Unit 3Unit 3

Theories of Causation   Theories of Causation  

Theories of Causation Theories of Causation

Historical progression of theories:Historical progression of theories:

DemonologyDemonology Classical theory (rational choice, routine activities, deterrence Classical theory (rational choice, routine activities, deterrence

theories)theories) Biological theories (atavists, somotypes, twin studies, etc.)Biological theories (atavists, somotypes, twin studies, etc.) Psychological theories (psychoanalytic, psychopathology, Psychological theories (psychoanalytic, psychopathology,

behaviorism)behaviorism) Sociological theories (anomie, strain, social disorganization, Sociological theories (anomie, strain, social disorganization,

illegitimate opportunity, focal concerns, drift, neutralization, illegitimate opportunity, focal concerns, drift, neutralization, labeling, differential association, theory of differential labeling, differential association, theory of differential expectations)expectations)

Sociological theories of Conflict (radical, critical, Marxist, Sociological theories of Conflict (radical, critical, Marxist, feminist)feminist)

Sociological theories of Control (bonding, general theory of Sociological theories of Control (bonding, general theory of crime)crime)

Integrated theories (combining elements from biological, Integrated theories (combining elements from biological, psychological, and sociological theories)psychological, and sociological theories)

Theories of Causation Theories of Causation Theories in a nutshell:Theories in a nutshell:

DemonologyDemonology – the devil made me do it – the cure was trephining – the devil made me do it – the cure was trephining or the drilling of holes in the skull to allow the demon to or the drilling of holes in the skull to allow the demon to escapeescape

Classical theory or free will approachClassical theory or free will approach Origin: late 1700s, based on the writings of Cesar Beccaria and Origin: late 1700s, based on the writings of Cesar Beccaria and

Jeremy BenthamJeremy Bentham

Main ideasMain ideas: : People choose to commit crimes after weighing the benefits and People choose to commit crimes after weighing the benefits and

costs. Crime can be deterred by certain, severe, and swift costs. Crime can be deterred by certain, severe, and swift punishment. punishment.

Basic assumptionsBasic assumptions: : crime is an exercise of free will, humans are rational beingscrime is an exercise of free will, humans are rational beings pain and pleasure determine behaviorpain and pleasure determine behavior crime weakens bonds between members of a societycrime weakens bonds between members of a society punishment is a necessary deterrent for crimepunishment is a necessary deterrent for crime punishment needs to be swift and certain in order to deterpunishment needs to be swift and certain in order to deter punishment needs to fit the crime, it should be justpunishment needs to fit the crime, it should be just

Theories of Causation Theories of Causation Rational choice theoryRational choice theory stems from the free will approach. stems from the free will approach.

Main idea is that delinquents weigh the costs and rewards Main idea is that delinquents weigh the costs and rewards and if they perceive a favorable outcome then they will and if they perceive a favorable outcome then they will commit the crime.commit the crime.

Routine activities theoryRoutine activities theory also follows from classical theory. also follows from classical theory. Your lifestyle determines whether or not you will commit Your lifestyle determines whether or not you will commit crime or not. If you drink, hang with a rough crowd, and crime or not. If you drink, hang with a rough crowd, and commit risky behaviors then your chance of being commit risky behaviors then your chance of being delinquent or a victim increase. Grandma shuts up the delinquent or a victim increase. Grandma shuts up the house at 5 o’clock and is in bed by 8:00 – routine activities house at 5 o’clock and is in bed by 8:00 – routine activities theory would suggest her lifestyle would make her unlikely theory would suggest her lifestyle would make her unlikely to be a criminal or victim. Statistics tell us this is true. to be a criminal or victim. Statistics tell us this is true.

Deterrence theoryDeterrence theory is also based on the free will principles. If is also based on the free will principles. If punishment is swift, certain, and severe, it is unlikely we punishment is swift, certain, and severe, it is unlikely we will take a risk on a particular crime. We have two types of will take a risk on a particular crime. We have two types of deterrence, specific and general. Specific deterrence deterrence, specific and general. Specific deterrence means that individual will not commit that crime again. means that individual will not commit that crime again. General deterrence means society looks at the chances of General deterrence means society looks at the chances of punishment and decides as a whole not to commit that punishment and decides as a whole not to commit that particular crime.particular crime.

Theories of Causation Theories of Causation The Positivistic School of CriminologyThe Positivistic School of Criminology was the introduction of the was the introduction of the

scientific method and empirical research to the study of crime. scientific method and empirical research to the study of crime. Biological theories were the first to attempt studying crime in this Biological theories were the first to attempt studying crime in this manner.manner.

Basic assumptions:Basic assumptions: human behavior is determined by a large degree on biologyhuman behavior is determined by a large degree on biology the tendency to be criminal can be passed on thru blood linesthe tendency to be criminal can be passed on thru blood lines biological atavism can exist in humansbiological atavism can exist in humans

Cesare LombrosoCesare Lombroso – the father of modern criminology. Lombroso – the father of modern criminology. Lombroso conducted a very faulty study on prisoners in Italy. He came to conducted a very faulty study on prisoners in Italy. He came to the conclusion that criminals were “atavists” or “born criminals.” the conclusion that criminals were “atavists” or “born criminals.” According to Lombroso, some people were biological throwbacks – According to Lombroso, some people were biological throwbacks – like the early caveman – and they had no other choice but to be like the early caveman – and they had no other choice but to be criminals in a modernized society.criminals in a modernized society.

Sheldon studied prisoners and decided to examine their body shapes. Sheldon studied prisoners and decided to examine their body shapes. He identified three somotypes: the endomorph (fat), the He identified three somotypes: the endomorph (fat), the ectomorph (thin), and the mesomorph (athletic). Is it any wonder ectomorph (thin), and the mesomorph (athletic). Is it any wonder he concluded mesomorphs were found more often in prison? Men he concluded mesomorphs were found more often in prison? Men are at their physical best in their late teens to early twenties, and are at their physical best in their late teens to early twenties, and that is the age range of typical criminals.that is the age range of typical criminals.

Theories of Causation Theories of Causation

Other biological theories hold more promise than those early Other biological theories hold more promise than those early studies mentioned.studies mentioned.

Twin studiesTwin studies – there is an increased chance that if one – there is an increased chance that if one identical twin is criminal then the other is as wellidentical twin is criminal then the other is as well

Adopted studiesAdopted studies – children whose biological parents were – children whose biological parents were criminals, but were adopted by law abiding citizens are criminals, but were adopted by law abiding citizens are more likely to be criminal; likewise the children of law more likely to be criminal; likewise the children of law abiding citizens whose children are adopted by criminals abiding citizens whose children are adopted by criminals are unlikely to be criminals (role of environment has not yet are unlikely to be criminals (role of environment has not yet been explained adequately)been explained adequately)

Biosocial criminologyBiosocial criminology – the link between the physical body – the link between the physical body and criminal behavior is still being studied through the and criminal behavior is still being studied through the examination of chemicals in the brainexamination of chemicals in the brain

Theories of Causation Theories of Causation Psychological theoryPsychological theory

Basic assumptionsBasic assumptions:: the individual is the unit of analysisthe individual is the unit of analysis personality is key motivational featurepersonality is key motivational feature delinquency results from abnormalities, inappropriately delinquency results from abnormalities, inappropriately

conditioned personality dysfunctionsconditioned personality dysfunctions develops in early childhooddevelops in early childhood

This group of theories is based primarily on the works of Freud, the This group of theories is based primarily on the works of Freud, the role of IQ, and the ability to learn. Freud identified the id role of IQ, and the ability to learn. Freud identified the id (unsocialized self), ego (problem solver), and superego (mediator (unsocialized self), ego (problem solver), and superego (mediator between the others). Delinquency is thus the result of an between the others). Delinquency is thus the result of an uncontrollable id, an underdeveloped superego, or a faulty ego.uncontrollable id, an underdeveloped superego, or a faulty ego.

BehaviorismBehaviorism is the branch of psychology concerned with the study is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of observable behavior. Stimuli and response. It is hard to know of observable behavior. Stimuli and response. It is hard to know what is going on in a person’s mind, but we can see actions. what is going on in a person’s mind, but we can see actions. Behavior is learned by reacting or responding a certain way to a Behavior is learned by reacting or responding a certain way to a certain stimulus. Behavior can be reinforced by rewarding the certain stimulus. Behavior can be reinforced by rewarding the responses or extinguished by punishing the response. Rewarded responses or extinguished by punishing the response. Rewarded behavior is repeated behavior. Delinquency is the result of being behavior is repeated behavior. Delinquency is the result of being rewarded for criminal behavior (money, drugs, sex, etc.)rewarded for criminal behavior (money, drugs, sex, etc.)

Theories of Causation Theories of Causation

Sociological theories – structural theoriesSociological theories – structural theories AnomieAnomie is a concept of Durkheim’s that describes the breakdown of social is a concept of Durkheim’s that describes the breakdown of social

norms or the disassociation of the individual from a general sense of morality.norms or the disassociation of the individual from a general sense of morality. Robert Merton – Robert Merton – Strain theoryStrain theory DelinquencyDelinquency is the result of certain structural strains that pressure the is the result of certain structural strains that pressure the

individual to become deviant. We all carry basically the same beliefs -- we want individual to become deviant. We all carry basically the same beliefs -- we want material success and expect to achieve this success through legitimate means. material success and expect to achieve this success through legitimate means. But some of us do not have the same opportunities to achieve wealth. Anomie But some of us do not have the same opportunities to achieve wealth. Anomie results when the means of achieving goals becomes blocked. results when the means of achieving goals becomes blocked.

There are two social structures in society – a value structure (goals) and a There are two social structures in society – a value structure (goals) and a normative structure (means)normative structure (means)

GoalsGoals MeanMeanss

ConformitConformityy

++ ++ usus

InnovatioInnovationn

++ -- drug dealer, car thief -- any illegitimate means of making drug dealer, car thief -- any illegitimate means of making money money

RetreatisRetreatismm

-- -- drug addict, alcoholicdrug addict, alcoholic

RitualismRitualism -- ++ sleepwalking thru life sleepwalking thru life

RebellionRebellion -+-+ -+-+ hippies hippies

Theories of Causation Theories of Causation General strain theoryGeneral strain theory – Robert Agnew (micro version) – Robert Agnew (micro version) Criminality results from negative affective states – anger and Criminality results from negative affective states – anger and

frustration develop if goal is blockedfrustration develop if goal is blocked strain caused by failure to achieve positively valued goals strain caused by failure to achieve positively valued goals strain caused by the disjunction of expectations and achievements strain caused by the disjunction of expectations and achievements

in comparison to othersin comparison to others strain as the removal of positively valued stimuli from the strain as the removal of positively valued stimuli from the

individual individual strain as the presentation of negative stimuli strain as the presentation of negative stimuli Strain occurs and produces a negative affective state (depression, Strain occurs and produces a negative affective state (depression,

anger, frustration, fear, disappointment). Antisocial behavior anger, frustration, fear, disappointment). Antisocial behavior results from the negative state produced.results from the negative state produced.

Ecological/Social disorganization theoryEcological/Social disorganization theory – The consequences of urban – The consequences of urban decay. These areas are characterized by a general lack of social decay. These areas are characterized by a general lack of social stability and cohesion. It does not matter what group lives in stability and cohesion. It does not matter what group lives in these areas – the delinquency rates will remain high for each these areas – the delinquency rates will remain high for each group.group.

Walter Miller – focal points Walter Miller – focal points Youth in disorganized areas develop their own standards of Youth in disorganized areas develop their own standards of

behavior and values in order to better adapt to the harsh behavior and values in order to better adapt to the harsh conditions under which they live. Their values include: toughness, conditions under which they live. Their values include: toughness, excitement, smartness, fate, and autonomy.excitement, smartness, fate, and autonomy.

Theories of Causation Theories of Causation Cloward and Ohlin – Cloward and Ohlin – Illegitimate opportunity theoryIllegitimate opportunity theory Deviance is not open to everyone, people in lower class Deviance is not open to everyone, people in lower class

areas get exposed to more and thus have more opportunity. areas get exposed to more and thus have more opportunity. Cohen – Cohen – middle class measuring rodmiddle class measuring rod Delinquency is tied closely to failure in school. We measure Delinquency is tied closely to failure in school. We measure

success in school with a “middle class measuring rod” – success in school with a “middle class measuring rod” – norms and values thought to be associated with the middle norms and values thought to be associated with the middle class (deferred gratification, nonviolent behavior, drive and class (deferred gratification, nonviolent behavior, drive and ambition, etc.). Poor youth or those living in a disorganized ambition, etc.). Poor youth or those living in a disorganized are will rebel against what they cannot have. We call this --are will rebel against what they cannot have. We call this --

reaction formationreaction formation – openly rejecting want one wants or aspires – openly rejecting want one wants or aspires to, but cannot obtain or achieve (protects self-esteem). to, but cannot obtain or achieve (protects self-esteem).

Labeling theory Labeling theory This theory is not interested in the criminal/deviant act you This theory is not interested in the criminal/deviant act you

committed, but rather what happens after being caught. committed, but rather what happens after being caught. Getting caught increases the chance of being “labeled” by Getting caught increases the chance of being “labeled” by someone with authority (juvenile court system). Labeling someone with authority (juvenile court system). Labeling increases the chances that being delinquent becomes a increases the chances that being delinquent becomes a master status. Because delinquent becomes a master master status. Because delinquent becomes a master status, the juvenile commits more crimes than if he/she had status, the juvenile commits more crimes than if he/she had never been labeled.never been labeled.

Theories of Causation Theories of Causation Conflict/Radical/Critical/Marxist theoriesConflict/Radical/Critical/Marxist theories Conflict occurs naturally in all societies. Conflict is the result of Conflict occurs naturally in all societies. Conflict is the result of

competition for resources. These theories focus on the conflict that competition for resources. These theories focus on the conflict that results from differences in race, ethnicity, social class, and gender. results from differences in race, ethnicity, social class, and gender. These theories view laws as being enforced for and by the powerful These theories view laws as being enforced for and by the powerful against the powerless.against the powerless.

Feminist theoryFeminist theory This theory is another branch of the conflict theory tree. The focus This theory is another branch of the conflict theory tree. The focus

here is on women’s experiences in areas of victimization, gender here is on women’s experiences in areas of victimization, gender differences in crime, and differential treatment by the juvenile justice differences in crime, and differential treatment by the juvenile justice network. network.

Control theoriesControl theories Hirshi’s control bonding theory tells us why juveniles do NOT commit Hirshi’s control bonding theory tells us why juveniles do NOT commit

crime. In other words, this theory reveals why we obey laws. crime. In other words, this theory reveals why we obey laws. Basically if a youth is attached to non-deviant parents, involved in Basically if a youth is attached to non-deviant parents, involved in non-deviant activities (sports, work, church, etc.), committed to non-non-deviant activities (sports, work, church, etc.), committed to non-deviant goals (education, for example), and has non-deviant beliefs deviant goals (education, for example), and has non-deviant beliefs then it is unlikely the youth will become deviant.then it is unlikely the youth will become deviant.

General theory of crime or low self-control theoryGeneral theory of crime or low self-control theory Gottfredson and Hirshi’s micro theory explains that juveniles commit Gottfredson and Hirshi’s micro theory explains that juveniles commit

crimes because they lack discipline. crimes because they lack discipline.

Theories of Causation Theories of Causation Integrated theoriesIntegrated theories – combination of theories from multiple – combination of theories from multiple

disciplinesdisciplines

Thorneberry – Thorneberry – Interactional theoryInteractional theory

Crime linked to deterioration of social bonds during Crime linked to deterioration of social bonds during adolescence: weakened adolescence: weakened attachmentsattachments, weakened , weakened commitmentcommitment, and weakened , and weakened beliefsbeliefs. Youth turns to . Youth turns to others who share those beliefs. Interactions with these others who share those beliefs. Interactions with these deviant peers increase shaping actions.deviant peers increase shaping actions.