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7/31/2019 Unit 2 - Physical Geography and Natural Systems - Study Guide
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7/31/2019 Unit 2 - Physical Geography and Natural Systems - Study Guide
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System
A set of connected things or parts forming a complex whole, in particular.Spheres
Atmosphere
A layer of gases that surround a material body of sufficient mass, and that is held in place bythe gravity of the body
Lithosphere
The rigid outmost shell of rocky planetHydrosphere
The combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planetBiosphere
Any closed, self-regulating systems containing an ecosystemEarths Ecosystems
Definition:
A biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as a wellas all the nonliving, physical components of the environment with which the organisms
interact, such as air, soil, water, and sunlight.
Can be as large as a forest or a small as a tree
Largest ecosystem is Earth
Human intervention can affect ecosystems greatly
Physical forces affect ecosystems
El Nino
A quasiperiodic climate pattern that occurs across the tropical Pacific Ocean roughly every five
years. It is characterized by varies in the temperature of the surface of the tropical eastern
Pacific Ocean (warming or cooling known as El Nino and La Nina respectively) and air surface
pressure in the tropical western Pacific (the Southern Oscillation).
Earths Physical Systems
Equilibrium
The condition of a system in which competing influences are balancedNothing on Earth is permanent
The Sun is the Earths main source of energy
Greenhouse gases and global warming could cause more natural disasters especially when somenatural disasters feed off heat
Dynamic Systems
Greatest benefits on Earth come from the Earth itself
Natural disasters are natures way of going back to normal/healing itself
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Earths layers:
Soil Iron inner core
Liquid Iron outer core
Lower mantle
Rigid upper mantle
Continental crust/lithosphere
Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift
About 200-300 million years ago, the plates were in a certain way so that all continentscame to together. This land mass is called Pangaea.
Alfred Wegener developed the theory of how Pangaea broke up and the continents driftedin different directions. He called this theory Continental Drift.
Wegener developed four supportive points to prove his theory: He saw a jig saw fit between South America and Africa He found fossil of the same plants and animals on different continents. He felt that they
could only exist in both places if continents were once joined.
There are mountains similar in age and structure on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Ice sheets covered South Africa, India, Australia, and South America (warmer plates
today). His reasoning was that these plates were closer to the South Pole.
Scientists disagreed with Wegener because they could not believe that a mechanismpowerful enough to move hug continents existed.
The Plate Tectonics Theory was developed approx. 50 years later. This theory stated that the Earths outer shell is made up of about 20 plates consisting of
continent and ocean.
Plate Tectonics
It is thought that the uneven distribution of heat in the Earth causes convection currents to
move the plates.
The Movement of Plates: Plates may collide, pull apart, or scrape past each other.
There are three methods to plate tectonic movement:
Divergent These are zones where two plates move away from each other, allowing magmafrom the mantle to rise up and solidify as a new crust.
Convergent One plate is pulled beneath another (subduction zone) forming a deep trench. The
long narrow zone where two plates meet is called a subduction zone.
A plate will melt as it collides. Ocean Plates go under the continent plate and the plate melts.
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Ocean Plates going underneath the continent plate causes continents plates to riseand cause mountains, also it can push magma out of from other the surface causing
eruptions.
Transform (Strike/Slip) At transform plate boundaries plates grind past each other side by side. These are
responsible for many of Californias earth quakes.
Geologic Time
Earth is 4.55 billion years old Earths history has been divided into four time periods called ERAS:
Precambrian
(Time: 4600 mya) Earliest Life Proterozoic Archean Hedean 1st living mulit-cellular organisms about 3.5 billion years ago (bacteria) Mountains of Canadians Shield were eroded The sediments produced were carried to rivers/seas to form sedimentary rock
Palaeozoic
(Time: 570-245 mya) Ancient Life The Appalachian Mountains formed Parts of North America covered by seas Complex organisms such as fish, insects, and amphibians evolved Amphibians were the first animals to live on landMesozoic
(Time: 245-66 mya) Middle Life Marks the beginning of the breakup of Pangaea Tremendous tectonic forces caused the Rocky Mountains to form Dinosaurs and other reptiles walked about First known flowering plants, birds, and mammals evolved By the end of the era, more than half the life became extinctCenozoic
(Time: 66 mya present) Recent Life Ice Age due to glaciers developed as a result of a slight cooling of the Earths climate Completion of the Rocky Mountains Shaping of continents Humans and mammals develop
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First Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Latin for Fire Rocks or born from fire Born from magma (inside the earths crust) or lava (outside earths crust)
Formation of Igneous Rock
Sometimes they form beneath the ground in magma chambers
Igneous rocks can be intrusive (forms underground) or extrusive (forms above ground)
Canadian Shield created by extrusive igneous rock
Sometime they form above ground from volcanic eruptions
Can be formed on the ocean floor, under water and are called pillow lava.
Types of Igneous Rocks
Basalt Cools by air, extrusive
Obsidian Cools by water, extrusive
Granite
Pumice Floats on water, density less than water
Rock Examples
Some have air pockets Pumice
Some cool very quickly without air pockets Obsidian
Some cool slowly Basalt
Some form slowly underground Granite
Sedimentary Rocks
Glimpse of the biological past
Only rock that can hold fossils
Any rock (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic) exposed at the Earths surface can become a
sedimentary rock
The forces of wind, rain, snow, and ice combine to break down or dissolve (weather), and carry
away (transport) rocks exposed at the surface. These particles eventually come to rest
(deposited) and become hard rock (lithified).
Guelph has a lot of limestone
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Rock
They form in visible layers
Example: Sandstone the most common sedimentary rockOther sedimentary rocks
Conglomerate Limestone Shale
Bones covered up by sedimentary rock eventually are compressed and become fossilised
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Metamorphic Rocks
Q: What does it mean to metamorphose?
A: To change properties or to become something else, to transform Limestone can metamorphose into marble
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
Heat and pressure increase with depth below Earths crust
Eventually the rock undergoes metamorphosis
Rock Cycle
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Three highland areas
Western Cordillera Appalachians Innuitians
Location is Canada
(describe
provinces/territoriesand N,E,S,W)
Yukon, British
Columbia, Northwest
Territories, Alberta
Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, PEI,
Newfoundland andLabrador, Quebec
Nunavut
Topography (surface
appearance)
Stands along western
edge of Canada like a
great wall. Range after
range of mountains
separated by plateaus
and valleys.
Rolling hills though
once was high peaks
(higher than the
Rockies) Long bays
provide harbours for
ocean freighters. Fertile
river valleys along
seacoast.
Stand like big watch
towers in Canadas far
North. Some measure
over 2900 metres high.
Rock Types(s) Volcanic rock, igneous,
metamorphic and
sedimentary
Non-metallic minerals
such as coal, iron, and
zinc, sedimentary rock
Igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rock
Formation Collision of North
America and Pacific
plates. The heavier
Pacific plate forced its
way under the lighter
North American plate
causing volcanic
activity.
Erosion reduced
Appalachians size from
peaks to rolling hills.
Glaciation played a big
part, grinding down
peaks and separating
hills and mountains
with wide valleys. Ice
Age weight of ice
pressed down
Appalachians.
Shaped in the middle of
the Mesozoic era when
the North American
plate moved
northward.
Resources Fishing, iron, zinc, and
coal
Population Description Lightly populated
Canadian Shield and three Lowland Areas
Canadian Shield Great Lakes St.
Lawrence
Hudson Bay -
Arctic
Interior Plains
Location in Canada
(describe
provinces/territories
and N,E,S,W)
Ontario, Quebec,
Labrador,
Manitoba,
Saskatchewan,
Northwest
Territories,
Nunavut
Ontario, Quebec Ontario, Quebec,
Manitoba, Yukon,
Northwest
Territories,
Nunavut
Alberta,
Saskatchewan,
Manitoba,
Northwest
Territories, British
Columbia
Topography (surface
appearance)
Relatively flat with
rounded hills of
rock which are
actually the roots
Separated into
two parts by the
Canadian Shield.
Flat plains, glacial
Hudson Bay:
Very flat, low area
covered by
swamp forest.
The landscape is
composed of
rolling hills, deep,
wide river valleys.
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of ancient
mountains
hills and deep
river valleys.
Great Lakes
located around
here.
Layer of
sedimentary rock
which rests on top
of the ancient
soil.
Arctic:
Gentle rolling
landscapes, no
farming
Land slopes
downward from
west to east,
though it does
have some flat
area.
Rock Type(s) Some of the
worlds oldest
rocks. Igneous and
metamorphic.
Lead, gold, nickel,
copper, zinc, and
diamonds
Bedrock formed
of sedimentary
roc
Hudson Bay:
Sedimentary rock
Arctic:
Lignite
Sedimentary rock,
the rock contains
most of the oil
and gas found in
Alberta and
Saskatchewan
Formation Magma forced its
way through thecracks in the
Earths crust. This
process took
thousands of
years. When it
reached the
surface it cooled
making/forming
the Shield.
St Lawrence:
A rift valleyformed by
faulting. Rift
valley was
flooded in the last
Ice Age by the
Champlain sea,
forming the
lowlands.
Great Lakes:
Glaciers carried
huge amounts ofmaterial from the
Shield and
dumped it
throughout the
region. Great
Lakes dug out by
glaciers.
The last Ice Age,
nutrients layeredand compressed
creating the
sedimentary
rocks, melting of
ice caused the
swampy marshes
and forests
Interior plains
were oncecovered by seas,
sediments from
the Shield and
Rockies were
deposited into the
sea and after
millions of years
they were
compressed to
create the plains.
Resources Lead, gold, nickel,
copper, zinc,
diamonds. Called
the storehouse
of Canadas
metallic minerals.
Good agriculture
due to excellent
soils and warm
climate
Coal, oil, and
natural gas
deposits
Oil, gas,
agriculture. Called
Canadas bread
basket.
Population
Description
50% of Canadas
population lives
here. Called
Canadas
industrial and
urban heartland.
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Definitions
Glacier: A large mass of ice flow. There are two types of glaciers that exist.
Alpine Glacier: Smaller glaciers that are found in mountainous regions
Continental Glacier: A large glacier that covers a large area of land mass or an entire continent.
Wisconsin Glacier: was the last lacier that covered North America. The Wisconsin Glacier carved
out the Great Lakes
Icebergs: Floating sea-based ice. Melting of icebergs does not affect sea level rise.
Moraine: Ridges of till (glacial soil) that are deposited by a retreating glacier.
Esker: A long ridge of material deposited by a melt water stream flowing beneath a glacier.
Drumlin: An egg-shaped hill with a steep side at the wide end and a gentle slope at the other.
Continental Glaciers
Continental glaciers are also called Icecaps and Ice Sheets
These are massive glaciers that extend for hundreds or even thousands of kilometres
The most famous Ice sheets/caps include:
Antarctica Ice Sheet
The Greenland Icecap
Wisconsin Ice Sheet (11,000 years ago)
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Weather
The daily condition of the atmosphere
Descriptions include detail about:
Temperature Precipitation
Hail Snow Rain Slate
Humidity Wind
Speed Direction
Cloud Cover Air Pressure
Climate
Long term pattern of weather
Evolved from averaging records of weather from different places over time
There are 6 different things that affect our climate they are:
Latitude Ocean Currents Winds and Air Masses Elevation (Altitude) Relief (Mountain barriers) Nearness to water
Latitude
1. Further from the Equator = Cooler2. Concentration of suns rays
a. At equator = smaller areab. Farther North, rays are spread over larger areas
3. Amount of atmosphere traversed:a. At equator smallest amountb. Farther North or South, greater thickness of atmospherec. Therefore greater amount of energy reflected back by atmosphere
Ocean Currents3 currents that affect Canada
Alaska a warm current keeping the west coast region warmer during the winter. Labrador a cold current keeping Newfoundland and Labrador cooler in the winter. Gulf Stream (North Atlantic Drift) a warm current keeping Southern Nova Scotia and East
coast areas warmer in the winter.
Canadas Fog Machine
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Where ocean currents meet south of Labrador they create lots of fog.
Warm Gulf Stream Current Cold Labrador Current
Air Masses
Air has weight. Its weight is caused by the force of gravity and is called Air Pressure.
Air pressure is greatest at sea level and lowers as altitude increases because there is less air
above you.
Air masses = a large volume of air that has the same temperature and moisture throughout.
When it moves it carries these characteristics
Wind and Air Movement
Winds are created by difference in air pressure. Differences are caused by altitude and
temperature.
Movement of air has created a pattern of winds around the world
Prevailing winds over most of Canada Westerly blow from West to East.
Pressure Systems
L = Low pressure system
H = High pressure system
Elevation
Temperature decreases with increasing altitude
Air rises, expands, looses heat, and becomes cooler
Rate of cooling vary according to moisture content
Condensation begins when relative humidity of 100% is reached
Relief
Relief is the difference in elevation of the Earths surface
Mountains ranges affect climate because they act as barriers to the movement of air masses
Mountain ranges tend to cause precipitation to occur
Nearness to Water
Moderating effect of water
As an air mass moves over a large body of water (ocean or lake) it absorbs moisture
When passing over land moisture may be released as precipitation
Areas closer to water usually receive more precipitation than those farther away
Precipitation
Caused when moist air is forced to rise
Air rises, air pressure decreases, air cools
Water vapour condenses into water droplets, forming clouds
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Droplets are knocked together and become heavy, then the fall as precipitationEvapotranspiration: Evaporation that only come from trees, water/dew from leaves
Sublimation: Solid to gas transformation without going through liquid stage (example: frost)
Below Freezing
If the water droplets form at temperatures below freezing they become ice crystals and they fall
as snow
Hail is formed when water droplets are forced upward and are frozen, forming small pieces of
ice
Sleet is a mixture of ice and water (freezing rain)
3 types of precipitation
Relief/Orographic
Frontal/Cyclonic
Convectional
Relief/Orographic
Winds carry air up over mountain barrier
As air rises it cools, condensation occurs, clouds from, precipitation occurs
Ex. West Coast of British Columbia
Ascending air cools Descending air
adiabatically to dew point warming adiabatically
water vapour condenses
Frontal/Cyclonic
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Caused by moving masses of warm and cold airThe leading edge of moving air mass is called a FRONT
Warm air is forced over cold air
A cyclonic storm is a large low pressure cell that forms when air mass collides with a cold air
mass
This is the most common form of precipitation in Canada
Convectional
Sun heats Earths surface to a high temperature
Earths hot surface heats air above it, forcing it to rise
The warm air cools as it raises causing precipitation
Very common in the tropics and in Canadas prairies
Summer rain in many parts of Canada
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True soil consists of four main parts. If one of these parts is missing the material is not
considered true soil.
Minerals Come from rock known as parent material Rock is broken down by weathering into smaller particles and becomes part of the soil Many of these nutrients such as calcium, phosphorus, and potassium are needed for
plants to grow
Bacteria and Organic Materials Plants and animals that have died break down/decompose by bacteria in the soil The bacteria releases nutrients from the organic matter, these decaying organic
materials from humus which provides nutrients and moisture for plants
Humus gives the soil the darker colour Air
Plants need air around their roots. High humus levels help produce air in the soilbecause loose decaying materials allows for a lot of air pockets.
Air pockets/spaces can also be created by worms, insects, or small animals that tunnelthrough the ground.
Moisture Water dissolves the nutrients in the soil and the plants take the dissolved nutrients up
through their roots
Water is necessary in the weathering process (chemical and physical) and decayingmaterial
New mineral materials are added at the bottom of the soil by the weathering of parent material.
At the same time new material is added to the top, the op layer containing humus is called
topsoil
Topsoil is a slow process, over the last 6,000 10,000 years only 15 25cm of topsoil has been
formed under the Canadian forests. Though grasslands and prairies around 40 100cm has been
developed.
A well balanced mixture of sand, silt, clay, and humus is called loam. Loam is the best soil for
growing plants; it encourages growth, holds moisture, and allows water to pass through at a
moderate rate so the plants can take up enough nutrients.
Leaching is another process which contributes to soil formation. In areas where there is a lot ofrain or water there is a continuous downward movement of the water through the soil.
As water moves down it dissolves chemical nutrients and carries it away. Though this takes away
nutrients that the plants need, sometimes so far down in the soil that the plant roots are unable
to reach it. Though it can also make great farmland if fertilizer is added.
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Another process which contributes to soil formation is calcification. It occurs in areas witchdryer climates. When water from the top soil evaporates, water from below is drawn up to
replace it; this process is called capillary action.
When water evaporates it leaves the dissolved nutrients behind resulting in thick and nutrient
rich topsoil.
However too many nutrients in the topsoil can be poisonous to the plants.
Regions vegetation is determined by its climate and soils.
Different types of vegetation require different types of climate and soils.
The vegetation affects the characteristics of the soil.
Plants must have moisture and heat to survive; these are the two things that influence plants to
grow.
Natural vegetation is usually quite different from plants that people grow or cultivate for food or
use in industries
Different types of natural vegetation grow in response to different climatic soils conditions.
There are seven natural vegetation regions across Canada they are composed of three types of
natural vegetation they are:
Tundra Forest Grassland
The forest region covers most of Canada
Info Facts
The size of rock particles is an important part of soil structure. The larger particles of sand allow
rainwater to drain quickly through the soil while the smaller particles of clay prevent rapid
damage.
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Below is a table of Canadas ecozones (Mixedwood Plains, Boreal Shield, Atlantic Maritime,
Prairie, Montane Cordillera, Boreal Cordillera, and Boreal Plains)
Name: Mixedwood
Plains
Boreal Shield Atlantic Maritime Prairie Montane
Cordillera
Boreal Cordillera Boreal Plains
Landfor
ms:
Plains and
rolling hills;
Great Lakes are
an important
feature.
Plains and low
hills of the
Canadian
Shield.
Hills and coastal
plains.
Flat to rolling
plains.
Mountains,
plains and
plateaus.
Mountainous,
some hills.
Level to gently
rolling plains.
Climate: Cool, short
winters (-7C);
relatively long,
mild summers
(20C) ;
precipitation700 1000mm;
growing season
180- 260 days
Long winters
(-15C); short
summers
(17C);
precipitation
4001000mm;
growing
season 130
260 days
Long, mild
winters (-4C);
moderately warm
summers (17C);
precipitation
1000 1400mm;growing season
180 210 days
Moderately long,
cold winters (-
15C); moderately
warm summers
(18C);
precipitation 250 700mm; growing
season 170 190
days
Temperatures
vary with
latitude and
elevation;
moderate
winters (-12C);moderate
summers (15C);
precipitation
varies widely
with elevation
and physical
aspects, 500
1000mm;
growing season
140 240 days
Long, cold
winters (-20C);
short, cool
summers (12C);
very dry,
precipitation 300 500mm;
growing season
125 150 days
Long, cold
winters (-20C);
short, warm
summers
(17C);
precipitation450mm;
growing
season 130
165 days
Vegetati
on:
Coniferous,
mixed with
deciduous; little
naturalvegetation
remains
Coniferous,
mixed with
deciduous
Coniferous mixed
with deciduous
Short-grass prairie
in drier areas;
long-grass prairie
in wetter areas;some trees; little
natural vegetation
remains
Enormous
variations
depending on
elevation;dominated by
coniferous
Mainly
coniferous
Coniferous
forests mixed
with
deciduous;extensive
marsh areas
Soil: Leached, wet-
climate soils
Heavily
leached soils;
bare rock;
swampy areas
Leached, wet-
climate soils
Rich, grassland
soils
Wide variety of
mountain soils
Variety of
mountain soils
Rich soils
formed under
forests; marsh
soils in some
areas
Major
Cities:
Toronto,
Montreal,
Ottawa, Quebec
City, Hamilton,
Windsor,
London
St. Johns,
Chicoutimi,
Sudbury, Sault
Ste. Marie,
Thunder Bay,
Thompson
Halifax, St. Johns,
Fredericton, Saint
John,
Charlottetown
Edmonton,
Calgary, Winnipeg,
Regina, Saskatoon
Kamloops,
Prince George,
Penticton
Whitehorse,
Dawson
Hinton, La
Ronge, The
Pas, Flin Flon,
Peace River,
Fort Smith
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Below is a table of the rest of Canadas ecozones (Pacific Maritime, Taiga Cordillera, Taiga Plains,
Hudson Plains, Northern Arctic, Taiga Shield, Southern Arctic, and Arctic Cordillera)
Name: Pacific
Maritime
Taiga
Cordillera
Taiga Plains Hudson
Plains
Northern
Arctic
Taiga Shield Southern
Arctic
Arctic
Cordillera
Landforms: Mountains
with small
areas of
coastal plains
Mountainous Interior
Plains and
some
foothills
Low-lying,
swampy
plains
Plains and
upland areas
Plains and
hills of
Canadian
Shield
Plains and
hills of
Canadian
Shield
Innuitian
Mountains
Climate: Mild winters
(3C); cool
summers
(15C);
precipitation
600
2000mm;
growing
season 200
260 days
Long, cold
winters (-
24C); short,
cool
summers
(13C); very
dry,
precipitation
250
400mm;
growingseason 90
130 days
Long, cold
winters (-
23C); short,
cool
summers
(12C); dry,
precipitation
200
400mm;
growing
season 80150 days
Moderately
long, cold
winters (-
17C);
moderately
short, cool
summers
(14C);
precipitation
400
700mm;growing
season 90
150 days
Long winters
(-30C); short
summers
(5C);
precipitation
200mm;
growing
season 50
days
Moderately
long, cold
winters (-
25C);
moderately
short, cool
summers
(12C);
precipitation
300
900mm;growing
season 100
140 days
Long winters
(-25C); short
summers
(10C), dry,
precipitation
200
300mm;
growing
season 80
days
Long winters
(-40C); short
summers
(0C);
precipitation
less than
200mm;
virtually no
growing
season
Vegetation: Varies with
elevation;
coniferous
trees
Tundra of all
types; areas
of scattered
forests
Open forests
to dense
forest
Ground-
hugging
tundra;
increasingly
dense forest
in South
Tundra;
ground-
hugging
plants
Black spruce,
jack pine,
paper birch,
trembling
aspen
Tundra,
including
shrubs
Mostly no
vegetation;
tundra
Soils: Wide variety
of mountain
soils
Variety of
poor quality
soils; bare
rock
Continuous
permafrost in
North;
scattered
permafrostfurther
South; wide
variety of
poor quality
soils
Scattered
permafrost
occurs;
poorly
developedorganic and
permafrost
soils
Permafrost;
tundra soils
Thin, highly-
leached soils;
bare rock
Permafrost
everywhere;
tundra soils,
bare rock
Permafrost,
tundra soils;
bare rock
Major Cities: Vancouver,
Victoria,
Prince Rupert
Old Crow Hay River,
Inuvik, Fort
Simpson
Moosonee,
Churchill,
Attawapiskat
Iqaluit,
Cambridge
Bay, Resolute
Yellowknife,
Uranium City,
Happy Valley-
Goose Bay
Rankin Inlet,
Tuktoyaktuk,
Povungnituk
Pond Inlet,
Clyde River,
Broughton
Island
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