UNIT 4 NOTES

A TIME OF REVOLUTIONS AND REASON

Scientific Revolution

(1400’s -1700’s)

Astronomy• Copernicus

– 1473-1543– Polish astronomer– Studied in Italy– Argued for heliocentrism

• Brahe– 1546-1601– Geocentric

•Believed sun and moon revolved around earth

•But believed planets revolved around sun

– Compiled data from observation

Astronomy• Galileo

– 1564-1642– Italian astronomer/physicist– Studied in Florence– Demonstrated law of gravity– Improved telescope, confirming Copernicus

• Kepler– 1571-1630– German astronomer and mathematician– Found that planets follow elliptical, not

circular, orbit in revolving around sun

Anatomy• Vesalius

– 1514-1564– Flemish physician– Made careful dissections of human body– Founded science of anatomy

• Harvey– 1578-1657– English physician– Demonstrated that blood circulates through

body

Reasoning• Bacon

– 1561-1626– English philosopher– Popularized scientific method

• Descartes– 1596-1650– French scientist, mathematician,

and philosopher– Discovered laws of optics– Founder of analytic geometry

Descartes

• His philosophy can be summed up in his words, “I think, therefore I am.”

Physical Science• Boyle

– 1627-1691– English chemist– Discovered a law of gases that is

fundamental to modern chemistry• Leeuwenhoek

– 1632-1723– Dutch naturalist– Perfected microscope– Studied “invisible” world of bacteria,

protozoa, and animal and plant cells

Blaise Pascal

• 1623-1662

• French mathematician and scientist

• Disagreed with dogma

• Urged a personal faith

Newton• 1642-1727• English mathematician,

astronomer, and physicist• Invented calculus• Discovered laws of

light and color

• Formulated the laws of motion• Calculated the law of gravitation

I could not have seen so far if I had

not stood on the shoulders of giants.

Superstition

• Witch hunts

• Magic

• RCC-supported

• Women were most vulnerable

Pre-Enlightenment

Thomas Hobbes

• English philosopher (1588-1679)• Fled London to Paris in 1640

because of the Civil War–Tutored future Charles II

• Supported absolutism–Denied divine right, thus lost

favor in Stuart eyes

Thomas Hobbes

• Wrote The Leviathan–Named for Biblical all-

powerful sea monster

–Government must, as well, be all-powerful

Hobbes’ State of Natural Man

• Humans in their original, natural state were miserable

Hobbes’ Social Contract

• Entered into social compact to surrender freedom to a ruler

• Granted him absolute power to maintain law and order

• Ruler was not a party to contract

• People have no right to complain

Hobbes’ Influence

• His ideas never very popular –Supported absolutism when

democracy popular in England

• Overshadowed by John Locke–Democratically-minded

philosopher–Exponent of social contract

John Locke

• Foremost English philosopher of 17th century (1632-1704)

• Puritan-leaning Anglican family • His father fought on side of

Parliament in Civil War• During Charles II’s reign he fled for

safety to Holland

John Locke

• In 1689 after James II removed, returned to England

• In 1690 published philosophical justification of Glorious Revolution in his Two Treatises of Government

Locke’s State of Natural Man

• People in original state of nature –Happy

–Natural rights to life, liberty, and property

Locke’s Social Contract

• To protect natural rights–People enter into social contract to

create government –Grant it limited powers

• Government is party to contract• If government fails its agreement

–People have right to alter or end it

Locke’s Conclusion

• James II had violated social contract

• Therefore he deserved to be deposed

Locke’s Influence

• Thomas Jefferson (Declaration of Independence)

• Framers of the Constitution

• Jean Jacques Rousseau (Social Contract)

Commercial Revolution

Increased Imports & World Trade

• Western Europe imported many commodities–From New World and East

–Improved West European living standards

Increased Imports & World Trade

• Large quantities of gold & silver from New World –Gave Europeans more

money to spend–Caused inflation–West European

merchants originated insurance to reduce risk of loss of goods

Shifted Economic Power

• Western Europe’s major trade routes shifted – From Mediterranean/Baltic to Atlantic

• Western Europe’s population increased – Partly because of additional food

• Urban population grew– Workers found jobs in new industries

• Middle class grew

Mercantilism Developed

• Colonies exist for benefit of MC• MC must attract gold and silver• MC must export more than import

(favorable balance of trade)–Sure sources of raw materials –Sure markets for manufactured

goods

Mercantilism Developed

• MC must discourage imports of foreign manufactures by:

–Levying tariffs–Forbidding colonies to trade

with any country except MC• MC must restrict colonial

manufacturing

Toward Capitalism

• Change:–From Middle Ages economy

• Static, localized, nonprofit

–To capitalism• Dynamic, worldwide, profit-oriented

Toward Capitalism

• Entrepreneurs took risks, hoping to make profit

• Prices and wages were determined largely by supply and demand

• Joint-stock companies sold stock to investors who would share profits/losses

Toward Capitalism

• Businesses aided by:–Growth of banks–Increased supply of currency

from New World gold and silver

–Relaxation of RCC prohibitions against usury

Toward Capitalism

• Manufacturers were unable to meet demand for goods–Employed domestic system—

raw materials worked in homes–Adopted factory system—

machines to speed production thus paved way for Industrial Revolution

Effects on World

• Many Europeans migrated to overseas colonies–To escape religious

persecution–To improve personal

economic condition (primogeniture)

Effects on World

• Europeans bought slaves in Africa and took them to New World to provide labor

• Trade and emigration spread European civilization throughout the world

Agricultural Revolution

Agricultural Revolution

• Change from primitive to modern farm-production methods

• Industrial Revolution influenced it–Labor-saving machinery–Need for greater quantities of raw

materials–Demand for increased food supplies

for city populations

Early Industrial Revolution

Early Industrial Revolution

• Broad—Effect of machinery upon humanity

HomeSlower

More expensive Production

by hand

FactoryQuicker,

Less costly Production

by machine

Early Industrial Revolution’s Roots

• Commercial Revolution –Uncovered new markets–Created demands for goods–Created capital base

• Domestic System–16th century capitalists defied

guilds by making goods in workers’ homes

Why Begin in Britain?

• Population–Skilled workers who designed

needed machines

• Wealthy who invested capital

–Individuals in need of employment

Why Begin in Britain?

• Agricultural changes, including crop rotation and fencing-in

–Created need for new tools–Increased the supply of farm

produce –Created pool of unemployed

workers

Why Begin in Britain?

• Geographic advantages–Coal for steam power– Iron ore to make machines–Navigable rivers–Harbors to facilitate trade– Island apart from continental

disputes

Why Begin in Britain?

• Stable government–Competent administration in a

unified country–Good roads–Encouraged science

(Royal Society)

Why Begin in Britain?

• Strong economic situation–Markets–Fair taxes–Sound money system–Well-organized banking system–Colonies with raw materials–Joint-stock companies

The Enlightenment

(Age of Reason)

18th Century French Philosophers’ Beliefs

•Humans possessed natural rights

•Society could be improved•Human institutions should conform to logic and reason

18th Century French Philosophers’ Beliefs

•Autocracy stemmed from traditional brute force that violated reason

•Autocracy perpetuated:–Despotic government–Legal and social inequality–Serfdom– Ignorance–Religious intolerance

•Autocracy prevented progress

18th Century French Philosophers’ Beliefs

•Traditional royal and Church authority should be

challenged•Called for end to Old Regime•At first censored, their ideas eventually reached many people

Montesquieu•1689-1755•Baron & landed aristocrat•Wrote The Spirit of Laws•Divide government into 3

branches to stop despotism–Executive, legislative & judicial–Branches check each other

•His ideas in US Constitution

Montesquieu•“Republics end with luxury;

monarchies with poverty."•"In a true state of nature,

indeed, all men are born equal, but they cannot continue in this equality. Society makes them lose it, and they recover it only by the protection of laws."

Voltaire

•1694-1778•Writer of literature &

political studies•Lived in exile in Britain for a

while•Wrote Letters on the English•Praised Britain’s •Denounced France’s

Voltaire•Urged religious freedom–Especially bitter against Catholic Church–Its authority barred human

progress•“I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”

Rousseau•1712-1778•Probably of lower-class origin

•Lived disorganized life •Social Contract–Set forth theories of government–“Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.”

Rousseau’s Nature of Man

•Humans in their original state of nature were happy

•They had natural rights•As inequalities arose, people

entered into social contract among themselves

Rousseau’s Social Contract

•Agreed to surrender all their rights to community

•Agreed to submit to the General Will (will of majority)

•If government failed in this purpose, people had right to

overthrow and replace it

Rousseau’s General Will

•Government has unlimited power

•GW used by dictatorship to justify totalitarian rule

•Dictator (or single party) determines, enforces, and speaks for GW

•All citizens owe obedience

Rousseau’s Social Contract

•Patterned his ideas after those of Locke–Locke more concerned with individual rights and limits on

government–Rousseau emphasized concept of General Will as supreme

Diderot•1713-1784•Son of skilled artisan•Was well-educated•Editor of Encyclopedia–Articles from leading thinkers

on variety of subjects–Vigorously attacked Old Regime abuses

Enlightened Despotism Frederick the GreatCatherine the Great

Joseph II

Rulers Influenced by Enlightenment

•Tried to justify their absolutism by claiming to govern in people’s interest

•Introduced various reforms

Frederick the Great• Prussia

• 1740-1786• Most famous Hohenzollern

absolute monarch• Military genius• Areas of support/improvement:

• Literature, music, science• Agriculture• Education• Equal legal treatment for all people• Religious freedom Prussia

Catherine the Great

•Russia•1762-1796•Orchestrated murder of weak

husband•Areas of support/improvement:

– Extended boundaries– Art, literature and science– Greater local self-government– Legal reforms Russia

Joseph II•Austria• 1780-1790• Increased royal religious and

political authority – Took control of RCC– Weakened nobles

•Areas of support/improvement: – Improved serfs’ condition – Education– Equal legal treatment for all people– Equal religious toleration Austria

Partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793,

and 1795

Failure of Enlightened Despotism

•Did not remove basic causes of discontent against absolutism:– Autocracy– Class distinctions– Unfair taxation– Frequent wars

•Could not assure good government by successors

•People still rebelled against absolutism

MIDVALE

SCHOOL FOR

ENLIGHTENED

DESPOTS

UNIT 4 NOTES

A TIME OF REVOLUTIONS AND REASON