UNIT-2 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE - PHYSICAL SCIENCES

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DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE -

PHYSICAL SCIENCES

MILESTONES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCLENCE

Science began thousand of years before man learned to write. The history of Science,

therefore, can be said to have began with the history of human existence. During the enormous

stretch of time before the beginning of human civilization, the earliest homosapiens invented

rudiments of practical rules of craft. Warranted by the necessities for their existence and

survival. It is inferred that even the period of Cro-Magnon man or the Neanderthal man of the

post primate ages, some sort of stone equipment were used for hunting for food. Agriculture

was not known at that time. History indicates that this Paleolithic men of the old stone age might

have tried to make boards; houses are earthen pots apart from making use of crude stone arms

for hunting. Thus with the passage of time the early Homosapiens probably discovered such

practical odds as fire-making, cooking, flint, sharpening and the process such as making

earthen pots, weave baskets, build boats and houses, use of metal for making arts and

ornaments. These activities thus may be said to resemble science.

The first book written on work on Physics was “Physics" by Aristotle. The elements of this book

were drawn from the fields of astronomy, optics, mechanics & geometry. These disciplines

began with the Babylonians, with Hellenistic writers such as Archimades, Ptolemy and passed

on to Gulf where the subject was developed more by Scientists such as Ibń.al-Haytham and

Abu Rayhan Biruni and then it was passed on to Westem Európe where it was studied by

scholars such as Roger Bacon and Witelo. Similar traditions existed in ancient Chinese & Indian

Science.

Milestones in the Development of Science:

The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thoughts and classical

physics. Nicolous Copernicus revived the selio centric model of solar system'. This was followed

by the first known model of planetary motion given by Kepler in the early 176 century which

proposed that the planers follow elliptical orbits, with sun at one focus of the ellipse: Galileo



(Father of Modern Physics) also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key

element of the scientific method.

In :1687, Isaac Newton published the 'Principia Mathematical' detailing two comprehensive and

successful physical theories i e. Newton's laws of Motion'. which lead to classical mechanics

and 'Newton's law of Gravitation', which describes the fundamental force of gravity. The

behavior of electricity and magnetism vas studied by Faraday, Ohm and others during the early

19th century. These studies led to the unification of the two Phenomena into a single theory of

electromagnetism' by. James Clerk Maxwell (known as Maxwell's equations).

The beginning of the 20h century brought the start of a revolution in Physics. The long held

theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances.. Beginning in 1900, Max-

Plank, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed the quantum theories to explain various

anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum

mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more

disturbingly, the theory of general relativity' proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed

background of space time, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depends,

could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrodinger formulated quantum

mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. Edwin Hubble in 1929 observed

that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the

understanding that the universe is expanding and the formulation of the 'Big Bang theory by

George Lemaitre.

Further development took place during World War II; which led to the practical application of

radar' and the development of usage of atom bomb'. During 1930, physics entered into the

phase of 'Big Science' requiring massive machines. gadgets and laboratories įn order to test the

theories and move into new frontiers.

The government recognized the need for basic research in this field which could lead to

technologies useful to both military and industrial applications.

Physics is a branch of Science that developed out of philosophy, and was thus referred to as

natural philosophy until the late 19th century - a term describing a field of study concerned with

the working of nature". Contently, physics is traditionally defined as the study of matter energy

and the relation between them physics is in some senses, the oldest and most basic pure

science, its discoveries find applications throughout the natural sciences, sinces matter and

energy are the basic constitutions of the natural world. The other sciences are generally more

limited in their scope and may be considered branches that have split off from physics to

become science in their own right)

In Indian Philosophy, Kanada was the first to systematically develop a theory of atomism around

200 BCE though some authors have allotted him an earlier era in the 6th century BCE. It was

further elaborated by the Buddhist atomists Dharmakirti and Digoaga during the l"

millenniumCE. Pakudha kaccayana, a 6th century BCE Indian Philosopher and contemporary



Gautama Buddha, has also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material

world. The Buddhists thought atoms to be minute objects unable to be seen to the naked eye

that come into being and vanish at an instant. The vaisheshika school of philosophers believed

that an atom was a mere point in space.

In Indian astronomy, Aryabhata 'Aryabhatiya' (499 GE) proposed the Earth's rotation while

Nilakantha Somayaji (1444 1544) of Kerala School of astronomy and Mathematics proposed a

semi-heliocentric model resembling the Tychonic system.

Bhaskaracharya in 12"centuryrin his books ‘Siddhanta Siromani', and Ganitadhyaya' book a

crucial first step in quantification and measured among velocity as Y-s/t (where 'v' is the average

velocity, 's' is distance covered, and 't is time).

Magnétism is referred to by Bboja (104-11-C) & Sapkara Misra. Udayana (104-1190)

recognized solar heat as the heat sources of all chemical changes and also an has weight in his

book 'Kiranawali'. Vallabhacharya (134) pointed out the resistance of waļer . to a sinking object

in his work 'Nyaya-lilavati but did not discuss the principle further. During 15.4 & 16'* century,

Upaskara dwelt on the properties of heat, and tried to relate the process of boiling to

evaporation,

1 Aryabhatta gave the value of TI =3.1416. C.v. Raman was the first Scientists to get Nobel

prize in 1930 in Physics for his discovery "Raman Effect".

Even the origin or existence of sciences was felt during the Moghal rule.

Akbar and Jehangir took active interest in botany & zoology. Aurangzeb had a decidedly

skeptical attitude towards the sciences. Subjects like alchemy, astrology, study ofomens,

numerology and semi rational traditions drew-much attention.

After the independence, India adopted its education system from British Legacy

Some of the important Commissions and committees realized the importance of Education

through their recommendations.

The Mudaliar Commission (1952-53) was recommended primarily the teaching of general

science in the high and higher secondary schools in India as a compulsory subject,

The All India Seminar on teaching of science was held in 1956 all Tara Devi in Shimla. This was

the first of its time that touched almost all the aspect in the teaching of science in the secondary

schools.

In August 1961 a committee headed by the Lal Bahadur Shastri was constituted as Indian

Parliamentary and Scientific Committee. This Committee studied the problem of Science

Education in Primary. Secondary and Higher Secondary Schoolş. From Dec. 23, 1963 to March



10, 1964 UNESCO Planning Mission under Prof. S.G.Shapovalonko visited India and

recommended the planning of science education and its development. They gave their

recommendation on different aspect of science education in secondary Schools in India and

suggested ways to improve both Science and Mathematics education.

Our science education is really in a bad shape and it will become worse if we fail to reckon it

with the explosion of knowledge. This was pointed out by the Kotbari Commission. The

commission recommended upgrading of the school curricula through search in curriculum

development, revision cf curriculum based on suchu research, the preparation of text-books and

teaching / learning materials, and the orientation of teaching to the revised curricula through in-

service education

In 1967, an agreement was signed between the Govt. of India, the UNICEF and the UNESCO

through which a project was launched to make out a plan of the improvement of teaching

science at all school levels,

The NCERT was established as an autonomous organization on Sept. Ist 1960. It is located at

Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi, N.I.E., it is concerned with research instruction and evaluation.

It functions through its various units like Library, National Science Talent Search, Examination

reform etc.,

The State Institute of Science Education have been set in all the States and they aimed at

(1) providing in service training td science teachers.

(11) preparing instructional material in science.

(iii) conducting research in science education.

MILESTONES OF PHYSICS - MAJOR REVOLUTIONS

In 1687, Isaac Newton published Principia Mathematical, a summary of his contributions to

physics. Its impact rivals any single body of work in the history of mankind. From it flowed a

succession of profound changes in human thought and capabilities. -

Newton created mechanical engineering. Bridges, i tunnels, skyscrapers, cars, ships, planes-all

are designed on Newtonian principles. His syntheses led to an understanding of the motion of

moons about planets, and planets about the Sun. Today, his equations are programmed into

NASA's computers to control the motion of space vehicles

But his deepest impact was the recognition of how orderly the world was and that this order

could be understood and used. A comparable revolution, led by Michael Faraday and James

Clerk Maxwell, took place in the nineteenth-century. The nature and behavior of things electrical

currents and charges, magnetism and the electrical nature of light-Were unified into one

comprehensive theory. That so huge a variety of phenomena could be described by a few

beautiful equations furthered the idea that the world was indeed knowable.



Experiments by Cavendish and Coulomb, and by Ampere and Faraday, said the foundation of

Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.

In 1824 Sadi Camot, a French Engineer, examined the workings of an “ideal" engine, adopting

the process of carrying the engine through a complete cycle so that the working substance is

brought back to its initial state. His results were put in modern form by Clausius and Lord Kelvin.

Today it is learned as the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that engines that are

driven by input heat energy, in order to perform work, must exhaust thermal energy into an

environment which is at a lower temperature than the input heat source. This presents a

depressing limit on the efficiency of engines. An equivalent statement is that heat cannot

spontaneously flow from a lower temperature source to a higher temperature source.

Incidentally, the First Law of Thermodynamics is a restatement of the Law of Conservation of

Energy.

The implication of the second law is that you cannot turn thermal energy, e.g. the heat content

of the ocean, into work (i.e. useful work) without having a colder place into which to discharge

heat energy. Heat driven engines must operate between two systems. with different

temperatures.. This places a serious limit on the efficiency of heat .engines—even perfect

engines—with no friction: In the industrial revolution that turned on in the late nineteenth

century, the Second Law was a guiding influence. The-implications for the future of the universe

are equally sobering.

The beginning of the twentieth century, was distinguished by a remarkable decade ending in

1900. During this period, X-rays were discovered (Rontgen), radioactivity was discovered by

Bequerel, the electron was discovered by J. J. Thomson, and in 1890 Max Planck made the first

attack on the mysteries of atomic structure by proposing the existence of quanta. It was as if

nature revealed á host of its deepest secrets to celebrate the start of a new century, the last of

that millennium

Knowing the existence of the electron as the carrier of electric charge was the key discovery

leading to the solution of a problem posed by the Greek philosopher, Democritus, in 450 BC-the

atom

5. The conquest of the atom led by Ernest Rutherford. Niels Bohr, and others between 1910 and

1930 gave rise to quantum mechanics, which revolutionized physics, most of chemistry and an

important part of biology. Quantum theory gave us a unified and comprehensive command of

the atomic world. The creation of quantum mechanics came from observations of how heated

matter glows red, then white. Phenomena at the level of the atom could not be understood using

the physics of Newton and Maxwell. A radical break was devised. This provided an

extraordinary new framework for portraying physical reality, revolutionizing our most

fundamental concepts of. measurement . Counterintuitive, conceptually disturbing, but it

worked. The understanding and control of atoms, molecules and solids is basic to chemistry,

biology and many other sciences. In every application, to atoms, nuclei and sub-nuclear



particles, quantum mechanics gave us new understandings. And it was profitable! New

industries such as semiconductors, optical communications, and microelectronics continue to

create new technologies, and new materials and devices like the ubiquitous laser.

The discovery in 1947 of the transistor effect paved the way for the computer revolution that has

changed everything froth the way business and governments are managed to the day-to-day

operation of our households. The subsequent telecommunications revolution impacts politics

and knowledge acquisition and dissemination. The pace at which it is changing our lives shows

no sign of slowing.

6 In 1944, one of the creators of Quantum Mechanics, Erwin Schrodinger, wrote a book entitled

What Is Life? It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of this work because it was the "naïve

physicists surmise that the genetic code is inscribed in the quantum mechanical structure of

complex protein molecules. Schrodinger's book represents a bold attempt to understand the

deepest mysteries of living things.

Its influence on James Watson and Frances Crick had much to do with their decision to study

the structure and function of DNA, The rest is history, as this 1950s discovery created modem,

molecular based biology. The technological consequences of the biological revolution follow

close' behind and are having a tremendous influence on man's control of disease, the structure

of viruses, the applications of useful bacteria, agriculture, the ability to design drugs, and many

more applications.

7. Einstein gave us a new view of the cosmos and a new and ugified view of the nature of space

and time. Special and General Relativity took their place alongside Quantum Mechanics as the

great intellectual revolutions of the twentieth century.

Whereas vast new powers were made available to humans, we were made aware of our

perilous perch on a tiny planet, a mere foundling in the cosmos of billions of suns expanding

from a primordial explosion. The mind could now reach the edges of the universe. Cosmology

and early universe astrophysics would lead us to a new story of creation and evolution of the

universe, from its fiery origin in a Big Bang to the 1990s discovery that the pace of the

universe's expansion is increasing. All of this was supervised by Einstein's equations and

insights.

His special theory of dealing with the abstract consequences of space, time, energy and ‘motion

had profound applications and we explore some of these now.

ADDITIONAL MILESTONES IN PHYSICS

Nuclear Physics:

In the 1930s came the assault on the nucleus, occupying only a millionth of a billionth of the

volume of the atom. Larger scientific tools were needed.

The nucleus became familiar territory: nuclear energy, nuclear medicine and horrendous



weapons. Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging and CAT scans revolutionized medical

diagnostics. Radioactivity was understood for its power and its peril. And the nucleus of the

atom is a collection of nucleons, protons and neutrons, densely packed.

(a) Particle physics: Each nucleon is a bag of confined components: quarks and gluons.

The experimental efforts of nuclear physicists towards the end of this century are to exhibit the

change of state from rigorously confined quarks to a plasma of quarks and gluons: Thanks to

particle accelerators, the 1960s witnessed the beginnings of a new organization of the stuff from

which everything is made: us, our planet, and the Sun- the whole works! Even the creation and

evolution of the universe were beholden to this synthesis of particle and force. The summary

made in the 1980s is a concise table of the particles called: The Standard Model. Quarks,

leptons and force carrying particles are arranged in a concise summary of everything that has

been learned since the discovery of the electron in 1897. This summary cried out for new

observations that would account for particle and force complexity

(b). Condensed matter physics: This deals with advances in our understanding of

semiconductors, superconductors and new states of matter, such as the Super-fluid phase of

liquid helium 3: Areas of great activity include studies of phenomena at surfaces, the role of

interfaces between different materials, disordered systems, surprising new forms of ordered

systems, onset of turbulence and the new high temperature superconductors.

(c) Lasers: Intense beams of cooperating photons are used in surgery and supermarkets and

they have also revolutionized the study of atoms, molecules and optical systems. The behavior

of single, isolated atoms can be studied. Chemical reactions can be watched as they take place.

New and ultra-precise atomic clocks have been used to test the tiniest effects of general

relativity to high precision

(d) Plasmas: Most of the visible matter in the Universe is composed of plasmas—that form of

matter in which neutral gases are composed of positive ions and unbounded electrons. We

need to understand plasmas to understand stars, stellar winds, planetary magnetospheres and

galaxies. On earth! high temperature plasmas are grist for a future supply of energy via

controlled fusion.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF WESTERN SCIENTISTS

1. NICOLAS COPERNICUS

Name : Nicolas Copemicus

Occupation: Mathematician, Astronomer

Birth Date: February 19, 1473

Death Date: May 24, 1543

Nicolas Copernicus was a Renaissance Mathematician & astronomer who formulated a

heliocentric model of the universe which placed the sun, rather than Earth, at the center.

The publication of Copernicus book “On the Revolutions of the Celestial spheres" just before his

death in 1543 is considered as a major event in the history of Science. It began the Copernican

Revolution and contributed importantly to the scientific revolutions.



The Copernican theory demanded two important changes.

The first change had to do with the apparent size of the universe. The stars appear to be in the

same fixed positions but if the earth is the orbit around the sun, they should display a small

periodic change. Copernicus explained that the start sphere was too far distant for the change

to be detected.

The Second change concerned the reason why bodies fall to the ground.

According to heliocentric theory, the earth no longer coincided with the centre of the Universe.

Copernicus was born & dead in Royal Russia, a region of the kingdom of Poland since 1466.

Copernicus has a doctorate in Canon law and though without degrees was a physician; polyglot,

classics scholar, translator, governor diplomat and economist who in 1517 set down a quantity

theory of money, a principal concept in economics to the present day and formulated the

version of Gresham's law in 1519, before Gresham...

His father was a merchant and his mother was the daughter of a wealthy merchant Nicolas was

the youngest of four children. His brother Andreas became an Augustinian canon: His sister

Barbara became a nun. His another sister Katharina married a businessman and city councilor

Barthel Getner and left five children whom Copernicus looked after to the end of his life.

Copernicus never married or had children. Languages:

Copernicus is postulated to have spoken Latin & German with equal fluency. He also spoke

Polish, Greek & Italian.

Heliocentric: He discusses about the heliocentric hypothesis. It contained seven basic

assumptions. He still gathered data for a more detailed work. Death:

Towards the close of 1542, Copernicus was seized in the apoplexy and paralysis and died at

age of 70 on 24 May 1543. Legend has it that he was presented with the final printed pages of

his books on the very day he died.

2. ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727)

Newton was born on 25th December 1642 at Lincolnshire. He became a world famous scientist.

As a child he was good at drawing and mechanical inventions. He was not much attentive at

school. Newton was brought up by his grandmother. His father was dead His mother married

again. Newton did not receive any love from his parents.

Newton was an extraordinary scientist. Throughout his schools and college days, he lived like a

hippię, rejecting the world and its ways. He never married and lived a Bachelor's life in a cottage

in the countryside, where he was always busy conducting scientific experiments or writing about



them in the form of books. He laid the foundations of physics by propounding the three laws of

motion and the theory about gravitation in his famous book, Principia'.

Newton also conducted several experiments on light in the later years of his life, he became

obsessed with the idea of creating gold out of base metals which cost him his life. Those all

chemical experiments released metallic vapors which he inhaled over the years and eventually

died.

Newton did his graduation from Trinity College, Cambridge in 1665. His professor was Isaac

Barrow, a giant in mathematics. He recognized the talent in Newton. Newton occupied his chair

at the age of 27. In 1672 he was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society. Newton published his

epic work “Principia Mathematical" in 1687.

Newton showed that the Sunlight is composed of seven colours VIBGYOR or Violet, Indigo,

Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. These colours can be separated with the help of a prism

and the mixture of these colours produces white light for which Newton made a disc.

Newton became famous by his three laws of motion. They are .

1) Everybody continues in a state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an external

force.

2) The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force and takes place in

the direction of force

3) Action and reaction are equal and opposite. These laws were first stated by Newton in his

principia (1687). Newton also invented calculus, a mathematical method. He wrote a book

'optics' describing his studies of light.

It was in the year 1655, Newton was in his native woods Thorpe for holidays. One day he was

lying on the ground under an apple tree. Suddenly an apple fell to the ground. He wondered at

this scene. On the basis of the falling apple he gave his famous law of Universal gravitation

which states, that every-body in this universe attracts every other body with a force directly

proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the

distance between them.

In 1689 Newton was the Member of Parliament. He had represented the university. He was the

President of the Royal Society in 1703 and continued till his death. He was knighted by Queen

Anne in 1705. Even at his ripe age of 85 presided over a meeting of the Royal Society. Newton

was a simple man. His scientific achievements are unique. He died on 20 March 1727 at

London.

3. ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879-1955)

Once he climbed a ladder to change the picture on the wall. His foot slipped and he fell to the

poor. Quickly recovering from the fall, he took out a paper and pen and began working to the

causes of the fall. Like the fall of the apple in Newton’s Garden, this incident led him to



restructure the theory of gravitation, he was ALBERT EINSTEIN

Einstein was born at Wim in Germany. He learnt piano from his mother. Right from his

childhood he was interested in science. He vas sharp in mathematics but a mediocre in other

subjects. He completed his education in 1900 and became a citizen of Switzerland where he

had tried for admission in the Zurich University. He joined the Swiss Patent office as a clerk. He

married science student Mileva Marec. In 1905 he got his doctorate degree from Zurich

University. By than he had published five research papers which made him a famous scientist

as he showed that when light falls on metals like tungsten eta they emit electrons. These

electrons he called photo electrons and the effect is 'Photo-electric effect. He was awarded the

Nobel Prize in 1921 forbis discovery of the law of Photo electric effect.

His major contribution was the special theory of relativity. He showed that the physical quantities

like mass, length and time are not constant, but vary with the velocity of the body. He

established the equivalence of 56

=

matter and energy. The interconnection of mass and energy was embedded in the formula

E=mc2 Where E is energy, m is the mass and c is a constant equal to the velocity of light. The

atomic bomb was the result of this equation. He also explained in one of his papers the way the

force of gravity works.

In 1993; in Germany the dictatorship of Hitler was found intolerable. Einstein opposed it. The

conditions of Jews were miserable. Einstein went to America on an invitation to deliver a lecture.

He didn't come back to Germany as he was likely to be punished. He held a high post in

Princeton University till 1945: There he worked on the development of Atom Bomb. When he

found harmful and disastrous effect of the bomb on the two cities of Japan he became very sad

and decided to advocate only the peaceful user of atomic energy. Einstein died on April -18,

1955. An element Einsteinium has been named after him. He is sometimes called the father of

modern physics.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF INDIAN SCIENTISTS

1. ARYABHATTA

Aryabhata was an astronomer and great Indian mathematician. He was born in Kerala,

He was born near Patna in "bout 476 A.D and lived rear Patna about 476A.D to 550 A.D After

completing his studies at the university of Nalanda, he wrote a book “Aryabhattiya" at the age of

23. It was treated as one of the most standard works on Mathematics. He was appointed as a

vice Chancellor of Nalanda University

Aryabhatta's legendary epic "Aryabhatia" deals with the various aspects of mathematics and



astronomical calculations. he wrote one more treatise" Aryabhatta Siddhanta" which was a

guide to determine auspicious times for various rituals. Indians first Satellite was named

Aryabhatta.'

Aryabhatta has given 121 utras divided into four parts Gati padika, Ganit padika, Kaal Kriyapod

and Ga-pad. The Ga-pad contains II slokas only consisting of a very wide matter. The

Mathematical part of Aryabhatta covers Arithmetic, Algebra, Plane trigonometry and spherical

Trigonometry. It also contains continued fractions, quadrative equation, such of power series

and a table of sines.

He gave up the formula for knowing area of different figures like area of Square, Rectangle,

Triangle, Rhombus, Circles and volumes of sphere and cone etc.

He also gave the idea of construction of different geometrical figures like Triangle, Circle,

Sphere, Quadrilateral etc.

He tries to solve quadratic equation and linear equations.

He declared that number of days for a year is 365.3586.

1. The earth takes 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.1 seconds per one revolution, according to

Aryabhatia with the help of modern equipment, todays Scientist arrived at 23-hours, 56 minutes

and 4.09) seconds.

He prepared arithmetical tables and procedure for finding the volume. of a prism, circumference

of circle.

He formulated for the first time in Mdia the formulae for interests, time and other related ones.

He held that earth was a sphere revolving on its own axis round the sun.

Aryabhata gave the value of as 3.1416. He was the first to declare that the earth is round and ܀

it rotates on its own axis creating day and nights .

He declared that moon is dark and shines only because sunlight. He believed that the earth is

the centre of the universe.

Aryabhata devised a method to express big numbers like 100,000,000 in words."

He actually found a solution to the intermediate questions like a x b y = c.

He gave the idea of decimal system, properties of triangles, method of finding sum of squares

and cubes of 'n' natural and Pythagoras theorem.



2. C.V. RAMAN

C. V. Raman is the first Nobel Scientist of India. He won Nobel Prize 1930 in physics for his

discovery Raman Effect

Chandrasekhar Venkata Raman was born on November 7, 1888 at Tiruchinapalli. He was the

son of college teacher. He did his M.A. at Presidency College in Chennai. He took up an

administrative job in the Finance Ministry in Kolkata. His interest in science made him to

become a member of the Indian Institute for cultivation of science.

He studied acoustics. He went to London on a lecture tour. On his return journey he was

fascinated by the blueness of the sky and sea. He questioned himself why they were blue. He

found and concluded that the blueness was due to the scattering of light by water molecules. He

wished to prove his theory, He did research in optics. In 1924 he was elected FRS, London for

his contribution to optics.

He discovered the scattering of light and later it was named Raman effect. This was

discovered on 28 February 1928. He was awarded Nobel Prize. In 1943 he founded his own

institute in Bangalore. 게

The Raman effect is important in understanding the molecular structure of chemical

compounds. It is the phenomenon that causes changes in nature of light wher it is passed

through transparent medium whether solid, liquid or gases,

February 29, annually is being celebrated as National Science day in India. 1

3. SUBRAHMANYAM CHANDRASEKHAR (1910-1995)

Introduction;

S. Chandrasekhar was born on 19 Oct, 1910. in Lahore, Punjab, India to a Tamil family. His

father was Deputy Auditor General of the North Western Railways at the time of his birth. He

was the eldest of their sons and third of their ten children.

His Education Career & Contribution:

His paternal uncle was the Indian psysists and Nobel laureate C.V.Raman. His mother was the

first person in his life for arousing Chandra's curiosity at an early age..

Hindu High school, Triplicane, Madras - 1922-25

Presidency College, Madras – 1925-1930 r B.Sc. (Hon.) in Physics - June 1930

The Compton Scattering and the New statistics - his first paper in 1929

Awarded Scholarship from Govt. of India to pursue graduate studies at University of Cambridge.

He worked on the statistical mechanics of the degenerate electron gas in white dwarf stars.

He received a bronze Medal for his works on degenerate stars and was awarded his Ph.D.

degree at Cambridge.



NASA built a Laboratory for Astrophysics and space research (LASK) in 1966 at the University

where Chandrasekhar occupied on of the important post in it.

During World War II, Chandrasekhar worked at the 'Ballistic Research Laboratories' in

Maryland.

His way of Study:

Chandrasekhar concentrated at a single topic or specific area and published several papers and

then write a book summarizing major concepts in the field.

Area of Study Year

1) Stellar structure & White dwarfs Science and Art: 1929-1939.

2) Stellar dynamics 1939-1943

3) Radiative transfer1943-1950

4) Hydrodynamic & Hydro magnetic stability 1950-1961

5) The equilibrium & the stability of ellipsoida! 1960

figures of equilibrium

6) Mathematical theory of Black holes 1971-1983

7) Theory of Colliding gravitational waves Late 80 s

From 1952 to 1971, Chandrasekhar was the editor of “The Astrophysical Journal

D. During the years 1990-1995, Chandrasekhar worked on explaining geometric arguments in

Sir Issac Newton's “Philosophiae Naturalis Mathematical” using Calculus.

The efforts resulted in the book “Newton's Principia for the Co mon Reader", published in 1995.

Chandrasekhar was an honorary member of the International Academy of Science.

Death:

Chandrasekhar died of sudden heart attack at the University of Chicago hospital in 1995 and

was survived by his wife, Lalitha. His Wife: Lalitha Chandrasekhar, 102, passed away in

Chicago on September 2, 2013. She was born on Oct 15, 1910'in a family of social reformers.

She studied physics at Presidency Cotlege where Chandrasekhar was a year senior to her.

Ms.Chandrasekhar, actively supported Professor Chandrasekhar in all of his scientific

endeavours and achievements, in his auto biography, Chandrasekhar wrote “Lalitha's patient

understanding support and encouragement have been the central facts of my life"

Nobel Prize:

s. Chandrasekhar was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983. for his studies on the

"Physical processes important to the structure and evolution of stars". He shared this award with

William A. Towler.

Legacy:

Chandrasekhar’s most notable work was the astrophysical Chandrasekhar Limit The limit

describes the maximum mass of a white dwarf star, N1.44 Solar masses, the minimum mass



which must be exceeded for a star to ultimately collapse into a neutron star or black hole.

In 1999, NASA named the third of its four “Great observatories" after Chandrasekhar.

Development The Chandra X-ray observatory was launched and deployed by Space shuttle

Columbia in July 23, 1999. of Science Physical Sciences

The Chandrasekhar number is an important dimension less number of magneto hydrodynamics

is named after him.

The asteroid 1958 Chandra is also named after him. Chandrasekhar guided 50 students to their

PhD’s

Awards:

He received 14 awards for his magnificent work in the field of Physics. Some of them are:

a) Gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society 1953

b) Padma Vibhusan - 1968 c) Nobel Prize - 1983

d) Honorary fellow of the International Academy of Science - 1988 and many more. His Works:

Chandrasekhar has written a number of books on his areas of work. Some of them are:

"An Introduction to the study of Stellar structure” New York

“Principles of Stellar Dynamics" New York I

"Radiative Transfer" New York

“Hydrodynamic & Hydro magnetic stability" New York

"The mathematical Theory of Black Holes” New York, Oxford University Press

4. A.P.J ABDUL KALAM

(15 Oct, 1931)

Introduction:

Bharat Ratna Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam was born on 15 October 1931 in a Tamil

Muslim family to Jainulabdeen, a boat owner at, Rameswaram located in Tamilnadu..He carpe

from a poor family background and started working at an early age to supplement his family's

income.

After completing school, he used to distribute newspapers to financially support his family His

school records show average grades but was considered as a bright & hardworking student. He

has a strong desire to learn and his most liked area of interest was mathematics.

He graduated Physics in 1954 from Saint Joseph's College, Madras. He studied aerospace

engineering.

His dream was to become a fighter pilot but failed to get it as he bagged ninth position when

only eight slots were available for IAF.

Kalam's Career & Contribution:

After graduating for Madras institute of Technology in 1960, Kalam joined Aeronautical



Development Establishment of Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) as a

Scientist.

He started his career by designing a small helicopter for the Indian army, Kalam-Y - was a part

of the INCOSPAR Committee working under Vikram Sarabhai, space Scientist.

Kalam was transferred to the Indian space Research Organization (ISRO) where he was the

project director of India's first satellite launch-vehicle (SLV-III) which successfully deployed the

Rohini satellite in near earth orbit in July, 1980.",

In 1963-64, he visited NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton Virginia, Goddard space

Flight center in Greenbelt, Maryland and Wallops Flight Facility situated in Eastern shore of

Virginia. During 1970-1990 Kalam made efforts to develop Polar SLV &

SLV-III projects which proved to be success. 19:1979, ISRO launched Rohini-1 into space

using SLV rocket.

In 1982 he became Director, Defence Research Development Laboratory (VRDL), Hyderabad.

> Kalam directed two ‘projects ie. 'Project Devil' and Project valiant, which developed ballistic

missiles under the mission including Agni, an intermediate ballistic missile & Prithvi, the tactical

surface-to surface missile... :

In 1992, he took charge as a scientific adviser to the Defence Minister. Government of India;

devised the Arjun Tank.

In 1998 along with Cardiologist Dr. SomaRaju, Kalam developed a low cost Coronary stent and

it was named as “Kalam-Raju Stent". In 2012, the duo designed a rugged tablet PC for health

care in rural areas, which was named as "Kalam-Raju Tablet".

His Office:

Kalam served as the 11" President of India succeeding K:R. Narayan. He won the 2002

presidential election. He served from 25 July 2002 to 25 July 2007

Criticism:

He played a leading role in the development of Indian nuclear programme and was criticize by

his peers who claimed that he had "no authority" over nuclear science. They also claimed that

Kalam had no background in publishing articles in nuclear science & in nuclear physics. They

said that he received his masters degree in aerospace engineering which is completely different

discipline from nuclear engineering.

Media questioned Kalam taking credit of inventing the Agni, Prithvi and Aakash missile system.

But in his own biography, Kalam credited the development of Agni missile to Dr. Ram Narjan

Agarwal, for Prithvi, he named Col. VJ Sundaram as the brain behind it and for Trishulmissile,



he gave credit to Commander SR Mohan. In 2006, a senior media correspondent of 'The Daily

Star', wrote that the project Valiant & Project Devil under the directorship of APJ Abdul Kalam

resulted in "total failure” in 1980, these projects were cancelled by the Government of India.

Future India 2020:

Kalam strongly advocates an action plan to develop India into a - knowledge super power and a

developed nation by the year 2020. He regards his work on India's nuclear weapons program as

a way to assert India's place as a future superpower.

Awards & honors:

A.P.J. Abdul Kalam’s 794 birthday was recognized as World student's Day by United Nations.

He received honorary doctorates from 40. universities. The government of India has honoured

him with the Padma Bhushan in 1981 and the Padma Vibhushan in 1990 for his work with ISRO

& DRDO and his role as Scientific adviser to the government-In 1997, Kalam received India's

highest civilian honour, the Bharat-Ratna. for his immense and valuable contribution to the

Scientific research and modernization of defence technology in India. Kalam's Writings:

Some of the books written by Abdul Kalam includes > "Developments in Fluid Mechanics &

Space Technology" India 2020: A vision for the New Millennium » Ignited Minds: unleashing the

power within India ► Inspiring thoughts Wings of fire

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

Science and Technology have always been an integral part of Indian culture. Natural

philosophy, as it was termed in those ancient times, was pursued vigorously at institutions of

higher learning. The Indian Renaissance, which coincided with our independence struggle, at

the dawn of 1900s witnessed great astrides made by Indian scientists. This innate ability to

perform creatively in science came to be backed with an institutional setup and strong state

support after the country's independence in 1947. Since then, the Government of India has

spared no effort to establish a modem S&T infrastructure in the country. The Department of

Science and Technology plays a pivotal role in promotion of science and technology in the

country..

Vikram Şarabhai-a physicist considered to be 'the father of India's space program'4[1] was

instrumental in the creation of both the Indians Space Research Organization and the Physical

Research Laboratory (Ahmadabad).

Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India (office: 15 August 1947 - 27 May 1964),

initiated reforms to promote higher education, science, and technology in India. [2] The Indian

Institutes of Technology - conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs

in order to promo technical education was inaugurated or 18 August 1951 at Kharagpur in West

Bengal by the minister of education Maulana Abul Kalam Azad:[3] More IITs were soon opened

in Bombay, Madras, Kanpur and Delhi as well in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Beginning in

the 1960s, close ties with the Soviet Union enabled the Indian Space Research Organization to



rapidly develop the Indian space program and

advance nuclear power in India even after the first nuclear test 'explosion by India on 18 May

1974 at Pokhran.[4] India accounts for about 10% of all expenditure on research and

development in Asia and the number of scientific publications grew by 45% over the past five

years.[51 However, according to India's science and technology minister, Kapil Sibal, India is

lagging in science and technology compared to developed countries. [6]. India has only 140

researchers per 1,000,000 population, compared to 4,651 in the United States. [6] India

INVESTED US$3.7 billion in science and technology in 2002-2003.[7] For comparison, China -

INVESTED. about four times more than India, while the United States invested approximately

75 times more than India on science and technology (7] Despite this, five Indian Institutes of

Technology were. listed among the top 10 science and technology schools in Asia by Asia

week.[8] One study argued that Indian science did not suffer from lack of FUNDS but from

unethical practices, the urge to make illegal money misuse of power, frivolous publications and

patents, faulty promotion policies, victimization for speaking against wrong or corrupt practices

in the management sycophancy, and brain drain.[9] However, the number of publications by

Indian scientists is characterized by some of the fastest growth rates among major countries.

India, together with China, Irán, South Africa and Brazil are the only developing countries

among 3 Cations with 97.5% of the world's total scientific productivity

The remaining 162 developing countries contribute less than 2.5%.[10]

IMPACT OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY ON SOCIETY

The importance of stone tools 2.5 million yours ago is considered fundamental in human

development. It has been suggested that the control of fire by early humans and the associated

development of cooking was the spark that radically changed human evolution. Further, the

early advances in plant agriculture and husbandry fundamentally shifted the way that collective

groups of individuals and eventually shifts developed.

Economic & Technological Development:

In ancient history, economies began when occasional spontaneous exchange of goods &

products i.e: Barter system was replaced over time by trade structures. Regardless of goods &

services bartered, some amount of shell & bead jewelry. So, from the very beginning the

technology can be said to have its development in economics.

In this modern World, superior technologies, resources, geography and history give rise to

robust economics and in a well functioning, robust economy naturally flows into greater use of

technology.

Technology is an inseparable part of human society especially in its economic aspects funding

sources for new technological endeavours is essential.

Government is a major contributor to the development of new technology in many ways. It

reflects the standards of the society in a better way.



Example:

In 1980, the UK government invested over 6 million pounds in a four-year prograrm, latest

extended to six years called the Micro electronics Education Programme (MEP), which was

intended to give every school in Britain at least one Computer, software training material and

extensive teacher training. Such similar programs have been instituted by government around

the world to improve the societies.

Technology has frequently been driven by the military in the many modem applications

developed for the military before they were adopted ty for civilian use.

Sociological factors & effects on Society:

Sociology according to Duncan; is the scientific study of the dynamic processes of interactions

of person, and the patterns these form in relation to biological , psychological and cultural

influences. It studies social phenomena, social organizations and cultural patterns. Society: It is

a kind of community (or a part of a community) whose members have become socially

conscious of their mode of life and are united by common aims & values,

Society has under gone rapid and radical changes due to advances in science & technology in

recent years. Economic growth the population explosion, and wars have also contributed us.

Our lives are so different: from those of our forefathers. These changes came about what we

call as social change.

Values:

With the implementation of technologies influences, the values of a society are with changing

their expectations and realities. Now, in today's World, the technology has reached the tiny

hands of kindergarten children. These children are able to learn the concepts in 2D & 3D

medium.

With smart classes coming up in every school, the students are able to study the subject

concepts very clearly & easily rather than abstract thinking. In almost all the field, the technical

advancements are being done, every area of society is becoming technical.

Examples:

The rise of very large organizations i.e. governments, military, health, social welfare institutions

etc.

The commercialization of leisure: Sports, events, products etc.

The almost instantaneous dispersal of information (News) and entertainment round the world.

Technology enables greater knowledge of international issues, values and cultures. Due mostly

to mass

Transportation and mass media, the World seems to be much smaller place due to .

❖ Globalization of ideas



Embeddedness of values

Population growth & control

Environment:

Technology provides an understanding and appreciation for the World around us. The effects of

technology on the environment are both obvious (clear) and subtle (precise as to be difficult to

analyze or describe). The more obvious effects include the depletion of non renewable natural

resources (Such as petroleum, coal, ores) and the pollution of air, water and land. The more

subtle effects include debates over long term effects (Such as global warming, deforestation,

natural habitat destruction etc.)

Society also controls teftinology through the choices it' makes. These choices not only include

consumer demands but also includes.

The channels of distribution, how do products go from raw materials to consumption to disposal.

The cultural beliefs regarding style freedom of choice, consumerism, materialism etc. The

economic values we place on the environment, individual, wealth, government control,

capitalism etc.

Science & Technology has its application in the following fields which constitute to a better

scientific and easily accessible society which is very much needed in this modern technical

World.

1. Agriculture: Agricultural Engineering Fisheries Science, Food engineering Food technology,

Nutrition etc.

2. Bio-Medical :Bio informatics, Biological engineering, Biotechnology, Genetic Engineering,

Health care 'Science, Neuron Science, Pharmacology etc.

3. Buildings & Construction: Architectural Engineering, Civil Engineering, Construction

engineering, Fire Protection Engineering, Safety Engineering, Structural engineering etc.

4. Educational: Educational software, Digital technologies in Education; ICT in Education;

Multimedia learning. Virtual education

5. Energy: Nuclear engineering: Nuclear technology: Petroleum engineering; Soft energy

Technology etc.

-6. . Environmental: Environmental engineering science, Green building, Green nano

technology; Landscape engineering, Renewable energy etc.

7.:Industrial: Automation, Financial Engineering, Industrial bio technology, Industrial

engineering, Metallurgy, Mining engineering, Productivity improving technologies research and

development etc:

8.IT & Communication: Broadcast Engineering, Computer engineering, Computer Science &

Information technology, software engineering, Visual technology, Tele communication

engineering etc.



9. Military: Army engineering maintenance, Electronic warfare, military communications etc.

10. Applied Sciences: Electro Optics, Electronics, Engineering Geology, Engineering Physics,

Hydraulics, Material Science etc.

11. Transport: Aerospace Engineering, Automotive Engineering, Naval architecture; Space

technology, Traffic Engineering, Transport Engineering etc.

Conclusion:

The impact of Science & Technology on societies influence the livelihood of a common man in

such a way that the government is taking interest in investing in the research and development

of technology to come out with more and more user friendly and sophisticated gadgets which

makes the living more easier than before. Due to the competitions among. the private

companies, the reduction in the cost .of the gadget is benefiting the poor.

Example: Mobile Technology

Thus, its impact of science on the society will be never end resulting into formation of technical

societies in future years to come.

PHYSICAL SCIENCE AND HUMAN LIFE

Physical science' is concerned with the study of natural, but inanimate objects. This includes

astronomy, physics, Chemistry, and earth science (though earth science is sometimes given its

own category).

Examples of Topics Covered in physical Sciences Examples of Topics Covered in Physical

Sciences Life science, on the other hand, is the scientific study of living organisms, including

animals (and humans), plants, and microorganisms.

Examples of Topics Covered in Life Sciences Examples of Topics Covered in Life Sciences.

Relationships Between Physical and Life Sciences At first glance it may seem like physical

science and life science are polar opposites. How can there be any overlap between the

science of living organisms and inanimate objects? But the truth is a little more complex than

that.

For one thing, the goal of physics is to explain everything in the universe on a fundamental

level. In theory, if physics. ever succeeds in creating a so-called theory of everything, this

should not only explain why inanimate objects are the way they are, but also why living

organisms are the way they are. Living organisms are, after all, only made of chemical

elements, which are made of subatomic particles that physics seeks to explain. But at least in

the short term, the connection between physics and life sciences could be seen as weak.



But weak doesn't mean non-existent. There are real cases where biologists and physicists can

find ways to work together. The field is called biophysics. Biophysics is a field of study where

physics theories and methods are used to study biological systems. Biophysics generally tries to

explain a lot of the same phenomena as biochemistry and molecular biology, but tries to do so

numerically, creating equations that can describe what is being observed. Physics technology

can also be used in this field to explain some of these observations, including spectroscopy, X-

ray crystallography, scattering effects, and use of electron microscopes: All of these

technologies are mainstays of physics research, but are less used in life sciences. Physics'

understandings of statistical mechanics and thermodynamics can also be used in biophysics to

understand biological systems.

INSPIRING STUDENTS TO STUDY PHYSICAL SCIENCE

❖ The teacher should participate in community workshops in-service training course,

workshops, meetings, conferences etc. He should have information of various new

research institutes

❖ To subscribe good books, magazines, bulletins and newspapers for the library and study

them.

❖ To listen to and watch various programmers based on physics chemistry on the radio

and T.V..

❖ To participate in the activities of occupational organizations of Physical Science.

❖ To acquire knowledge of good teaching methods of Physical science at national level.

❖ To participate in meetings of committee preparing Instructional material.

❖ To encourage students to make the habit of reading.

❖ To develop ability to learn from books when left to themselves.

❖ To remove inflexible time-table which isolates the subjects.

❖ To supplement the knowledge of the classroom.

❖ To provide opportunity for social training.

❖ To help the students to use their spare time in a right manner.

❖ To help the teachers for developing their up-to-date knowledge.

❖ To develop the habit of supplementary reading among the students.

❖ To arrange science fairs and science exhibitions,

Documents

UNIT-2 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE - PHYSICAL SCIENCES