart:Heartisahollowmuscularorganmadeofstrongcardiacmuscles.Heartcanpushthebloodthroughthecirculatorysystemwithgreatforce.Infactpushoftheheartisthemajorforcethatcausescirculationofbloodthroughouthumanbody.HeartismadeupofthreelayersPericardium,MyocardiumandEndocardium.Bloodvessels:Humanbeingshaveaclosedtypeofcirculatorysysteminwhichblooddoesnotcomeindirectcontactwithbodytissues.Insteadthebloodflowsinrestrictedpathwayscalledbloodvessels.Materialsareexchangedbetweenbloodandbodytissuesthroughthewallsofbloodvessels.Thusbloodvesselsarepathwaysofbloodflowinhumanbody.TherearethreemaintypesofbloodvesselsArteries,CapillariesandVeins.Blood:Bloodisaspecializedtissueofbodythatexistsinfluidform.Itisoneofthefivebasictypesoftissuesofhumanbody.Bloodconsistsoftwomajorportions:BloodcellsandPlasma.Plasmaisthewateryportionofbloodthatmakesitafluid.90%ofbloodplasmaiswaterandremaining10%areproteins,inclusionsandwasteproductsetc.Bloodcellsareofthreemaintypes:RedBloodCells(RBCs),WhiteBloodCells(WBCs)andPlatelets.

ImportanceofCardiovascularSystem:Perfectlyfunctioningcardiovascularsystemissoimportantforhumanbody,thatifitstopsforaminute,rapiddeathwilloccur.Theflowofbloodisnecessaryforexistenceoflife.Iftheflowofbloodisstopped,lifewillstop.Heartisthemainorganofcardiovascularsystemanditisresponsiblefordistributingbloodalloverhumanbody.HeartdiseasesarecategorizedastheleadingcauseofdeathinUnitedStates.

LymphaticSystemOutline:

Components

LymphvesselsCarrylymphfromtissuespacestothevenoussystem,startsblindlyaslymphcapillariesintissuespaces,theirwallsarepermeabletosubstancesofmuchgreatersize

CentralLymphoidTissues

BoneMarrow

Producesallpluripotentlymphoidcells(inadults),helpsindifferentiationofBLymphocytes

Thymus HelpsindifferentiationofTLymphocytes

PeripheralLymphoidOrgans

Lymphnode

Smallnodulesoflymphoidtissuefoundinthecourseofsmallerlymphvessels,purifythelymphfromharmfulagents

SpleenRemovesoldbloodcellsfromcirculatingpool,Keepsareserveofbloodforemergency,Synthesizesantibodies

Epithelialymphoidtissues

Lymphoidnodulesinplaceslikealimentarycanalandrespiratorytracts,Worksasasecuritycheckagainsalltheincomingagents.

LymphocytesMatureBandTLymphocytescirculatinginblood,protectsthebodyagainstanyinfectiousagentthatenterstheblood

Functions Removalofparticulatematter,Productionoflymphocytes,Generationofimmuneresponses

Lymphaticsystem:

Lymphaticsystemisthedrainagesystemofhumanbodyandisaccessorytothevenoussystem.Atarterialendsofcapillariesfluidleaksoutandatthevenousend,itisabsorbedbackin.Someofthefluidremainsinthetissuespaces.Thisfluidiscalledlymphandthesystembywhichthislymphisreturnedbacktobloodiscalledlymphaticsystem.Inadditiontoitsdrainagefunction,lymphaticsystemisalsoaneffectivedefensesystemofthebodybecausesomeorgansofthelymphaticsystem(lymphoreticularorgans)areinvolvedindefenseactivitiesofthebody.

Componentsoflymphaticsystem:Lymphaticsystemiscomposedofthefollowingimportantcomponents.

Lymphvessels:Lymphvesselsarepathwaysforflowoflympharoundthebody.Lymphvesselsbeginaslymphcapillariesthatbeginblindlyintissuespacesandleadtolargerlymphvessels.Lymphvesselsdonotarisefromavascularstructures,brain,spinalcord,bonemarrowandsplenicpulp.Largerlymphvesselsanastomosefreelywithoneanotherandtheyultimatelydrainthelymphintothevenoussystem.

Centrallymphoidtissue:Centrallymphoidtissueconsistsofbonemarrowandthymus.

Peripherallymphoidorgans:Peripherallymphoidorgansarelymphnodes,spleenandepithelialymphoidtissues(lymphoidtissuepresentinepitheliume.g.lymphoidtissueofalimentaryandrespiratorytracts).

Circulatingpooloflymphocytes:ItcontainsmatureprogeniesofTlymphocytesandBlymphocytes.Theyformthefirstlineofdefenseofthebodyduringantigenicemergencies.FunctionsofLymphaticSystem:1. Removeparticulatematter:Lymphcapillariesabsorbandremovelarge

proteinmoleculesandotherparticulatematterfromtissuespaces.Inthiswaycellulardebrisandotherharmfulparticlesarewashedaway.

2. Filterthelymphforforeignharmful:Lymphnodesactasfilterforthelymphandinthiswaytheypurifythelymphflowingthroughthem.

3. Phagocytosis:Antigensareremovedfromlymphbyphagocyticactivityofcellsoflymphnode.

4. Productionoflymphocytes:MatureBlymphocytesandmature

Tlymphocytesareproducedinlymphnodes.

5. Immuneresponses:Lymphaticsystemcaninducebothcellularandhumoralimmuneresponses.

Endocrinesystem:

Components

TypicalEndocrineGlands

PituitaryGland

Masterglandofthebody,Ithastwolobes,Presentatthebaseofbraininformofaprotrusion,Secretes9differentmajorhormones

ThyroidGland

Oneofthelargestglandsofbody,Foundinneckbelowthethyroidcartilage,Mainlycontrolsbodymetabolism,Secretes3differenthormones

ParathyroidGlands

Fourinnumber,locatedbehindthethyroidgland,produceparathormone

AdrenalGlands

Foundattachedtothekidneys,ConsistsoftwopartsCortexandMedulla,Adrenalcortexproduces3differenthormonesandadrenalmedullaproduces4differenthormones

Organswith

Secondaryendocrinefunction

PancreasPrimarilyanorganofdigestivesystem,produces4differenthormonesincludingInsulinandGlucagon

GonadsPrimarilyorgansofreproductivesystem,Testesinmalesproducetestosterone,OvariesinfemalesproduceOestrogens

andProgesterone

LiverPrimarilyametabolicorganofhumanbody,produces3differenttypesofhormones

Kidneys PrimarilyanorganofExcretorysystem,Produces4differenttypesofhormones

Functions Generallyitparallelstheassociatesthenervoussystemincontrolofbodyactivitie,Eachhormonehasaspecificfunction,

EndocrineSystem:Endocrinesystemisthesystemofglandsofhumanbody.Eachoftheseglandssecretesoneormoredifferenthormonesinthebloodfordifferentfunctions.Thesecretionsofendocrineglandsareknownashormones.Eachendocrineglandmaysecreteoneormorehormonesinthebloodandthesehormonesmayormaynothaverelatedfunctions.Generallythehormonesregulatedifferentfunctionsofhumanbodylikegrowth,mood,development,andmetabolismetc.Theperformtheirfunctionbyattachingtothetargetcellsandthencommunicatingwiththem.

EndocrineGlands:Endocrineglandsareductlessglandsofhumanbodythatpourtheirsecretions(hormones)directlyintotheblood.Theyhavethreecharacteristicfeaturesthatare:

1. Theyareductless2. Theyarehighlyvascularized3. Theypossessintracellularvacuolesorgranulesthatstorethehormones

EndocrineglandsofHumanBody:Endocrineglandsofhumanbodyaredividedintotwocategories1)typicalendocrineglands,2)Organshavingsecondaryendocrinefunction.

1)Typicalendocrineglands:Theseglandshaveprimaryfunctionofproducinghormonesforhumanbody.Typicalendocrineglandsinclude

1. Pituitarygland.2. Thyroidgland.3. Parathyroidgland.4. Adrenalgland.

TypicalEndocrineGlands

2)Organshavingsecondaryendocrinefunction:Theseorgansprimarilybelongtosomeothersystemofthebodybuthaveasecondaryfunctionofproducinghormones.Theyinclude

1. Pancreas(HormonesofPancreas)2. Ovaries(Infemales)(HormonesofOvaries)3. Testes(Inmales)(HormonesofTestes)4. Kidneys(HormonesofKidneys)5. Liver(HormonesofLiver)

Functionsoftheendocrinesystem:Asstatedabove,endocrinesystemisaregulatorysystemofhumanbody.Infactitassociatesthenervoussystemincontrollingbodyfunctions.Thecontrolofbodyfunctionbythenervoussystemiscallednervouscoordinationandthecontrolofbodyfunctionsbytheendocrinesystemiscalledchemicalcoordination.Thecontrolofbodyfunctionsbytheendocrinesystemisalongtermcontrolsystem.Allthenecessarychangesandadaptationsofthebody,requiredforthelongtermcontrolofaspecificfunction,areinfluencedbythehormonalsystem.

DigestiveSystemDigestionistheprocessbywhichfoodisbrokendownintosmallerpiecessothebodycanusethemtobuildandnourishcells,andtoprovideenergy.Digestioninvolvesthemixingoffood,itsmovementthroughthedigestivetract(alsoknownasthealimentarycanal),andthechemicalbreakdownoflargermoleculesintosmallermolecules.Everypieceoffoodweeathastobebrokendownintosmallernutrientsthatthebodycan

absorb,whichiswhyittakeshourstofullydigestfood.

Thedigestivesystemismadeupofthedigestivetract.Thisconsistsofalongtubeoforgansthatrunsfromthemouthtotheanusandincludestheoesophagus,stomach,smallintestine,andlargeintestine,togetherwiththeliver,gallbladder,andpancreas,whichproduceimportantsecretionsfordigestionthatdrainintothesmallintestine.Thedigestivetractinanadultisabout30feetlong

MouthandSalivaryGlands

Digestionbeginsinthemouth,wherechemicalandmechanicaldigestionoccurs.Salivaorspit,producedbythesalivaryglands(locatedunderthetongueandnearthelowerjaw),isreleasedintothemouth.Salivabeginstobreakdownthefood,moisteningitandmakingiteasiertoswallow.Adigestiveenzyme(amylase)inthesalivabeginstobreakdownthecarbohydrates(starchesandsugars).Oneofthemostimportantfunctionsofthemouthischewing.Chewingallowsfoodtobemashedintoasoftmassthatiseasiertoswallowanddigestlater.

Movementsbythetongueandthemouthpushthefoodtothebackofthethroatforittobeswallowed.Aflexibleflapcalledtheepiglottisclosesoverthetrachea(windpipe)toensurethatfoodenterstheoesophagusandnotthewindpipetopreventchoking.

Oesophagus

Oncefoodisswallowed,itenterstheoesophagus,amusculartubethatisabout10incheslong.Theoesophagusislocatedbetweenthethroatandthestomach.Muscularwavelikecontractionsknownasperistalsispushthefooddownthroughtheoesophagustothestomach.Amuscularring(cardiacsphincter)attheendoftheoesophagusallowsfoodtoenterthestomach,and,then,itsqueezesshuttopreventfoodandfluidfromgoingbackuptheoesophagus.

Stomach

ThestomachisaJshapedorganthatliesbetweentheoesophagusandthesmallintestineintheupperabdomen.Thestomachhas3mainfunctions:tostoretheswallowedfoodandliquidtomixupthefood,liquid,anddigestivejuicesproducedbythestomachandtoslowlyemptyitscontentsintothesmallintestine.

Onlyafewsubstances,suchaswaterandalcohol,canbeabsorbeddirectlyfromthestomach.Anyotherfoodsubstancesmustundergothedigestiveprocessesofthestomach.Thestomach'sstrongmuscularwallsmixandchurnthefoodwithacidsandenzymes(gastricjuice),breakingitintosmallerpieces.Aboutthreequartsofthegastricjuiceisproducedbyglandsinthestomacheveryday.

Thefoodisprocessedintoasemiliquidformcalledchyme.Aftereatingameal,thechymeisslowlyreleasedalittleatatimethroughthepyloricsphincter,athickenedmuscularringbetweenthestomachandthefirstpartofthesmallintestinecalledthe

duodenum.Mostfoodleavesthestomachbyfourhoursaftereating.

SmallIntestine

Mostdigestionandabsorptionoffoodoccursinthesmallintestine.Thesmallintestineisanarrow,twistingtubethatoccupiesmostofthelowerabdomenbetweenthestomachandthebeginningofthelargeintestine.Itextendsabout20feetinlength.Thesmallintestineconsistsofthreeparts:theduodenum(theCshapedpart),thejejunum(thecoiledmidsection),andtheileum(thelastsection).

Thesmallintestinehastwoimportantfunctions.

1. Thedigestiveprocessiscompletedherebyenzymesandothersubstancesmadebyintestinalcells,thepancreas,andtheliver.Glandsintheintestinewallssecreteenzymesthatbreakdownstarchesandsugars.Thepancreassecretesenzymesintothesmallintestinethathelpbreakdowncarbohydrates,fats,andproteins.Theliverproducesbile,whichisstoredinthegallbladder.Bilehelpstomakefatmolecules(whichotherwisearenotsolubleinwater)soluble,sotheycanbeabsorbedbythebody.

2. Thesmallintestineabsorbsthenutrientsfromthedigestiveprocess.Theinnerwallofthesmallintestineiscoveredbymillionsoftinyfingerlikeprojectionscalledvilli.Thevilliarecoveredwitheventinierprojectionscalledmicrovilli.Thecombinationofvilliandmicrovilliincreasethesurfaceareaofthesmallintestinegreatly,allowingabsorptionofnutrientstooccur.Undigestedmaterialtravelsnexttothelargeintestine.

LargeIntestine

ThelargeintestineformsanupsidedownUoverthecoiledsmallintestine.Itbeginsatthelowerrighthandsideofthebodyandendsonthelowerlefthandside.Thelargeintestineisabout56feetlong.Ithasthreeparts:thececum,thecolon,andtherectum.Thececumisapouchatthebeginningofthelargeintestine.Thisareaallowsfoodtopassfromthesmallintestinetothelargeintestine.Thecoloniswherefluidsandsaltsareabsorbedandextendsfromthececumtotherectum.Thelastpartofthelargeintestineistherectum,whichiswherefeces(wastematerial)isstoredbeforeleavingthebodythroughtheanus.

Themainjobofthelargeintestineistoremovewaterandsalts(electrolytes)fromtheundigestedmaterialandtoformsolidwastethatcanbeexcreted.Bacteriainthelargeintestinehelptobreakdowntheundigestedmaterials.Theremainingcontentsofthelargeintestinearemovedtowardtherectum,wherefaecesarestoreduntiltheyleavethebodythroughtheanusasabowelmovement.

UrinarySystem

Components

KidneysKidneysaretwobeanshapedorganslyingclosetothelumbarspineoneitherside,theyaremultifunctionorgan,formurineandcontrolitsconcentration

UretersTwohollowmusculartubesonearisingfromeachkidneyandendingattheurinarybladder,connectkidneystothebladder

UrinaryBladder

Storesurinebeforeitisexcretedfromthebody,hollowmuscularanddistensibleorgan,sitsonthepelvicfloor.

Urethra Atubeconnectingtheurinalybladdertothegenitalsforexcretion

Functions Excretionofnitrogenouswastes,Osmoregulation,AcidBasebalance

UrinarySystemUrinarysystemisalsoknownasexcretorysystemofhumanbody.Itisthesystemofproduction,storageandeliminationofurine.Formationandeliminationofurineisimportantforhumanbodybecauseurinecontainsnitrogenouswastesofthebodythatmustbeeliminatedtomaintainhomeostasis.Nitrogenouswastesareformedbymetabolicactivitiesinthecells.Thesenitrogenouswastesalongwithexcessofsaltsandwaterarecombinedinthekidneystoformurine.Urinarysystemisimportantforkeepingtheinternalenvironmentofthebodyclean.Urinarysystemmaintainsproperhomeostasisofwater,saltsandnitrogenouswastes.Componentsofurinarysystem:Humanurinarysystemconsistsoftwokidneys,twoureters,aurinarybladder,aurethraandsphinctermuscles. Kidneys:Kidneysarethemajororgansofurinarysystem.Formationofurine

takesplaceinkidneyswhicharetwobeanshapedorganslyingclosetothelumbarspine,oneoneachsideofthebody.

Ureters:Thesearemusculartubesextendingfromthekidneystotheurinarybladder.Urineflowsinthesetubesfromkidneytotheurinarybladder.

Urinarybladder:UrinaryBladdercollectsurinebeforeitisexcretedfromthebody.Urinarybladderisahollowmuscularandelasticorgansitingonthepelvicfloor

Urethra:Urethraisatubethatconnectstheurinarybladdertotheexternalgenitaliaforeliminationfromthebody.

Sphinctermuscles:Therearetwosphinctermusclestocontroltheeliminationofurinefromhumanbody.Theexternalofthetwomusclesisstriatedandisundervoluntarycontrolofthebody.

Functionsofurinarysystem:Asstatedabove,urinarysystemistheexcretorysystemofhumanbody.Itperformsthefollowingimportantfunctions1. Formationandeliminationofurine:Themainfunctionofurinarysystemis

formationandeliminationofurine.Urineisformedbythekidneysin3steps1)GlomerularFiltration,2)Tubularreabsorption,and3)Tubularsecretion.

2. Osmoregulation:Kidneysareimportantosmoregulatoryorgansofhumanbody.Theymaintainsaltandwaterbalanceofthebody.Iftheconcentrationofsaltorwaterisincreasedabovenormal,kidneywillexcretetheexcessamount.Iftheconcentrationisdecreased,kidneyswillreducethelossofwaterandsaltsinurine.

3. Acidbasebalance:KidneysareimportantregulatorsofpHofbodyfluids.KidneyskeepthepHbalancedwithinaverysmallrangeandprovideanoptimumenvironmentforallprocessesoflife

TheintegumentarysystemTheIntegumentarysystemistheorgansystemthatprotectshumanbodyfromdamage.Itconsistsofskinanditsappendages,whichincludehair,nails,andsweatglandsetc.Itformsabout16percentoftheweightofhumanbody.

Functions:TheIntegumentarysystemhasavarietyoffunctions.

Itservesasawaterproofcushionthatprotectsdeepertissues. Itexcreteswastesandregulatesbodytemperature Itistheattachmentsitefordifferenttypesofsensoryreceptorstodetect

pain,sensation,pressure,andtemperature. ItisalsoasourceofvitaminDsynthesiswhichisrequiredforhealthy

humanbody.

Thereproductivesystem:MaleReproductiveSystemOutline:

Components

Penis Malecopulatoryorganhavingalongshaftandabulboustip,transfersthesemenintothefemalereproductivetract

Testes

Componentsofbothreproductivesystemandendocrinesystem,producesementhatcontainssperms

Functions Fertilizationoffemalestoproduceoffspring

MaleReproductiveSystem:Malereproductivesystemisthesystemofsexorgansofmalehumanbeingsthatareapartoftheoverallreproductiveprocessofhumanbeings.Reproductionisthecapacityofalllivingorganismstogiverisetotheirbabiesthataresimilartothem.Inhumanbeings,sexualtypeofreproductiontakesplaceandforthistypeofreproduction,maleandfemalereproductivesystemsarerequired.Malereproductivesystemismainlyconcernedwithproductionofsemen(whitishviscousfluidemittedfromthemalereproductivetractthatcontainsspermandfluids)andtransferringitintothefemalereproductivetract.

Organsofmalereproductivesystem:Theorgansofmalereproductivesystemarepenisandtestes.Theylieoutsidethemalesbodyinthepelvicregion. Penis:Penisistheexternalsexualorganofmalehumanbeings.Itsmainroleis

togetaccesstothefemalereproductivesystemduringsexualintercourse.Inadditiontothereproductiverole,italsoservesastheexcretoryorganthroughwhichurineisexpelledoutofthebody.

Testes:Testesarecomponentsofbothreproductiveandendocrinesystem.Forreproductivesystemtheyproducespermandforendocrinesystemtheyproducemalesexhormonesliketestosterone.

Functionsofthemalereproductivesystem:Testes,thatareorgansofmalereproductivesystem,alsoproducemalesexhormonesthatdistinguishmalenessfromfemaleness.Reproductionistheprocessthroughwhichlifecontinuestoexist.Everyindividualhasalimitedlifespanandnoonecansurviveforever.Forthesurvivaloflife,reproductionisanecessaryprocessbecauseotherwisenonewlifewillbeformedandoldlifewilldisappear.Sobothreproductivesystems,whethermaleorfemale,areimportantforsurvivaloflife.FemaleReproductiveSystemOutline:

Components

InternalParts

Uterus

Majorfemalereproductiveorgan,oneendcalledcervixopensintovaginaandotherendisconnectedtothefallopiantubes,Developmentoffoetusoccurswithinuterus

Ovaries

Twoinnumber,Eggproducingfemalereproductiveorgan,ovalinshapeandovaryofeachsideislocatedintheovarianfossaofcorrespondingsideofpelvis

ExternalParts

Vulva Externalgenitalorganoffemales,containstheopeningofvagina

Labia Structuresofskinandadiposetissuethatextendsonbothsidesofvulva

ClitorisButtonlikeportionnearthelabiaminora,erectsonsexualarousement

Functions Receivethespermsfrommalereproductivesystem,Bearthedevelopingfoetusthroughtheentireperiodofgestation

FemaleReproductiveSystem:FemaleReproductiveSystemFemalereproductivesystemisthesystemofreproductioninfemalehumanbeings.Thefemalereproductivesystemiscomplexascomparedtothemalereproductivesystem.Femaleshavetobearfetusduringfetalperiodofdevelopmentwithintheirbodies.Modificationsandadaptationstobearthefetusmakefemalereproductivesystemmorecomplex.Thefemalebodyalsoshowscertainadaptationstobecomecapableofbearingthefetusforninemonths.Mainroleoffemalereproductivesystemistoproduceeggsandallowtheprocessoffertilizationanddevelopmenttotakeplacewithintheirbody.TheorgansoffemalereproductivesystemareOrgansoffemalereproductivesystem:Femalereproductivesystemconsistsinternalandexternalparts.

Internalparts:Internalpartsarethefunctionalpartsoffemalereproductivesystem.Therearetwomaininternalpartstheuterusandtheovaries. Uterus:Uterus(alsoknownaswomb)isthemajorreproductiveorganof

females.Ithoststhedevelopingfetus,producessecretionsofthefemalereproductivesystemandallowsthepassageofspermstofallopiantubeswherespermsfertilizewitheggs.

Ovaries:Ovariesaresmallpairedorganslocatednearthepelviccavityoffemales.Ovariesproducethefemaleeggcells.

Externalparts:Externalpartsareaccessorypartsoffemalereproductivesystem.Theyhelpintheprocessoffertilization,andparturitionetc.Theyare

Vulva Labia Clitoris

Functionsoffemalereproductivesystem:Theovariesproduceeggs,whicharefertilizedbyspermsandzygoteisformed.Thedevelopmentofzygotetoacompletehumanbabytakesplaceinfemalereproductivesystem.Sources:

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/skeletalsystem

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/muscularsystem

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/nervoussystem

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/respiratorysystem

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/cardiovascularsystem

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/lymphaticsystem

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/endocrinesystem

http://www.mananatomy.com/digestivesystem

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/urinarysystem

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/integumentarysystem

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/malereproductivesystem

http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/femalereproductivesystem

P4:Explainthephysiologyoftwonamedbodysystemsinrelationtoenergymetabolisminthebody.

M1:discusstheroleofenergyinthebody.

D1:Analysehowtwobodysystemsinterrelatetoperformanamedfunction/functions.

Energylaws:energycanbedefinedasthecapacytodowork.

Theconservationlaw:Energycannotbecreatedordestroyed,butitcanbetransferredortransformedfromoneformtoanother(includingtransformationinto

orfrommass,asmatter).Thetotalamountofenergyinaclosedsystemneverchanges.

Energyinasystemmaybetransformedsothatitresidesinadifferentstate.Energyinmanystatesmaybeusedtodomanyvarietiesofphysicalwork.Energymaybeusedinnaturalprocessesormachines,orelsetoprovidesomeservicetosociety.

Example:whenweeatarichmealwithcarbohydratesandsomevitaminsbeforeexercisingitwillgiveyouenergytorunfasteretcdoitgiveusenergyandenergycomesfromfood.

Energyforms:

Chemicalenergy. Heatenergy. Lightenergy. Soundenergy. Electricalenergy. Nuclearenergy.

Energymetabolism:

Theroleofenergyinthebody

Energyisneedednotonlyformusclemovementbutformanybodyfunctionssuchasblood,Lymphandtissuefluidcirculation,breathing,makingnewcellsforbreathing,makingnewcellsforgrowthandrepair,transmittingnerveimpulsesanddigestingfood.

Catabolicreactionsarethechemicalreactionswhichbreakdownmoleculestoreleaseenergy.

Anabolicreactionsaretheoneswhosbuildingcomplexmoleculesfromsimplesubstancesandusingenergy.

Bodysystemsandenergymetabolism

Theactivitiesinvolvedinsupplyingenergytothecellsincludetherolesofthecardiovascular,respiratoryanddigestivesystems.

Digestivesystem:

Thedigestivesystemisresponsiblefortakinginfoodandwaterand,usingenzymes,breakingupcomplexmoleculesintosimplesolublematerialsthatarecapableofpassingintotheadjacentcapillariesofthecardiovascularsystem.

Metabolismincludesallchemicalbreakdowns(catabolic)andbuilding(anabolic)reactionsneededtomaintainlife.

Weneedcarbohydratesbecausethemostimportantpartonitisglucose,andglucoseisthebody'smajorenergyfuel.Whenglucoseisoxidized,carbondioxideandwaterareformed.Thesequentialpathwaysofglucosecatabolismareglycolysis,whichoccursinthecytosol,andtheelectrontransportchain(inthemitochondria).Duringhyperglycemiawhichmeansthatthereistoomuchglucoseinthebloodstream,anditconnectedusuallywithdiabetesmellitus.Glucoseisstoredasglycogenorconvertedtofat.Inhypoglycemia,glycogenolysis(itistheBreakdownofglycogentoglucose),gluconeogenesis(itistheformationofglucose,especiallybytheliver,fromnoncarbohydratesources,suchasaminoacidsandtheglycerolportionoffats),andfatbreakdownoccurtorestorenormalbloodglucoselevels.

Thenfatsinsulatethebody,protectorgans,buildsomecellstructures(membranesandmyelinsheaths),andprovidereserveenergy.Whencarbohydratesarenotavailable,morefatsareoxidizedtoproduceATP(theATPistoprovideenergyandrunotherprocessesinthebodyitsextremelyimportantinCellularRespiration).Excessivefatbreakdowncausesbloodtobecomeacidic.Excessdietaryfatisstoredinsubcutaneoustissueandotherfatdepots.

ThenProteinsformthebulkofcellstructureandmostfunctionalmolecules.Theyarecarefullyconservedbybodycells.Aminoacidsareactivelytakenupfrombloodbytissuecellsthosethatcannotbemadebybodycellsarecalledessentialaminoacids.AminoacidsareoxidizedtoformATPmainlywhenotherfuelsourcesarenotavailable.Ammonia,releasedasaminoacidsarecatabolized,isdetoxifiedbylivercellsthatcombineitwithcarbondioxidetoformurea.

Theliveristhebody'skeymetabolicorgan.Itscellsremovenutrientsfromhepaticportalblood.Itperformsglycogenesis(glucoseconvertedtoandstoredasglycogen),glycogenolysis(glycogenbrokendownintoglucose),andgluconeogenesis(formationofglucosefromproteinsandfats)tomaintainhomeostasisofbloodglucoselevels.Itscellsmakebloodproteinsandother

substancesandreleasethemtoblood.Fatsareburnedbylivercellstoprovidesomeoftheirenergy(ATP)excessesarestoredorreleasedtobloodinsimplerformsthatcanbeusedbyothertissuecells.Phagocyticcellsremovebacteriafromhepaticportalblood.Mostcholesterolismadebythelivercholesterolbreakdownproductsaresecretedinbile.Fatsandcholesterolaretransportedinthebloodbylipoproteins.LDL'stransportcholesteroltobodycellsHDL'scarrycholesteroltotheliverfordegradation.Cholesterolisusedtomakefunctionalmoleculesandforsomestructuralpurposesitisnotusedforenergy.

Adynamicbalanceexistsbetweenenergyintakeandtotalenergyoutput(heat+work+energystorage).Interferencewiththisbalanceresultsinobesityormalnutritionleadingtobodywasting.

Whenthethreemajortypesoffoodsareoxidizedforenergy,theyyielddifferentamountsofenergy,Carbohydratesandproteinsyield4kcal/gramfatsyield9kcal/gram.Basalmetabolicrate(BMR)isthetotalamountofenergyusedbythebodywhenoneisinabasalstate.Age,sex,bodysurfacearea,andamountofthyroxinproducedinfluenceBMR.

Totalmetabolicrate(TMR)isnumberofcaloriesusedbythebodytoaccomplishallongoingdailyactivities.Itincreasesdramaticallyasmuscleactivityincreases.WhenTMRequalstotalcaloricintake,weightremainsconstant.

AsfoodsarecatabolizedtoformATP,morethan60percentofenergyreleasedescapesasheat,warmingthebody.Thehypothalamusinitiatesheatlossprocesses(radiationofheatfromskinandevaporationofsweat)orheatpromotingprocesses(vasoconstrictionofskinbloodvesselsandshivering)asnecessarytomaintainbodytemperaturewithinnormallimits.Fever(hyperthermia)representsbodytemperatureregulatedathigherthannormallevels.

CardiovascularSystem Thecardiovascularsystemtransportsthesesimplematerialstotheliverand

bodycellsviathebloodstream,drivenbythepumpingactiontotheheart.

Anabolism

Thecardiovascularsystemprovidesthebody'scellswiththeoxygen,obtainedthroughtherespiratorysystem,andnutrients,thatareprovidedbythedigestive

system,theyneedtogenerateenergyandwiththebuildingblockstheyneedtomakelargermolecules.

Catabolism

Thecardiovascularusesoxygenandnutrientstheyneedtogenerateenergyandadenosinetriphosphateinordertomaintainthehearttissuesandtissuesofthenetworkofarteries,veinsandcapillaries.

RespiratorySystemtherespiratorysystemconstantlyrefresheslungoxygenanddisposesofwasteproducts(carbondioxideandwater)throughtheprocessofbreathing.Dissolvedoxygenthroughthethinalvectorwallsintothebloodstreamandistransportedtocells.ThereareBodycellsthathaveaconstantdeliveryofrawmaterialssuchasglucoseandothernutrientsanddissolvedoxidation.

Anabolism

theRespiratorySystemprovidesaplatformforobtainingoxygenfortheuseincellularmetabolism.Throughtheuseofgaseousexchangeoxygenentersthecardiovascularsystemfordistributionaroundthebody.

Catabolism

TheRespiratorySystemalsoprovidesaplatformforexcretingcarbondioxideoneofthewasteproductsofcellularmetabolism.Thisisalsocompletedthroughtheuseofgaseousexchange.Theremovalofthiswasteproductensuresthatthereisspacefortheoxygentobecollectedtomeetcellulardemand.

Howtwobodysystemsinterrelatetogether?

Therespiratoryandcirculatorysystemsworktogethertodeliveroxygentocellsofthebody(thelungsthroughairexchange,andthecirculatorysystembydeliveryofhemoglobincontainingredcellstothecapillarieswhereoxygenisreleasedintothetissues)andremovalofcarbondioxide.

Thecirculatorysystemdeliversnutrientsabsorbedthroughthewallsofthesmallintestinetootherorgans(suchastheliver,muscles,brain,heart),anddeliversoxygenatedbloodtothedigestivesystem.

Youbreatheinoxygenintoyourlungs.Theoxygendiffusesacrossthethinwallsofthealveoliinthelungsandthethinwallsofthebloodvesselsinthelungsintothebloodstream.Hereitattachestothehaemoglobinmoleculesinsideredbloodcells.Theredbloodcellsarecarriedbythebloodvesselstoallpartsofthebody.Thehaemoglobinreleasesoxygenintheperiphery,andpicksupcarbondioxide(CO2).TheCO2attachedtothehaemoglobinmoleculesintheredbloodcellsisthentransportedtothelungs,whereitdiffusesacrossthewallsintothealveoli,andisbreathedout.

Whenyourbloodgetstoyourlungs,theoxygenfromyourlungsgetputintoyourbloodstream.Thenitgoesbacktotheheart,withtheoxygenenrichedbloodbeingdeliveredtoallpartsofyourbody.

Essentially,therespiratorytakesintheair,andthecirculatorycirculatesitaroundthebody.Webreatheinair,whichcontainsoxygen,andthisoxygeniscarriedbyourredcellsaroundthebody.Ifourrespiratorysystemispoor,ouroxygenwouldnotbeenough,wewouldbecomebreathlessetc.therespiratorysystemgivesoxygentothebloodcellsinthecirculatorysystem.Also,theybothcontainthelungsandgivesblood.Therespiratorysystemprovidesoxygentotheblood.Thecirculatorysystemcarriestheoxygenatedbloodthroughoutthebody,keepingcells(andyou)aliveandfunctioningwell.Whenyoubreatheinairitgoesinyourlungsandtheoxygendiffusesintothebloodstreamviathecapillaries.Thentheoxygeniscarriedthroughoutyourbodyasneeded.Therespiratorysystemwouldnotfunctionwithoutthecirculatorysystem,andviceversa.Thecirculatorysystemrequiresoxygen,anditonlygetsthisoxygenwhenthebloodpassesthroughthelungsandcollectsoxygentobringtotherestofyourbody.Therespiratorysystemusesbloodtoreplenishitselfwithinthelungs,continuingitsnormalfunction.Theheartpumpsbloodintothelungswherethebloodisoxygenated.Thebloodisthenreturnedtotheheartandthenewlyoxygenatedbloodiscirculatedtotherestofthebody.

Sources:Howarethedigestive,respiratory,andcirculatorysystemsJustAnswerhttp://www.justanswer.com/medical/25ibwdigestiverespiratorycirculatorysystems.html#ixzz2Bii8ImZ4

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_are_the_respiratory_system_and_the_circul

atory_system_related#ixzz2BijDNDkX

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_law_of_conservation_of_energy

P5:explaintheconceptofhomeostasis

M2:Predictthehomeostatictothechangesintheinternalenvironmentduringexercise

D2:evaluatetheimportanceofhomeostasisinmaintainingthehealthyfunctioningofthebody

Homeostasisisthetechnicaltermfortheprocessofmonitoringaconstantinternalenvironment(blood,tissuefluidbodycellcontentsandmetabolicprocesses)despiteexternalchanges.Homeostasisisamixtureoftwowordshomeomeans

bodyandstasismeansthesame.Simplyput,homeostasisisaboutkeepingthebodyinbalance.

E.g.ifyouaretoohotyoumayremovesomeofyourclothing(avoluntaryresponse)andyoumaysweat(anautonomicresponse)tohelpgetyourbodytemperaturebacktonormal.

Examplesofconditionsthatarebalancedbyhomeostasisincludetemperature,bloodsugar,bloodoxygen,carbondioxide,waterandurealevels.

Negativefeedbacksystemsrequire. Receptorstodetectchange. Acontrolcentretoreceivetheinformationandprocesstheresponse(usually

thebrain). Effectorstoreversethechangeandreestablishtheoriginalstate.

Thisisimportantbecauseiftheinternalconditionswerenotkeptinbalance,thentheenzymesandotherchemicalswouldnotbeabletofunctionproperly.Wehavelotsofmechanismstokeepyourbodyinbalance_someofthesearevoluntary(youcontrolthem)andsomeofthemareautonomic(youhavenocontroloverthem).E.g.ifyouaretoohotyoumayremovesomeofyourclothing(avoluntaryresponse)andyoumaysweat(anautonomicresponse)tohelpgetyourtemperaturebacktonormal.

Examplesofconditionsthatarebalancedbyhomeostasisincludetemperature,bloodsugar,bloodoxygen,carbondioxide,andwaterandurealevels.

1.Howdoesbreathingratereferto?Thenumberoftimesyoubreatheinacertainamountoftime.

2.Whatisthehomeostatictemperatureinyourbody?bodytemperatureiscontrolledbythethermoregulatorycentreinthehypothalamus.Itreceivesinputfromtwosetsofthermoreceptors:receptorsinthehypothalamusitselfmonitorthetemperatureofthebloodasitpassesthroughthebrain(thecoretemperature),andreceptorsintheskin(especiallyonthetrunk)monitortheexternaltemperature.Bothsetsofinformationareneededsothatthebodycanmakeappropriateadjustments.

3.Whatarebloodglucoselevels?(Bloodglucoselevel)Thebloodsugarconcentrationorbloodglucoselevelistheamountofglucose(sugar)presentinthebloodofahumanoranimal.

4.Howdoeshomeostasisregulateheartrate?Thesetprocessfortheregulationoftheheartrateisrathercomplexandisasfollows.Asanindividualexercises,

specialreceptorslocatedwithinthemusclessendimpulsestothemedulla.

5.Howdoeshomeostasisregulatebreathingrate?Therespiratorycontrolcentreofthebrainsensesthatthelevelsareincorrectandincreasesboththeheartrateandbreathingratetomakeupthedifference.Asyoustoptheactivity,therespiratorycontrolcentreslowstheheartandbreathingratebackdowntomaintainhomeostasisinthebloodstream.

6.Howdoeshomeostasisregulatebloodglucoselevels?Bloodsugarlevelsareregulatedbyhormonalcontrolthroughanegativefeedbacksystem.IfthebloodsugarlevelincreasestomuchBetacellsintheisletsofLangerhansfromthepancreaswillsecreteinsulin.Nowinsulinwillreducebloodsugarlevelsinanumberofdifferentways,itwillbindtoinsulinreceptorsonthecellsurfacemembranewhichcausesvesiclesthatcarryextraglucosecarriermoleculestofusewiththemembraneofthecell,thisinturnincreasesthepermeabilityofthecellmembranetoglucoseandsothecellwillincreasetheuptakeofglucose.

Negativefeedbacksystemsrequire:

Receptorstodetectchange. Acontrolcentretoreceivetheinformationandprocesstheresponse(usually

thebrain). Effectorstoreversethechangeandreestablishtheoriginalstate.

Negativefeedbackasaformofregulation:

Negativefeedbackoccurswhenanimportantvariable,sometimesknownasakeyvariable,suchasthePHofbloodandtissuefluid,deviatesfromtheacceptedrangeorlimits,andtriggersresponsetocounteractornullifythedeviation.Theliverglycogenisconvertedintoglucoseinordertotopupthosecrucialenergylevelsincells.

Thebrainandnervoussystemplayavitalroleincontrollinghomeostaticmechanismsandtheyalsohelpustoanticipatewhenkeyvariablesmightriseorfallbeyondtheacceptedrange.Forexample,ifitisseveralhourssinceyourlastmealandyouarefeelingtiredandcold,youwilltrytoeatawarm,energygivingmealtocounteractthesefeelings,thiscanbetermedasfeedforward(ratherthanfeedback),asyouaretakingstepstoavoidalowenergystatebeforeithashappened.

Negativefeedbacksystemsrequire:

Receptorstodetectchange. Acontrolcentretoreceivetheinformationandprocesstheresponse. Effectorstoreversethechangeandreestablishtheoriginalstate.

Mostcontrolcentresarelocatedinthebrain.

Homeostaticmechanismsforregulationofheartrate:

Theheartiscontrolledbytheautonomicnervoussystemwhichhastwobranches,namelythesympatheticnervoussystemandtheparasympatheticnervoussystem.

Thesetwosystemsactratherlikeanacceleratorandabrakeontheheart.Thesympatheticnervoussystemisactivewhenthebodyisundergoingmuscularwork,fearorstress.Itcauseseachheartbeattoincreaseinstrengthaswellascausinganincreaseinheartrate.TheparasympatheticnervoussystemCalmstheheartoutputandisactiveduringresting,peaceandcontentment.Themainparasympatheticnerveisthevagusnerveandifthisisservedtheheartbeatsfaster.

Rolesofinternalreceptors:

Baroreceptors(aresensorslocatedinthebloodvesselsofseveralmammals.)detectchangesinbloodpressureandarefoundinthewallsofaortaandpartofthecarotidarteriesdeliveringbloodtotheheadandneckandcalledtheaorticandcarotidbodies.Asmallupwardchangeinbloodpressureinthesearteriesoftenindicatethatextrabloodhasbeenpumpedoutbytheventriclesasaresultofextrabloodenteringtheheartonthevenousorrightside.Baroreceptorsdetectthechangeanddelaytheinformationinnerveimpulsestothecardiaccentres.Activityinthevagusnerveslowstheheartratedownanddecreasesbloodpressurebacktonormal.

ReceptorssensitivetotemperatureareknownastheThermoreceptorsandthesearepresentintheskinanddeepinsidethebody.Theyrelayinformationvianerveimpulsestoapartofthebraincalledthehypothalamus,whichactivatesappropriatefeedbacksystems.

Effectsofadrenalonheartrate:

Circulatingadrenaline,ahormonefromtheadrenalglandreleasedduringfear,stressandexertion,stimulatestheSAnodetoworkfaster,thudboostingtheeffectsofthesympatheticnervoussystem.

Effectsoftheincreasedbodytemperatureonheartrate:

Thermoreceptorsindicatingariseinbodytemperaturetobraincausethehypothalamustoactivatethesympatheticnervoussystemthisinturncausestheheartratetoincrease.

Homeostaticmechanismsforregulationofbreathingrate:

Whenmetabolismproducesextracarbondioxide,forexample,breathingrateswillincreaseslightlyuntilthissurplusisblownoffinexpiration.Similarlyaperiodofforcedventilation,suchasgasping,willlowerthecarbondioxidelevelsinthebodyandhomeostaticmechanismswillstoporslowbreathingtemporarilyuntillevels

returntonormal.

Rolesofinternalreceptors:

Internalreceptorscanbestretchreceptorsinmusclesandtissuesthatrelaynervousimpulsestothebrainaboutthestatusofventilationfromthedegreeofstretchofmusclesandothertissues.Theintercostalmusclesarethesiteofmanystretchreceptors.

Respiratorycentre,diaphragmandintercostalmuscles:

Thebrainarearesponsibleforvoluntarycontrolofbreathingisintheupperpartofthebrainknownasthecerebralcortex.Theinvoluntarycentre,knownastherespiratorycentre,isinthemedullaandtheareajustabove,knownasthepons.Thesearebothatthebaseofthebrain.Eachcentregetsinformationfrominternalreceptorsregardingthestateofventilation.

Homeostaticmechanismsforregulationofbodytemperature:

Humanbeingsaretheonlyanimalsthatcansurviveinbothtropicalandpolarregionsoftheearth.Thisislargelyduetoefficientthermoregulatoryhomeostaticprocessesandtheuseofintelligence,whichmeansthatbodytemperature,variesonlyminimally.Thefundamentalpreceptistokeeptheinnercoreofthebodyatnormaltemperatureswhileallowingtheperipherytoadapttochangingconditionsofexternaltemperature.

Atverylowtemperaturessuchas30c,thewatercomponentofthebodywouldfreezeandathightemperaturessuchas+50c,enzymesandbodyproteinswouldbepermanentlyalteredordenatured.Lifewouldnotbepossibleundertheseconditionssohomeostaticregulationofbodytemperatureorthermoregulationisvital.

Majorfunctionsofskinare:

Toprotecttheunderlyingtissuesagainstfrictiondamage. Towaterproofthebody. Toprotectdeeperstructuresfrominvasionbymicroorganisms. Toprotectagainstultravioletradiation. Forthermoregulation(controlofbodytemperature). Torelaynerveimpulsesgeneratedfromthespecialisedskinsensoryreceptors

forheat,cold,touch,painandpressure,thusinformingthemofchangesintheenvironment.

TosynthesisevitaminDfromsunlightactingontheadiposelayers.

Productionofheatbythebody:

Heatisgeneratedbythemetabolicprocessestakingplaceinthebody.Althoughenergyreleasedduringchemicalreactionsisusedtodriveprocessessuchasmusclecontraction(heatpump,breathing,nerveimpulsesandmovement)someofitalwaysreleasedasheat.Someheatisalsogainedfromhotfoodanddrinksandundersomecircumstances,fromthesunsrays.

Lossofheatfromthebody:

Skincapillariesformnetworksjustbelowtheouterlayerorepidermis.Whenyouarehot,youneedtoloseheatfromtheskinsurfacetocoolyourselfdown.Therearefourwaysoflosingheatfromtheskin:

Conduction:warmingupanythingthatyouAreincontactwith(likeclothesandseats)evenapenbecomeswarmfromyourhandwhenyouarewriting.#

Convection:thisiswhenyouwarmupthelayerofairnexttoyourskinanditmovesupwards(becausehotairislessdenseandrises),tobereplacedbycolderairfromtheground.

Radiation:heatwillpassfromyourskintowarmupanycolderobjectsaroundyouandconversely,youwillwarmupbyradiationfromanyobjectshotterthanyourself,likeafireorthesun.

Evaporationofsweat:whenliquidwaterisconvertedintowatervapour(thetechnicaltermisevaporation),itrequiresheatenergytodoso.Whenyouarehot,sweatingwillonlycooltheskinsurfacetoconverttowatervapourandevaporate.

Althoughconductionandconvectiontakeplace,theycannotbechangedsignificantlytoalterbodytemperature.Themainmethodsofregulatingtemperaturearebychangingradiationandsweatevaporationprocesses.

Effectsofshivering:

Rhythmicinvoluntarycontractionsoftheskeletalmusclesareknownasshivering.Muscularactivitygeneratedheatsoinacoldenvironmentwemaystampourfeet,swingourarms,rubourface,handsandfeetandalsoshiver.Thisisveryeffectivewaytogenerateheat,asitallavailabletowarmthebodyup.

Implicationsofsurfaceareatovolumeratiointhecareofbabies:

Babieshavealargersurfaceareatovolumeratiothanadultsandcannoteffectchangestogainorloseheatforthemselvesthismeansthattheyareatriskdevelopinghyperthermiaorhypothermia.Babiesdonotsweatmuchandnewbornbabiesdonotshiver.Therefore,itisimportantincoldweathertowrapbabies

warmly,includingtheextremitiesandthehead,andtoguardagainstoverheatinginhotweather.

Fever:

Feverisonetypeofhypothermiaandismostusuallycausedbyinfectionothertypesareheatstrokeandheatexhaustion.FactorsreleasedasaresultofdiseaseactonThermoreceptorsinhypothalamus,raisingtheuppersetpoint.

Consequentlythesuffererfeelscold,curlsup,pullsoncovers,lookspaleduetovasonstriction(narrowingofthearterioles)andevenexperiencesintenseshivering.

Homeostaticmechanismsforregulationofbloodglucoselevels:

Roleofthepancreas,liver,insulinandglycogen:

Afterarichmealincarbohydrates(suchasrice,bread,pastaandcertainvegetables),bloodglucosewillstarttorise.ThisincreasedlevelofglucosestimulatestheproductionofthehormoneinsulinfromthebetacellsintheisletsofLangerhansinthepancreas.

Insulinhastwomainfunctions:

Toregulatetheconcentrationofglucoseintheblood. Toincreasethepassageofglucoseintoactivelyrespiringbodycellsbyactive

absorption.

Intheabsenceofinsulin,verylittleglucoseisabletopassthroughthecellmembranesandsotheplasmalevelofglucoserises.Individualswithuntreateddiabetesmellitus(causedbyalackofinsulinsecretion)havehighplasmaglucoselevelsandthisleadstootherbionomicalcircumstances.Inhealthypeople,theplasmaglucosehardlyvariesatallbecauselivercells,underthecontrolofinsulin,convertglucoseintoliverandmuscleglycogenforstorage.

Whenbloodglucosestartstofallasaresultoffastingorbeingusedupbyrespiringcells,anotherhormone,glycogen,fromthealphacellsintheisletsofLangerhans,issecretedandthisconvertsliverglycogenbackintoglucosefroreleaseintothebloodstream.

Thesetwohormonesregulatetheamountofglucoseinthebloodplasmabynegativefeedbackmechanisms.

Bothhavereceptorsattachedtotheirisletscellstoidentifyrisingandfallingplasmaglucoselevels.Insulinalsopromotestheconversionofglucoseintofatanddelays

theconversionofaminoacidsintoenergy.Adrenaline,releasedbytheadrenalglandswhenthesympatheticnervoussystemisactiveunderstressfulconditions,actsantagonisticallytoinsulinandoverridesit,toconvertglycogeninthelivertoglucose.Thisoutpouringofglucoseprovidesenergyformusclestobecomeactiveunderemergencyconditions.Inaddition,adrenalineconvertsfatstofattyacidsformusclecontraction.Whentheemergencyisover,insulinwilloncebemoreactiveandstoresanysurplusasbefore

Whathappenstoyourbodyduringexercise?

Duringexercise,yourskeletalmusclesmetabolizefasterhencetheyrequiremoreoxygenandnutrientsthanwhentheyareintherestingphase.Asaresultofthis,theheartpumpsbloodfasterandhardertocompensateforthisdemand.Inaddition,sincetheheartworksdoubletimetosupplyblood,thelungsalsotakeinmoreoxygenandyourbreathingrategetshighsoyoutendtohyperventilatealso.Asidefromthat,yourenergyandfluidstoresalsogetsdepletedespeciallyduringintenseworkoutsoyoutendtofeelhungryandthirstyafter.Whenyouexerciseyourheartbeatsfastersothatitcanpumpmorebloodtothemuscles,andyourstomachshutsdownduringexercisesoitdoesnotwasteenergythatthemusclescanuse.Themusclestakeinasourcewhenwerunweneedoxygenso,wecouldruneasily.Thebloodcarriesoxygentoeverycellinthebody.

Homeostasispreventthecardiovascularsystemtonotovercompensatingduringexerciseandwhenwearenotexercisingthehomeostasiscontroltheheartandletitpumpnormallywhennotexercising.

Thehomeostasiscontrolhormoneswhenexercising.Homeostasisintherespiratorysystemhelpstoremovecarbondioxideandwaterfromthebodysoitallowsustobreatheeasilywhenexercising.Homeostasishelpsthehearttoforcebloodaroundthebodythroughasystemofbloodvessels,arteries,veinsandcapillaries.Bloodcarriesdissolvedoxygentothebodycellsandatthesametimeremovesthewasteproductsorrespiration(carbondioxideandwater).However,bloodisalsoimportantindistributingheataroundthebody,alongwithhormones,nutrients,salts,enzymesandurea.

Explaintheimportanceofhomeostasisinmaintainingthehealthyfunctioningofthebody?

Temperatureregulationoffallandriseabovenormalranges

Hypothalamus:thehypothalamusinthebrainbehavesasathermostatandchangesinthebloodtemperature.Whenthetemperatureofthebloodcomesthe

hypothalamusfalls,thisdeliversimpulsestoorgansinthebodysettingtheheatreducedless.Theoppositehappenswhenthetemperatureofthebloodentersthehypothalamusrises.Thehypothalamustendstoactivatethesympatheticnervoussystemandincreaseheheartratewhenthebodygetshot.Thethermoreceptorspointoutanincreaseinthebodytemperaturedeliveringmessagestothebrain.Thebodyfaceshypothermiaisthebodytemperaturefallsorrisesabovetheirnormalranges.Whenthebodytemperaturegetstoocoldortoohot,messagesaremailedfromthethermoregulationintheskinorfromthebloodtothebrainandthehypothalamus.Thechangethatissensesbythebrainallowsapersontochangeintheirattitudeforexample,whenapersonfeelscoldtheymaycloseawindow.DuringHypothermiawhenthebodytemperaturefallsbelowthenormaltemperatureofthebodycanbedangerousastheheatenergyislostfromthebodythanitisproduced.Brainisthefirstfeatureaffectedmakingthepersonclumsyandslow.

Hypothermia

Hypothermiaisastatewherethebody'snormalbodytemperatureof37C(98.6F)dropsbelow35(95F).Whenthebodyisexposedtocoldthemechanismsareunabletofillinheatthatislosttoorganismssurroundings.Hypothermiaiscausednormallywhenapersonisaroundacoldenvironmentorstayingoutsideforalongperiodoftimeinthecoldrainorwind.Whenthebodygetstoocolditusuallyactsfastinordertobecomewarmandgivingamessagetothebrainallowingthepersontowearmorelayersofclothingorgoinginside.Howeverduringhypothermiaifthecoldtendstocontinuethebody'sautomaticdefencewilltrytopreventanyheatlossthroughvariouswaysandthiscouldbethrough...

*Shiveringtomakesuremajororgansstayatnormaltemperature,

*Limitingbloodflowtotheskin,and

*Releasinghormonesinordertoproduceheat.

Therearemanypossiblecausesofarapidheartbeat,including: Exercise,heavyliftingorotheractivitythatrequiresexertion

Fear,pain,anxiety,stress,anger,ornervousness

Fever

Dehydration.Thismaybecausedbytoolittleintakeoffluids,lossofblood,diarrhoea,vomiting,ormedicationssuchasdiuretics,sometimescalled"waterpills."

Lowbloodpressure,alsocalledhypotension

Hyperthyroidism,whichisalevelofthyroidhormoneinthebodythatistoohigh

Congestiveheartfailure,aconditioninwhichtheheartcannotpumpbloodeffectively

Irregularheartbeats,knownasarrhythmias,suchasatrialfibrillationorventriculartachycardia.Thesemaybecausedbysaltimbalances,heartattack,andotherconditions.

Lowredbloodcellcountknownasanaemia

Medicationsordrugs.Albuterol,whichiscommonlyusedtotreatasthma,aswellassomeoverthecounterandprescriptiondecongestantscancauserapidheartbeat.Cocaineabuseandalcoholwithdrawalare

Othercausesofrapidheartbeat.

Excessivecaffeineintake Someherbaltherapiessuchasephedra,alsocalledmahuang Infections.Thesemayincludesuchasaseriousbloodinfectioncalledsepsis

andpneumonia.

Nervedamage,knownasperipheralneuropathy,thataffectsthenervesattachedtotheheart.Thisisoftenduetodiabetes,aconditionthatresultsinahighlevelofbloodsugar.

Lowoxygenintheblood,alsocalledhypoxia.Therecanbemanycausesforthis.Examplesincludeasthmaandemphysema.

Sources:

http://www.markedbyteachers.com/asandalevel/healthcare/explaintheimportanceofhomeostasisinmaintainingthehealthyfunctioningofthebodye

xamplesfromdiabetes.html

http://www.chelationtherapyonline.com/anatomy/p53.htm

P6:followguidelinestointerptandcollectdataforheartrate,breathingrateandtemperaturebeforeandafterastandardperiodofexercise.

M3:presentdatacollectedbeforeandafterastandardofperiodofexercisewithreferencetovalidity.

Hypothesis:heartrate,breathingrateandtemperatureincreasingwhenexercising.

Equipmentneeded:

Heartratemonitor. Thermometer Stopwatch.

Method:

1. Makesureyourpartnerhasbeenrestingfor5minutestoensurethattheyarerelaxed.

2. Measurethepulserate,temperatureandhowmanytimestheybreathe.Thesearetheresultsforbeforeexercise.

3. Yourpartnerwillundertakestrenuousexercisefor3minutesimmediatelyfollowingtheexercisetakethepulserate,temperatureandhowmanytimestheybreatheinoneminute.Thesearetheresultsfortheafterexercise.

4. Recordallresults.

Whatdotheresultsshow?

Resting Afterexercise.Heartrate 90 105Breatherate 47 54temperature 36 36

Ididprovemyhypothesisbecausetheresultsaboveshowsthatourheartrate,breatherateandtemperaturechangeswhenweexercise.Afterexercisingourheartrateincreasedto105andourbreathingrateincreasedto54,butthetemperaturestayedthesame.

Someofthemeasurementswereinaccuratebecauseofrestingbeforetakingeachmeasurementwhichwillcausetheresultstobeinaccurate,whenyouareexercisingandyouwanttotakethemeasurementsyouneedapartnertohelpyoumeasureyoubreathing,heart,andtemperatureratestraightawayafterexercisingsotheresultswouldbeaccurate.TheequipmentthatIusedintheexperimentwasaccuratebutwhenIdidmymeasurementssomeofthemwereinaccuratebecauseIdidntmeasureitstraightaway.

Aerobicrespirationandanaerobicrespirationtakeplace.Duringaerobicrespirationbreathingrateincreasestobringmoreoxygenintothebody,maintaininghomeostasisasthecellareadequatelysuppliedwithoxygen.Alsothereisincreasedperspirationtocoolthebodyandmaintainthebodytemperatureastheheightenedmetabolicstate(duetotheexercise)producesheat.Duringanaerobicrespirationinthemusclesparticularly,lacticacidbuildsup.Thiscreatesandoxygendebt,homeostasishopetocompensateforthisdebtandtherebyremovelacticacidfromthebody(asitistoxic),thusbreathingrateisalsoincreased.E.g.(theheartrateincreaseswhenexercisingsothehomeostasiscontrolsthebloodtopumparoundthebodysoyouwouldnthaveheartfailure.)

Duringexercise,myskeletalmusclesmetabolizefasterhencetheyrequiremoreoxygenandnutrientsthanwhentheyareintherestingphase.Asaresultofthis,theheartpumpsbloodfasterandhardertocompensateforthisdemand.Sincetheheartworksdoubletimetosupplyblood,thelungsalsotakeinmoreoxygenandyourbreathingrategetshighsoyoutendtohyperventilatealsobecauseofthatmyenergyandfluidstoresalsogetsdepletedespeciallyduringintenseworkoutsoyoutendtofeelhungryandthirstyafter.

Conclusion:insummarymyfindingswasthatthehomeostasiscontrolourbreathingrate,heartrateandourtemperaturesowecoulddoexerciseeasilyandifwedidnthaveitwewoulddie,sothatexplainshowmuchimportantthehomeostasisis.

Sources:

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_homeostatic_responses_to_changes_in_the_internal_environment_during_exercise