Unit 3(a)_Data Management

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    Unit - 4

    1Data Management Teena Y. Sharma

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    Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials,past and present , serving as bases for study andanalysis.

    Data is based on our senses, it is based on our

    observations. If either of our senses do not perceive any event or

    phenomenon, there is no data.

    Hence we can say, response does not constitute the

    data, its the recording of the response that constitutesthe data.

    Stimulus ResponseRecording of

    response (Data)

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    The stimuli presented to the respondents may beclassified as: Structured

    Unstructured

    The responses of the respondents may be classified as: Structured

    Unstructured

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    Data constitute the subject matter of analysis.

    Without data no inferences can be drawn.

    Data forms the basis of hypothesis testing.

    The entire scientific process of measurement, analysis,testing and inferences depends upon the availability ofrelevant and accurate data.

    Types of Data: Primary Data Secondary Data

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    Definition

    Uses of Secondary Data

    Sources of Secondary Data

    Advantages of Secondary Data Limitations of Secondary Data

    Evaluation of Secondary Data

    Characteristics of Secondary Data

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    Secondary data may be defined as , data that has beencollected earlier for some purpose other than thepurpose of present study.

    It is the data that is available prior to thecommencement of research project.

    It is at times termed as historical data.

    Even after the presence of primary data, secondary

    data enlightens the researcher regarding many aspectsof study and gives contextual familiarity for primarydata collection.

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    Secondary data provides one or all of the followingpurposes: It acts as a reference for present study

    Can be used as a benchmark, against which the findingsof the study can be tested.

    At times it may be the only source of data.

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    Sources of Secondary data can be classified as Published sources

    Journals

    Articles

    Magazines Research Papers

    Internet sites

    Unpublished sources

    Experts interviews, guidance etc

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    Lower cost of data collection. Helps in making Primary data more specific and

    relevant.

    Helps in uncovering new ideas for hypothesisformulation.

    Suggests possible improvements required in researchdesign, data analysis plan.

    Involves less time.

    Useful for wide geographical areas involving longertime spans.

    Only method for studying the past.

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    Classification bases used in Secondary data often donot coincide with those of present study.

    Locating appropriate sources of secondary data is atedious data.

    Unsure about accuracy.

    Secondary data may not be always available.

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    Following caution must be exercised before usingSecondary data: Reliability

    Suitability

    Adequacy

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    Data reliability

    Data suitability

    Data adequacy

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    Definition:It is the data collected for specific purposeat hand.

    Focused exclusively on the current research problem.

    Customized according to the needs of the researcher. Generally costly and time consuming.

    Calls for greater planning and coordination.

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    Advantages of Primary data

    Disadvantages of Primary data

    Methods of data collection

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    Reliability of data

    Logical starting point

    First hand information

    Opinion, attitudes etc Well structured, goes according to a specific schedule.

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    Scope of bias of the researcher

    Expensive and time consuming

    Sample selection

    Other limitations of method of collection

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    Methods of

    collection ofdata

    QuestionnaireMethod

    ObservationMethod

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    Methods ofcollection of data

    Observation Interviewing Experimentation SimulationProjective

    Techniques

    Classification 1

    Classification 2

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    Observation

    Experimentation

    Simulation

    Projective techniques Interviewing

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    Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing ofa specific phenomenon in its proper setting for thespecific purpose of data gathering for a particularstudy.

    Usually one observes the current happenings, and pasthappenings are inferred.

    It is both a physical and mental activity.

    It is a commonly used method in social sciences.

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    Observation becomes scientific when: Serves a formulated research problem.

    Is planned deliberately.

    Is recorded systematically.

    Is subjected to checks and controls on validity andreliability.

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    Captures the settings or context in which behavioroccurs.

    Focuses on present.

    Demands less cooperation on the part of the subject.

    Depends less on history.

    Helps capture subconscious habits.

    Direct observation eliminates possibility of bias.

    Makes possible to study the subjects that are not inposition to respond otherwise.

    Mechanical devices can also be used.

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    Expensive

    Time consuming

    Gives information of what is happening but not why is

    it happening. Obtaining a representative sample is difficult.

    Particular settings may effect the behavior of thesubject.

    The skills of the observer may influence the study.

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    Structured-Unstructured

    Disguised-Undisguised

    Controlled-Uncontrolled

    Direct-Indirect Human-Mechanical

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    Experimentation implies the pre-existence of certainproblem and it involves manipulating certainindependent variables with the objective of studyingthe effect of such manipulation on one or more

    dependant variables. It generally provides answer to the question- What

    will happen if?

    Experiments are generally carried out in a controlled

    environment. Provides means of hypothesis testing.

    Generally most sophisticated, exacting method.

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    Minimum chances of human error.

    Allows creation and testing of more conditions than inany other method.

    Gives reliable, exact and verifiable results.

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    Scope of experimentation with human beings islimited.

    Expensive

    Time consuming Requires specialized knowledge.

    Cannot be used for studying past events.

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    Simulation is experiments on a prototype or symbolicmodel the process of conducting experiments on aprototype or symbolic model representing a phenomenon.

    It is the exercise of a flexible imitation of a process and

    outcomes for the purpose of clarifying or explaining theunderlying mechanisms involved.

    Experiments are done on a model instead of actual system.

    It is a technique best suited to the study of a system that

    has a set of interrelated and independent subsystems.

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    Man simulations

    Computer simulations

    Man-computer simulations

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    Projective techniques are data collection tools thathelp reveal and gather subtle aspects of humanbehavior and personality.

    These work on the principle of indirect interviewing ,

    and in the process the respondent reveals his talent ,subconscious attitude , feelings, motives etc.

    Were initially developed in the field of psychology andpsychiatry.

    Projective techniques involve the presentation ofunstructured stimuli to the subject., as the stimuli isselected in relation to the respondents personality.

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    Generally used in interviews

    Training

    Psychometric testing

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    Word association tests

    Sentence completion tests

    Story completion tests

    Thematic apperception test Play techniques

    Doll play test

    Sociometry

    Quizzes/ tests

    Psychodrama- sociodrama

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    Most commonly used method of data collection

    Two-way purposive connection between researcherand respondent.

    Mostly used as the main method of data collection It is versatile as it can collect large amount of data from

    the various demographic profiles.

    Gathers only qualitative information.

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    Structured

    Unstructured

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    Structured interview deals with standardizedinterview or questionnaire research.

    The questions are pre-determined and the possibleanswers are also largely pre-determined.

    More close ended questions are used.

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    Advantages: Standardized format promotes measurement reliability.

    Data are comparable across respondents

    Data analysis is easy

    Economical

    Limitations: Offers limited scope for exploration

    Not suitable for studies of qualitative nature

    It does not have spontaneity of natural conversation.

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    Interviewers do not follow a list of standardizedquestions.

    There is more use of open ended, probing questions.

    The interviewer is free to observe and record whateverhe feels is relevant and significant

    Similar is the case with respondent.

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    Advantages : Does not follow a set pattern, next question is based on the

    previous question, thus enables the researcher to extract moreinformation from the respondent.

    Has more flexibility for both interviewer and respondent.

    Disadvantage: As the responses from each respondent are not same,

    comparability between two respondents become difficult.

    Demand deep knowledge and good skills on the part of theinterviewer.

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    A researcher should judiciously select the method ofdata collection , keeping the following factors in mind: Nature, Scope and Objective of study

    Availability of Funds

    Time Factor Precision Required.

    Teena Y. Sharma

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    Teena Y. SharmaData Management