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Unit 3: Children and learning: the transition from Grade R to Grade 1 In this Unit you will find the following sections:

3.1 Views and beliefs about how young children learn 3.2 Transition from Grade R to Grade 1: challenges and opportunities

3.2.1 Language transitions 3.2.2 A holistic approach to the teaching of literacy 3.2.3 Language and identity

3.3 Values and principles of South Africa’s Grade R and Grade 1 curricula

3.1 Views and beliefs about how young children learn Over time, a wide range of beliefs has developed about how children develop and learn. As we saw in Student Reflection Activity 4 these beliefs, often linked to theories, influence what teachers believe children are capable of thinking and learning. They also influence what and how teachers teach. Similarly, the educational programmes developed for early childhood learning tend to be closely associated with specific theories and beliefs. Van der Merwe (2008) argues it is important for educators to be aware of the general beliefs that are held about how children learn, so as to be able to recognise and identify these in education policy.

Student reflection activity 5: The challenges of implementing new educational programmes

Work in groups of 4 – 6 students: half the groups focus on Point 1 and 2; the other half read Point 1 and Point 2, but only address Point 3. 1. Re-read and discuss the following statement (van der Merwe, 2008):

More than this, beliefs and theories often are closely linked to specific methodological approaches teachers may be expected to use, when teaching. This expectation, however, is often not met. There is no guarantee that new educational policy or programmes will be implemented in the ways that Education Department policy recommends and expects.

2. Given what you now know about the tensions between personal theories, the more

formal, academic theories, and practice, think about and discuss why teachers may not use new methodologies.

3. If teachers are not prepared to change their old teaching practices, how could you as a novice teacher on the staff approach the situation with a view towards making a positive difference?

Teaching Notes

x In plenary, each group reports back x The groups that focused on Point 1 and 2 should first report back x Each group is asked to listen carefully to the report backs, so that

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they do not repeat points that have been made and can add where necessary.

Early childhood perspectives The Early Learning Resource Unit (ELRU) is a South African development and research organisation which acts as an advocate and capacity-building partner, promoting the right to development for all young children especially the vulnerable. Established in 1978, ELRU works in under-resourced urban and rural areas, to increase access to and improve quality in Early Childhood Development services and programmes. ELRU trains teacher-trainers, teachers, parents, community motivators and develops resources for pre-school children. (http://elru.co.za/ or contact ELRU at: info@elru.co.za) Here are ELRU’s guiding principles:

x The whole child is important: All areas of social, emotional, physical, mental and language development are important. When planning a curriculum it is important to address the development of the whole child.

x All children want to learn: Children learn best when they are interested. We need to take time to find out what interests a child, and use this as a starting point for new learning.

x Early learning (the first nine years of life) is most important: During these years foundations are being laid for later learning.

x Children, like adults, have a right to fundamental human rights: Young children are not in a position to manage their own lives. Parents, caregivers and teachers need to ensure children have basic human rights.

x Children are different from adults: Because children go through stages in their development, we should not expect children to understand and behave in the same way as adults. We need to observe children carefully. Through our own understanding and observations, we can plan how we can help children progress.

x Each child is different from all others: Each child is unique because of what is inherited from parents and the environment the child lives in. Children develop and learn at their own paces, in their own ways. Children may not be at the same level of development, although they may be the same age.

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Student reflection activity 6: Beliefs about learning

Begin working individually, midway work in groups of 4. Biographical reflection 1. What were your family’s beliefs about how children learn? 2. Think of the family you grew up with from birth to seven years of age.

a. What were the beliefs about how best to support young children’s learning? b. Which of these beliefs do you hold today? In addition to these beliefs, do you

have other beliefs, and if you do, what are these beliefs? c. Write down your responses to (b), in point form. d. Sit in groups of four and share your lists. As you listen to each other, mark by

ticking (√) the shared points. e. In plenary, raise interesting observations and questions that arose in your

group discussion. f. If time permits, discuss the possible origins of the shared beliefs: how do you

think these beliefs came into being? The play-learning interface Young children tend to be curious and enjoy movement, unless discouraged from this. They take pleasure in being able to move around in open environments and in having choices when playing. Play, ELRU believes, helps young children learn and develop physically, emotionally and conceptually. And indeed, across the world, play is at the centre of many pre-school programmes. Because of the widespread belief that young children learn best through play, children in pre-schools will have long periods of play-time, both indoors and outdoors. Children enjoy opportunities to be active, explore and learn, and when they play, it is often purposeful. As van der Merwe (2008:4,9) says:

In all cultures children learn through the games they play and the natural and made or bought objects they play with. These objects and games differ depending on the child’s environment, e.g. in rural areas, from playing aeroplane games to herding cattle; playing with sticks and clay figures, as well as playing with bought toys. Play, whatever the games and materials, is the vehicle for learning. In playing games children learn to understand the world they live in, especially the social world, by copying and imitating, in their play, what they see other people doing. Through make-believe play they also learn about symbols, which is important for later maths, reading and writing. For example, a child playing might pretend that a block is a cell phone or a plate is a car’s steering wheel.

Before the 1980s there was a strongly held view that when children play and create their own meanings for the activities they engage in, they also develop cognitive skills associated with reading and writing. Both Piaget and Vygotsky, who you will read about in Unit 3,

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showed an interest in children’s play. Play groups often encouraged make-believe play, where children created fantasy worlds, and shifted between characters, for example, when children took on various roles. The arrival of ‘emergent literacy’, a new perspective on early literacy development, which became prominent in the 1980s, changed the way in which play and literacy were understood. From the emergent literacy perspective, “children construct their own knowledge about language as they interact with other children, as could be seen in daily play activities that involved reading and writing,” said Roskos and Christie (2001:62). Since then there has been an emphasis on creating literacy-enriched play settings. For example, teachers encourage children to explore and incorporate literacy activities into their play by creating play areas that include materials, such as books (including ones easy enough for children to read), signs, menus, calendars, pencils, crayons and paper. Roskos and Christie (2001:59-89) are interested in the claim that play can promote children’s literacy development. They undertook a critical analysis of twenty research studies that investigated the play-literacy interface. Their findings were that there was strong evidence that play can serve literacy through: 1. providing settings that promote literacy activity, skills and strategies; 2. serving as a language experience that creates connections between talk and written

modes of communication; 3. providing opportunities to teach and learn literacy. Many Grade R teachers organise play-based programmes that explicitly facilitate cognitive development. Children may play outside, for example, with blocks in a sandpit; or indoors, participating in various literacy learning activities. The purpose of indoor activities is to develop oral language, as well as early reading and writing skills. The children will use language to communicate in a range of ways, including speaking, writing, drawing pictures, singing songs and moving. In well planned play-based programmes, children’s language and thinking are continuously developed in various creative ways. In Grade R, children typically learn about themselves and their relationships to other children in the classroom, to the school, to family and friends, and to the communities in which they live. Grade R teachers know that five to six year olds will benefit from both “learningful play” and “playful learning” (Graue, 2006). Teachers who make the curriculum meaningful and engaging, by using play and various effective teaching strategies thus purposefully promote development and learning. Achieving a balance between play and learning is seen as important. As already noted, the development of the whole child is important. Therefore, Grade R teachers are encouraged to use a holistic approach when planning activities linked to children’s social, emotional, physical and cognitive development. In addition, these teachers will often guide and facilitate children’s learning, rather than use explicit teaching and instruction, as in the more formal teaching and learning contexts in the Foundation Phase.

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This informal learning is often provided through a careful balance of child-initiated and teacher-initiated activities, which take place in and outside the classroom.

Student reflection activity 7: Imaginative play: reading and writing Work in groups of 3 or 4.

Grade R DVD 1, Chapter 3 @ 9:50-14:13

1. After viewing the DVD, discuss how, in this lesson, more use could have been made of imaginative play.

2. Plan this part of the lesson, using your own ideas. If extra props or resources are needed, list these items.

3. Include two literacy activities (reading and writing) in this lesson. Describe the literacy activities: what would the children do?

4. Join up with one other group and share your ideas. One of the important responsibilities of the Grade R teacher is to prepare the children for the more formal curriculum that they will meet in Grade 1. In this Guide we use the term, ‘bridging’ informal and formal learning. In other words, the two curricula need to be brought closer together and aligned. In this way, the Grade R curriculum can lay a foundation for the Grade 1 curriculum, while Grade 1 should be built on what children learn in their early years. Bowman (2002) makes the point that children’s development is influenced by more than their age. Preparing children for primary school is not a developmental phase that spontaneously emerges at around the time children start formal school. Rather, it is nurtured by Grade R teachers and parents, who encourage children to participate in a variety of activities, games and educational programmes.

3.2 Transition from Grade R to Grade 1: Challenges and opportunities

The Oxford online dictionary defines ‘transition’ as: x the process or a period of changing from one state or condition to another, e.g.

students in transition from one programme to another. The transition from Grade R to Grade 1 is usually a marked and significant one for children. It involves multiple changes, including the following:

x Children need to adapt. Initially they are immersed in an educational setting that can be described as informal. Social relationships and learning about them are seen as part of children’s learning, with play at the centre of all the activities.

x Children in Grade 1, however, find themselves in a very different learning environment and they require support to re-define their identities as learners.

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x For the Grade 1 teacher, play is not work. Here, teaching and learning are characterised by a more formal delivery of curriculum and a formal pedagogy. From this time onwards, little time is spent outside the classroom, other than during break times. Many Grade 1 teachers teach the whole class ‘en masse’, where there is no choice or differentiation in lessons, as there often is in early childhood programmes. Additionally, Grade 1 children who talk and play in class are likely to be regarded as being immature, or ‘naughty’, and may be reprimanded or punished. In the gravest scenarios, parents may be advised to administer medication, for example Ritalin, to quieten down active children.

In addition, not all children attend Grade R classes. For children who spend their first six years of life at home and then enter Grade 1, the transition may be difficult to manage. From the child’s perspective, moving from Grade R to Grade 1 is primarily concerned with how their ways of behaving and learning need to change. Without making them anxious or fearful, Grade Rs need to understand what the new expectations for Grade 1 will be. Grade Rs therefore need to be prepared for these new challenges. For example, Grade 1s are expected to sit on a chair, at a table, where they will stay for most of the school day. Children can, however, expect some similarities. For example, children will greet their teacher at the start of the day, work in groups and listen to stories. From a teaching perspective, Grade R teachers need to help their children develop steady foundations, so that they can navigate the new challenges in primary school. In order to do this, Grade R teachers must understand what the curricular requirements are for Grade 1, as well as what Grade 1 teachers will expect of their children. For these reasons, Grade R is often regarded as a ‘bridge’ that prepares and eases the child’s journey from an unpressured and informal learning environment, where the play-learning interface is valued, to the more formalised learning and teaching context of Grade 1. We can also take a long term view of this, where the Grade R to Grade 1 transition can be seen as the first bridge, to be followed by several others that take people from childhood to adulthood. Learning can be viewed as a constant force in our lives, that makes possible our growth and development. Standard markers along this trajectory include home to Grade R, Grade R to primary school, primary to high school, and high school to post-school courses, including adult studies. Thus the journey of life is seen as a continual practise of learning. Barton (1994: 50) expresses it simply, yet eloquently, in this way:

Learning is something that takes place all the time; all activities involve learning; it is not limited to sitting in the classroom, it isn’t something that children only do. We change throughout our lives and as children and adults we are constantly learning about it. This change is the key to learning.

Glossary Pedagogy: 1. the principles,

practice or profession of teaching.

Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged © HarperCollins Publishers

1. the function or work

of a teacher; teaching.

2. the art or science of teaching; education; instructional methods.

Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary, © 2010

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Student reflection activity 8: Perceived similarities and differences between Grade R and Grade 1

Class discussion.

1. Discuss, as a class, the similarities and differences between Grade R and Grade 1. You can use the following examples, but don’t limit yourselves to these:

a. Mini-lessons take place, where teachers teach groups of children b. Children engage in group activities, at their tables c. Peer teaching d. Some children have individual assistance from their class teacher.

The importance of the transition from Grade R to Grade 1 A popular argument, voiced in conferences and much of the research literature, is that the early years of learning, especially those in pre-schools, are a crucial time for laying the foundations for children’s long-term academic success. Various authors, such as Purcell-Gates (2004), maintain that children who have been prepared for schooling, and who have the required knowledge and skills will not only enjoy a smooth transition from Grade R into Grade 1, but will also experience early school success. More than this, the same children are likely to achieve greater levels of social competency and academic achievement in the initial years of primary school (Scarborough, 2002). Consequently, a stress-free Grade R / Grade 1 transition is viewed as an important goal in children’s early educational paths. For the above reasons, it is necessary for Grade R teachers to offer a curriculum that gives on-going attention to the transitional processes. Grade R curricular programmes therefore need to focus on developing a preliminary knowledge-base and related abilities required for Grade 1, so that children experience greater ease in entering the more formalised modes of learning. Overseeing each Grade R child’s over-all development requires a group effort, with collaboration between teachers, administrators, parents and children (Dockett and Perry, 2003). This collaboration needs to create compatible academic and attitudinal outcomes between the Grade R and Grade 1 curricula to support the children’s movement from one educational context to another. When these outcomes are based on promoting children’s social and cognitive growth, development and general well-being, they promote school readiness. This is why it is so necessary for Grade R and Grade 1 teachers and parents to have discussions to identify the children’s needs and how to cater for them. It cannot be the sole responsibility of Grade R teachers to prepare their children for Grade 1. Both Grade R and Grade 1 teachers should be involved. Grade 1 teachers also would do well to build on important Grade R educational beliefs and practices. Conversely, where children’s passage from home or pre-primary school to primary school is not given careful attention by the relevant bodies, children are more likely to experience difficulty in adapting and in learning. The consequence of this is likely to impact on the entire Foundation Phase.

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Student reflection activity 9: Which Grade R beliefs and practices should find a place in the Grade 1 curriculum?

Work in groups of 4 – 6 students.

In general, Grade R teachers are expected to prepare children for Grade 1. Less attention is given to whether there are Grade R beliefs and practices that would benefit Grade 1s, and should be carried forward into Grade 1.

1. Discuss the above statement. Are there important Grade R beliefs and practices that

Grade 1 teachers should build on during the children’s first, if not second year of formal schooling?

2. Make notes of your discussion, by making a list of the important points and questions that arise.

3. Refer to your own experiences and again to Feiman-Nemser’s (2001:1016) quote on teachers’ beliefs: The images and beliefs that prospective teachers bring to their pre-service preparation serve as filters for making sense of the knowledge and experiences they encounter. They may also function as barriers to change by limiting the ideas that teacher education students are able and willing to entertain.

4. In plenary discussion, raise interesting points and questions that were part of the group discussions.

From the child’s perspective, when the transition from less formal ways of learning to a formal curriculum is planned, and is gradual in its implementation, curricular continuity can be maintained. In doing this, the Early Childhood Education (ECE) approaches to learning can gradually shift in focus, over the course of the Grade R year, until the new, emerging ways of thinking and doing are integrated into the education programmes. When the transition is carefully managed, the needs of children and those of families and society are likely to be more compatible, and fairly met. Lastly, from a macro-level perspective, it is economically sound to ensure that this first scholastic transition is effective and well managed. A smooth transition that promotes the likelihood of children’s on-going academic development will reduce chances of later failure in school. Educators who are involved in this transitional process and see this ‘bigger picture’, are well positioned to motivate colleagues to collaborate in planning and teaching an integrated curriculum, allowing for a stable flow of educational content, knowledge and skills, from Grade R to Grade 1.

Student Reflection Activity 10: Key challenges children encounter in transitioning from Grade R to Grade 1 Work in small groups of 2 or 3 students.

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1. List some of the key challenges and difficulties a child must learn to negotiate when

transitioning from early childhood to Grade 1. 2. For each important point you raise, discuss how Grade R and Grade 1 teachers can

plan for and facilitate this transition. Consider social issues, the language policy, the individual differences between children and their ways of learning, and learning self-discipline.

3. When conducting this discussion, make use of points found in the Literacy Guide, as well as using your experience and knowledge.

4. Who, in your view, are the people who can take responsibility for this transition? Why?

A successful transition from Grade R to Grade 1 should provide continuity between:

x Early learning and care programmes associated with ECD and Grade R, and the educational context in primary schools

x The child’s home environment and the school environment and should consider children’s language, social, cultural, physical and cognitive development.

3.3 Language, identity and transitions For many children throughout the world, one or more languages are used within the home. Literacy at home is linked to family and recreational activities; for example, reading and writing is associated with shopping, cooking, official documents, communication with schools, studying, as well as social, religious and leisure activities, such as reading newspapers and using various digital technologies.

Many people in the world are exposed to more than one language. It may be in their day-to-day life that more than one language is spoken; there may be a different language used at home, from the language used in school, or in the wider community. Many different possible situations exist. It is also probably true that most people in the world are bilingual to some extent, and use more than one language in their lives. Barton (1994:70)

Nemeth (2012:9) makes the valuable point that whilst education planners, schools and teachers often focus attention on the relationship between language and learning, language has a deep-rooted significance in other areas of the child’s life.

For each of us, our language is part of who we are – part of our basic identity. From the very beginning, children come to understand who they are as individuals and as family members. Children’s language is as much a part of them, as their name, their home, their family traditions, and their connections to their parents and siblings. When children grow up with a non-English language as part of their identity, and then come to a programme or school where that language is not used, they may feel that a part of them is neither valued nor liked.

Today, there is growing attention on the importance of recognising that children’s identities are closely linked to their ‘language identity’. Each child in the classroom will have his or her own language identity, which includes the language(s) the child can speak to particular

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people or groups of people, at particular occasions and for specific purposes. At times, children in multilingual homes become the ‘go-betweens’, who help interpret the dominant language used for official purposes and for schooling (often English) and the languages used inside the homes. In these situations, where some adults may not be experienced in the dominant language, school-going children often have special responsibilities, and act as ‘literacy brokers’, reading and translating texts written in English to older family members (Smythe and Toohey, 2009). Every child will also have a ‘literacy history’, which reaches backwards into babyhood, proceeds through the school-going years, and continues into adult life. Children in Grade R and Grade 1 are likely to experience at-home literacy in diverse ways. Family members may have access to any of the following: television, cell phones, computers, tablets, newspapers, magazines, books, comics, study material and religious tracts. Grade Rs and Grade 1s, depending on their interests, may be learning to use, or may already use competently, various out-of-school literacy resources. Teachers who are aware of the powerful link between language and identity, can acknowledge and share literacy histories in their classrooms. This includes finding out which languages the children and their families use at home, which languages are chosen for specific activities, and which reading and writing practices are part of family life.

Student reflection activity 11: Think about your literacy history and identity

Reflect individually, then share in pairs.

1. What language(s) did you speak as a child? 2. What language(s) do you speak now? 3. What languages would you like to know, and what are your reasons for this? 4. What are your thoughts about how language/s is/are part of a person’s identity? Do

you agree with this view? Speak personally from your own experience. 5. If you speak more than one language, in what circumstance do you use each

language? 6. What, do you think, are the advantages of being bi- or multilingual? 7. Consider power and language. Are all languages equally powerful in society?

Classroom languages and status Is the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) the only and therefore dominant language that is used in the classroom? If this is the case, what effect will this have on bi- and multilingual children? How will the exclusive or predominant use of the LoLT impact on the languages the children speak and use outside of the classroom? How are the additional languages the children speak recognised and valued as an important part of each child’s identity and life? And lastly, is bilingualism and multilingualism viewed as an asset, or as problematic? The answers to these questions will affect each child’s sense of identity, and the status or standing of each bi and multilingual child in the classroom.

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The following comments were made by eleven year old immigrant children, who spoke about their early years of attending new schools in a new country where English enjoyed the status of the LoLT. The linguistic and cultural challenges, and the psychological shock the children faced in their new schools are clearly heard in the children’s words, as is their struggle to feel a sense of belonging. As you read Igoa’s (1995) records of each child’s experience, consider how it would have impacted on her or his ability to learn. Alice’s reluctance to speak English was tied to the fear that the children would laugh at her:

I was afraid to say anything. I thought that if I tried to speak I would say something wrong and pronounce a word wrong. I was afraid people would make fun and laugh at me, because of my being different from others. I kept quiet. (Igoa, 1995:85).

Rosario’s experience was of feeling isolated and unhappy:

I was lonely and alone and sad. I wasn’t sure I’d make it in school, and I had no friends. I felt kind of odd because I didn’t know anyone. There was only me and my sister. Because I didn’t know anyone and couldn’t speak English that well, it was hard for me to communicate with other people (Igoa, 1995:91).

Alice spoke strongly about what it is like to experience discrimination:

Some of the kids called me names because I was Chinese, I was really mad and sad at the same time. I didn’t like the fact that they treated me different, right? I was just a different nationality.... I was the outsider and everyone else was a group against me. I was by myself, and there was no way I could defend myself. At home my parents expect me to be a traditional Chinese daughter, because I was born in China. And at school, that’s a totally different story, because they expect me to behave as an American. (Igoa, 1995:85).

Do you know any similar stories about the experiences of South African learners? How can Grade R and Grade 1 teachers create classrooms that embrace multilingualism and multi-culturalism, where children’s identities are acknowledged, and valued, and all children believe they have the right to learn and are members of a learning community? For schools committed to equity, it is important for teachers to acknowledge that bi- and multilingual children are able to communicate using more than one language. When teachers find out how languages are used in the children’s out-of-school lives, and plan creative ways to affirm the value of home languages in each child’s life, they help children build bridges between home and school literacies.

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Social and academic uses of language A Grade R or Grade 1 child may be faced with the possibility that the language of learning and teaching is not be the same as the child’s home language. This requires a substantial adjustment and in the current South African context this trend is on the increase. Many schools choose English as the LoLT even though English is a second, third, or fourth language for all, or the majority of children in a school. In some situations, where children are not familiar with English, it will function as a foreign language. Considerable research, conducted over several decades, has shown that home-language and literacy competence play a vital role in acquiring and learning additional languages. Consequently, many linguists and researchers continue to argue that young children learn optimally when they use their mother tongue for learning. A strong part of this claim is that children who read and write in their mother tongue are able to transfer linguistic and cognitive skills to the new languages being learnt (Nemeth, 2012:8). The children’s knowledge and ability to think in their home languages supports the use of the LoLT. Ideally, both languages should be used to support learning. Linguists have long pointed out that language is used in schools in at least two different ways: as a ‘social language’ and as an ‘academic language’. Gearon, Miller and Kostogriz (2009:9), in outlining the challenges facing globalised language education, write:

There is a significant difference, often poorly understood by policy makers and many teachers, between social language and the highly specific academic language required in schools. They need to . . . understand the processes involved in ‘acquiring a second language for success’ at school. The language needed for academic success at school requires the use of specialised forms, genres, and vocabulary, which are specific to each subject, such as maths, social and natural science, and so on.

Social language, also known as conversational language, involves the everyday ways people communicate with each other: We greet friends, tell them of our latest exploits, discuss what we will do on the weekend, and plan to meet again. Not surprisingly, children and adults who learn an additional, new language will first learn this conversational way of communicating, and with time, may become competent speakers. However, conversational language alone will not translate into children becoming successful students at school, where the different ways of thinking, talking and writing that are known as academic language are required. These more specialised ways of using language include understanding and being able to generate graphs, maps, tables, and so on, as well as vocabularies and concepts that relate to specific content subjects, for example, maths, social science, and science. (Cummins, 1981) has argued that at least five years are required to become competent social language users, and more time to acquire specific academic languages. For these reasons, advocates of this view make strong arguments for promoting mother-tongue instruction, particularly in primary schools, if not at high schools. Increasingly, the

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case is made that continuity in language learning, between home and school enables equity in educational outcomes. However, parents who do not speak English as a home language, often choose to send their children to schools where English is the language of instruction. This widespread trend is not particular to South Africa but is world-wide, and is often portrayed as parents being uninformed and making poor choices. On the other hand, in South Africa parents know that access to the formal economy continues to privilege those who speak English and Afrikaans. Heugh (2009:110) argues that education policy and class teachers need to support the development of both the LoLT and the children’s home languages, if children are to develop academic language. Heugh points out that teachers require training to use code-switching as a tool for learning, and that this needs to be accompanied by the ‘inclusion and validation of students’ linguistic repertoires’.

“The challenge is how to include and validate the linguistic resources of the students, alongside English in the classroom, beyond code switching / code mixing. This requires more systematic support in both languages, in order to give students real access, not only to the curriculum, but to higher education and/or the formal economy once they leave schools.

Heugh (2009:111) further argues:

Development of a strong academic literacy in both a language widely used in the community and in the international language of widest currency, remains the only model that has demonstrated positive, valid, research data in African contexts. . . It requires ongoing revision and localized contextualization (of languages) in order to accommodate changing linguistic repertoires, registers and varieties.

Teaching Notes In the three reflective tasks below students will first watch a DVD, and are asked to think carefully about the children who are learning, using English as the LoLT. The large majority of these children do not speak English as a home language.

x How would your students teach in situations like these? x How can the Grade 1s participate more actively in their learning? x How can the children’s understanding be foregrounded. i.e. receive careful

attention? Student reflection activity 12: Using home languages to support learning

Work in groups of 4 – 6 students. DVD 2: Grade 1, Chapter 1, 05:51 – 06:40

Glossary Code-switching: the ability of a speaker to switch from one language or language variety to another one. (Joubert, Bester, Meyer & Evans, 2013). It usually occurs more often in conversation than in writing.

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1. First watch the above DVD clip. 2. Then discuss the following, using the questions below:

The children are predominantly isiXhosa speaking. The student teacher’s home language is isiXhosa. The LoLT is English and the teacher uses code switching to facilitate the children’s understanding and to support children’s use of English.

a. How appropriate and clear were the instructions the student teacher gives, in

isiXhosa, at the start of the lesson? b. Are the children able to listen with understanding, and carry out the

instructions? Explain your view. c. Think about the discussion about rubbing and pulling ears. How could the

student teacher have ensured the children understood these two words? d. If you were to teach this class, would you make more use of allowing children

to talk in their home language(s)? Explain your answer. e. How effective do you think this lesson is, in teaching the art of listening? f. Comment on the classroom management style of the student teacher and

how it encouraged active learning. g. In a Grade 1, class, where most of the children speak isiXhosa and the

teacher’s home language is isiXhosa, what special strategies can the student teacher use to maximise the children’s listening and understanding?

h. The student teachers all did the same listening activity. Discuss the similarities and differences in the implementation of the lessons. What were the strengths and the weaknesses in each classroom? How would you have approached each of them? Why?

i. Comment on the different approaches and teaching personalities of the three student teachers and discuss the impact on the learning environments.

Student Reflection Activity 13: Helping a child who speaks an indigenous language with learning through the LoLT.

Work in groups of 4 – 6 students DVD 2 - Grade 1, Chapter 4: Consolidation Activities, teacher 3, 05:27 – 09:25

1. First watch the above DVD clip: The children are predominantly isiXhosa speaking. The student teacher’s home language is isiXhosa. The language of learning and teaching (LoLT) is English.

2. Find the child who is struggling to build the word ‘spot’. 3. Discuss the strategies the student teacher is using to help the child

a. In your view, does the student teacher understand the child’s struggle? b. Do you think this is a language and / or a cognitive difficulty? c. Discuss whether the child understands what she is meant to do d. If the child is not ready for an activity of this nature, what appropriate tasks

can be given to the child? 4. What additional strategies could the student teacher have used to help the learner?

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Language transitions At schools where significant numbers of children are learning through a language of learning and teaching that is not the same as their home language(s), it is strongly advised that teachers meet and plan how to support and manage this language transition which the children have to negotiate. In drawing this module to a close, we would like to raise two divergent arguments, which periodically appear in newspaper and television debates. The first view states that the transition that Grade R children are expected to negotiate has become progressively more difficult, as a consequence of the Grade 1 curriculum being increasingly academically focused. This emphasis, it is argued, renders the transition more overwhelming for young children. In other words, the odds are stacked higher. A practical example of this follows. The National Curriculum Statement: Curriculum Assessment and Policy Statement (NCS: CAPS) Home Language Policy documents state that by the end of the year, every Grade 1 child is expected to be able to:

x enjoy and respond to language that is used creatively x interpret information from posters x identify initial problems in stories that set a story in motion x use simple strategies for finding information, e.g. carry out surveys x write and illustrate sentences on a topic to contribute to a book for the reading

corner. (DBE, Home Language: Term 4, 2011)

A second view states that in classrooms where Grade R and Grade 1 teachers, as the norm, hold high expectations of their children, and support high-quality learning, the children’s achievement will be equally high. Successful language policies for Grade R and Grade 1 need to:

x Create bridges between the child’s home environment and the school environment x Create bridges between the child’s home languages and the school’s LoLT x Understand the language and social needs and feelings of children; in particular

multilingual children x Work in ways that allow multilingual children to feel valued and integrated x Use strategies that build-up children’s language, social and cognitive development. x Identify and address problems, and celebrate successes.

In the next activity, students will be able to investigate for themselves what language policies and practices exist in school to support the development of children’s language.

Student reflection activity 14: Research - children’s languages and school language policy and practice When you next visit a school, inquire about and research the ways in which the

school does and does not recognise the language issues in Foundation Phase classes.

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1. Ask the following questions:

a. What home languages do children speak in the Foundation Phase? b. What is the language policy in the Foundation Phase? c. What is the language policy in the Intermediate Phase? d. How does the language policy address the transition from Grade R to Grade 1? e. How is the language policy implemented in Grade R and Grade 1 classes? In

your view, is it effectively implemented? What could be done to increase its effectiveness?

f. Is the language policy readily available and accessible to parents? If not, what do you think could be the reason?

g. Do the students observe teachers working creatively, so as to provide their children with effective language support that enables high-quality learning? If teachers are doing this, how do they go about it? Provide a few examples.

2. Write a report on your findings, and submit it for assessment.

3.4 Policy: early learning As previously stated, a widely-held belief is that children learn through engaging in activity, play, talking and observation of the actions of other children and adults who are close to them. How does the Language Policy for Grade R and Grade 1 respond to the belief that children learn best when they engage in activity, play and talking? South African language education policy The language education policy in South Africa is documented in the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) and amended by the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (DBE, 2011). The Grade R curriculum content areas are: Home Language, Mathematics and Life Skills. The NCS CAPS document sets out the specific knowledge and skills required by learners, in order to reach minimum, necessary requirements in each of the content areas, including Home Language and First Additional Language competence at Foundation Phase level. In Grade R, each content area is not taught formally, but is integrated into play-orientated learning activities and experiences. The play-literacy interface promotes the development of extended language use and various cognitive concepts on which future knowledge relies. It is expected that Grade Rs, with some individual variance in ability will grasp and integrate a range of the concepts and skills in each subject that will prepare them for Grade 1. The Grade R curriculum proceeds from an informal learning context to a more formalised educational approach to assist the children to adjust to Grade 1 with reduced disruption. The informal learning of the Grade R curriculum with its child-orientated and play-approach to learning and flexibility in delivery, shifts in Grade 1 to the more systematic and formalised ways of learning.

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This transition from Grade R to Grade 1 occurs in the context of post-apartheid curricula committed to the following aims, principles and values. All primary school teachers are expected to support the following over-arching principles and values. The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 is based on the following principles:

x Social transformation: ensuring that the educational imbalances of the past are redressed, and that equal educational opportunities are provided for all sections of the population;

x Active and critical learning: encouraging an active and critical approach to learning, rather than rote and uncritical learning of given truths;

x High knowledge and high skills: the minimum standards of knowledge and skills to be achieved at each grade are specified and set high, achievable standards in all subjects;

x Progression: content and context of each grade shows progression from simple to complex;

x Human rights, inclusivity, environmental and social justice: infusing the principles and practices of social and environmental justice and human rights as defined in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 is sensitive to issues of diversity such as poverty, inequality, race, gender, language, age, disability and other factors;

x Valuing indigenous knowledge systems: acknowledging the rich history and heritage of this country as important contributors to nurturing the values contained in the Constitution; and

x Credibility, quality and efficiency: providing an education that is comparable in quality, breadth and depth to those of other countries.

(DBE, General Aims, 2011) The NCS, CAPS, Grades R – 12, aims to produce learners that are able to:

x Identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and creative thinking x Work effectively as individuals and with others, as members of a team x Organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively x Collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information x Communicate effectively using visual, symbolic and / or language skills in various

modes x Use science and technology effectively showing responsibility towards the

environment and the health of others x Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by

recognising that problem solving contexts do not exist in isolation (DBE, Foundation Phase, Home Language: Term 4, 2011).

The CAPS curriculum anticipates that after attending Grade R classes children should enter Grade 1 school-ready, with more than a basic knowledge about how numbers and the written language system works. In Grade 1 the teaching emphasis is on literacy, numeracy and life skills, and less on the socio-emotional development and play-orientated learning of young children. The CAPS curriculum sets out structured learning programmes, and like their colleagues in the rest of the school, Grade 1 teachers are accountable for a range of assessment and administrative

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responsibilities, including summative assessment, marking Annual National Assessment (ANA) tests, and progression processes, amongst others. Successful transitions In contrast with children who go straight from home to Grade 1, children who have attended Grade R classes should stand a better chance of starting Grade 1 feeling more confident, connected and secure. Not only will these children be familiar with daily learning routines, but importantly, they also will have learnt to have relationships with adults and other children, outside of their immediate family circles. Their adjustment to the new circumstances is likely to be made easier. These children are more liable to experience success in their new school environments. This, in turn, can facilitate a positive adjustment to school. For these reasons, Grade R teachers with knowledge and a clear understanding of curriculum areas and learning contexts, need to develop good educational programmes that will offer children multiple learning opportunities. Increasingly, research is showing that there are seldom ‘one-size fits all’ educational programmes. Qualified staff who have reliable pedagogical knowledge of theories of early childhood development should be able to plan suitable learning experiences that enable young children to achieve a high level of knowledge and understanding appropriate to their ages and grades. In Conclusion A transitionary framework deliberately links the Grade R curriculum with that of the Grade 1 curriculum. Such a framework aims to expand informal early childhood learning opportunities, and intensify a focus on the different modes of learning that are expected in Grade 1. A smooth transition needs to attentively, incrementally and systematically establish learning pathways where children’s knowledge, talking, thinking and learning, as well as attitudes, values and routines allow them to develop to their full potential. In other words, successful transitions minimise the difficulties children face when they begin formal schooling.