Unit 1 Exam Review

Unit 1 Exam Review

• Take a few minutes to review your exam. In a section of your notebook, take notes on the concepts/questions that you struggled with.

• In addition, answer the following question:– When you signed up for this course, what did you think

psychology would be all about? How has that changed since Unit 1?

– Looking back over Unit 1, what learning strategies have you used to help you prepare for the Unit 1 exam? What might you do differently to better prepare you for the next exam?

LearningA relatively permanent change in an organism’s

behavior due to experience. (Behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of innate response tendencies,

maturation, or temporary states of the subject – fatigue, drugs, etc)

A relatively permanent change in an organism’sbehavior due to experience.

(Behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of innate response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the subject – fatigue, drugs, etc)

We connect events that occur in sequence

Why doesWhy doesDentist = Pain?Dentist = Pain?

How do we learn?How do we learn? AssociationAssociation

Types of Learning

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

ObservationObservation

John B. Watson“Forget the mind…”

Psychology should based Psychology should based on observable behavioron observable behavior

BehaviorismBehaviorism

Ivan PavlovB. F. Skinner

Albert Bandura

Types of Learning• Classical Conditioning – learning an association between two

stimuli that the organism does not control (EX: a bell and food, a white rat and a loud noise, a product and a celebrity) – Behavior occurs as an automatic response (reflexive responding) to

stimulus. (Stimulus Behavior/Response)

• Operant Conditioning – learning an association between a response (behavior) and its consequence (EX: studying hard and a high test-grade, bar pressing and food)– Action that operates on environment to produce rewarding or punishing

stimulus – instead of simply reacting to stimuli (Behavior/Response Stimulus)

• Observational Learning – imitating the behavior of a role model

Learning By Observation

Albert Bandura&

the Bobo doll

Both (+) and (-)actions can be

learned by observingothers

Both (+) and (-)actions can be

learned by observingothers

Observational Learning Bandura’s Bobo-Doll Experiments

(1961-1963) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdh7MngntnI

• Study: 3-5 yr. old children in 4 experimental conditions:

– 1) Live, aggressive model

– 2) Filmed, aggressive model

– 3) Cartoons with aggressive acts

– 4) No exposure to aggression (control condition)

• Results: Groups 1, 2 & 3 showed significantly greater no. of aggressive acts (i.e. hits against bobo doll) than the control condition

Observational Learning• Watch the video clip “Mirror Neurons” from NOVA

scienceNOWand take notes on the following:

• http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3204/01.html– What are mirror neurons? Explain the role that mirror neurons

may play in how we understand and connect with each other.

– Describe the experiment with the monkeys and what it suggests about mirror neurons

– Describe the use and purpose of mirror neurons by humans

– Describe the experiment involving pictures of different facial expressions and what it suggests about mirror neurons

– The connection between mirror neurons and autism

– How mirror neurons have enhanced humans' evolutionary process and survival success.

Observational Learning

• the neurons that "fire" when a monkey does an activity also "fire" when the monkey observes the activity, suggesting that neurologically doing and watching are the same.

• humans use a similar "mirroring" response to translate what we see, so that we can relate to each other and the world. Mirror neurons tie us to each other's feelings as well as actions; thereby, potentially enhancing humans' evolutionary process and survival success y helping humans connect with and learn quickly from each other.

• May be a connection between autism and mirror neurons, a developmental disorder that impairs language, communication and social interaction.

Mirror Neurons – set of brain cells that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting.

Observational Learning• Conclusions:

– Learning can occur through observation and imitation (i.e. without conditioning or direct reinforcement)

• Applications:– Parent’s role as models for children

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_s9pG5CWXM&feature=related• Rodney Atkins “Watching You” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4K-wmQuWfrs• Ugly Kid Joe “Cats in the Cradle” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T3bht7S-3vI

– Media violence:• fMRI studies:

– Exposure to violent movies linked to brain area involved in the inhibition of aggressive impulses (lowered activation)

• Violent video games:– Reduces sensitivity to violence and suffering of victims– Players more hostile, less forgiving and believe violence is

“normal”– Can increase likelihood of aggression

– Conversely, prosocial models can have positive effects• Prosocial video games:

– Players get into fewer fights at school and found to be more helpful

Types of Conditioning

ClassicalClassicalProcess of associating

two stimuli

ClassicalClassicalProcess of associating

two stimuli

OperantOperantProcess of associating

a response & itsconsequence

OperantOperantProcess of associating

a response & itsconsequence

Lightning

Thunder

Pulling candy machinelever

Delivery of candy bar

Classical Conditioning

Short Biography20 years studying digestive system

30 years studying learning1904 Nobel Prize in Medicine

Noticed that dogs woulddrool in anticipation

of food.

What were dogsthinking or feeling?

Noticed that dogs woulddrool in anticipation

of food.

What were dogsthinking or feeling?

Ivan Pavlov


What were dogs thinkingor feeling?Pointless!Pointless!

What were dogs thinkingor feeling?Pointless!Pointless!

Examine the phenomenon moreobjectively using ExperimentsExperiments!

Examine the phenomenon moreobjectively using ExperimentsExperiments!

Ivan Pavlov


Will the dog learn to associatethe arrival of food with a neutral

stimulus (e.g., a bell)?

Ivan Pavlov


TermsTermsNeutral StimulusUnconditioned ResponseUnconditioned StimulusConditioned ResponseConditioned Stimulus

NS NS - bell UCRUCR - drool in response to food (not learned)UCSUCS - food (triggers drool reflex)CRCR - drool in response to sound of bell (learned)CSCS - sound of bell (triggers drool reflex)

NS NS - bell UCRUCR - drool in response to food (not learned)UCSUCS - food (triggers drool reflex)CRCR - drool in response to sound of bell (learned)CSCS - sound of bell (triggers drool reflex)

Examples of Classical Conditioning• http://www.bukisa.com/videos/63827_the-pavlov-altoid-theory

• The Office

– NS (rebooting computer noise) no response

– UCS (altoid) UCR (salivation/refreshes taste in mouth)

– NS (rebooting computer noise) + UCS (altoid) UCR (salivation/refreshes taste in mouth)

– CS (rebooting computer noise) CR (salivation/need to refresh taste in mouth)

Examples of Classical Conditioning• http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-

8331168072486928717#

• http://www.thepsychfiles.com/2008/02/episode-47-the-little-albert-study-what-you-know-ismostly-wrong/

• Little Albert

– NS (white rat) no response

– UCS (loud noise) UCR (fear)

– NS (white rat) + UCS (loud noise) UCR (fear)

– CS (white rat) CR (fear)

Conditioning Processes

• Acquisition – initial learning of the response– At first, the white rat by itself caused no special

response. After repeated pairings of the white rat with the loud noise, the white rat by itself gradually became more and more likely to cause a learned response

• Short-delayed conditioning – the NS begins just before the UCS and stops at the same time as the UCS

– The white rat is presented just before the loud noise and is taken away as the loud noise ends.


• Extinction – decrease in CR without CS or unlearning a conditioned association – The learned response (fear) probably became

less common after Little Albert left John Watson’s lab and the white rat was not presented with the loud noise


• Spontaneous Recovery – reappearance of the CR after some time period. Need additional extinction trials to breaks association completely– After extinction, the presentation of the white

rat may still have caused a learned response (fear) following a long period in which the loud noise was not heard.


• Generalization – the tendency for organisms to respond similarly to similar stimuli as the CS.– Little Albert’s fear of anything white and furry.


• Discrimination – the ability to distinguish (discriminate) between the CS and other stimuli– Little Albert only being afraid of white rats –

not brown rats or any other white animals.

Examples of Classical Conditioning• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HSCotdOh5WY• Food/Taste Aversion

– NS (sight and taste of pickles) no response– UCS (contamination/sickness) UCR (aversion/disgust)– NS (sight and taste of pickles) + UCS (contamination/sickness) UCR

(aversion/disgust)– CS (sight and taste of pickles) CR (aversion/disgust)

• Conditioned Taste Aversion (Sauce Bernaise Phenomenon) – readily learn an aversion to the taste (not to the sight of the associated restaurant, the plates, people you are with), even if you got sick hours after eating the food

– Violates the notion that for conditioning to occur, the UCS (sickness) has to immediately follow the NS/CS (food)

• Biological Preparedness – degree to which biology has made it more easy or difficult to learn an association. Biological predispositions of each species dispose it to learn the particular associations that enhance its survival.

Psych Demonstration• Air Horn

– NS (saying word “can”) no response

– UCS (horn/loud noise) UCR (cringe/jump out of seat)

– NS (saying word “can”) + UCS (horn/loud noise) UCR (cringe/jump out of seat)

– CS (saying word “can”) CR (cringe/jump out of seat)

Other Examples of Classical Conditioning• Michigan Fight Song

– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-fc5os23mI– NS (Michigan Fight Song) no response– UCS (being pinched) UCR (cry)– NS (Michigan Fight Song) + UCS (being pinched) UCR (cry)– CS (Michigan Fight Song) CR (cry)

• Slasher Movies– NS (violence) no response– UCS (nude women) UCR (sexual arousal)– NS (violence) + UCS ( nude women) UCR (sexual arousal)– CS (violence) CR (sexual arousal)

• Advertising– NS (alcohol) no response– UCS (lots of friends, attractive people people) UCR (happy, desire)– NS (alcohol) + UCS (lots of friends, attractive people) UCR (happy, desire)– CS (alcohol) CR (happy, desire)

• Politics– NS (politician)– UCS (apple pie) UCR (feelings of warmth)– NS (politician) + UCS (apple pie) UCR (feelings of warmth)– CS (politician) CR (feelings of warmth)

Other Examples of Classical Conditioning• Every time you take a shower, someone in the house flushes the toilet causing the water

to turn cold and you become cold. Now every time you hear a toilet flush, you get cold– NS (toilet flush) no response– UCS (cold water) UCR (feel cold)– NS (toilet flush) + UCS (cold water) UCR (feel cold)– CS (toilet flush) CR (feel cold)

• Fred has a fluffy down pillow with some of the down sticking out of the fabric. When he first tries out the pillow, a piece of down tickles his nose and he sneezes. This happens every time he goes to bed. Soon he sneezes every time he lays down on any kind of pillow.

– NS (pillow) no response– UCS (down tickles nose) UCR (sneeze)– NS (pillow) + UCS (down tickles nose) UCR (sneeze)– CS (pillow) CR (sneeze)

• It is springtime and the pollen from the flowers causes you to sneeze. Soon you are sneezing every time you see a flower

– NS (flower) no response– UCS (pollen) UCR (sneeze)– NS (flower) + UCS (pollen) UCR (sneeze)– CS (flower) CR (sneeze)

Other Examples of Classical Conditioning• In order to treat bedwetting, a pad that is sensitive to dampness is placed under sheets.

When this pad becomes wet, it sounds an alarm and you wakeup. Eventually you don’t need the alarm to wake up, your bladder will wake you up

– NS (full bladder) no response– UCS (alarm) UCR (wake up)– NS (full bladder) + UCS (alarm) UCR (wake up)– CS (full bladder) CR (wake up)

• The smell of food makes you hungry. Soon every time you go into the kitchen, you feel hungry

– NS (kitchen) no response– UCS (smell of food) UCR (hungry)– NS (kitchen) + UCS (smell of food) UCR (hungry)– CS (kitchen) CR (hungry)

• When you see a scary movie, you always eat a box of thin mints. Now you find that eating a box of thin mints makes you feel scared.

– NS (thin mints) no response– UCS (watching a scary movie) UCR (feeling scared)– NS (thin mints) + UCS (watching a scary movie) UCR (feeling scared)– CS (thin mints) CR (feeling scared)

Other Examples of Classical Conditioning• An MIT student spent an entire summer going to the Harvard football field every day

wearing a black and white striped shirt, walking up and down the field ten or fifteen minutes throwing birdseed all over the field, blowing a whistle and then walking off the field. At the end of the summer, it came time for the first Harvard home football game, the referee walked onto the field and blew the whistle, and the game had to be delayed for a half hour to wait for the birds to get off of the field. The guy wrote his thesis on this and graduated.

– NS (whistle/black-white striped shirt) no response– UCS (birdseed) UCR (birds eating)– NS (whistle/black-white striped shirt) + UCS (birdseed) UCR (birds eating)– CS (referee blowing whistle and wearing black-white striped shirt) CR (birds

eating)

Examples of Classical Conditioning• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QO253RicE-E• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wwx-Q1tXlxM• Jaws

– Note: This is an example of second order conditioning – a conditioned stimulus functions as it were an unconditioned stimulus.

– First Order:• NS (sharks) no response (Easy to condition however due to sharp teeth and

evolutionary predator cues our visual system processes)• UCS (Blood Carnage - pictures, images, stories) UCR (fear)• NS (sharks) + UCS (carnage) UCR (fear)• CS (sharks) CR (fear)

– Second Order: CS can become a new UCS• NS (soundtrack - Dudah!..... Dudah! Dudah!) • UCS (shark) UCR (fear)• NS (soundtrack) + UCS (shark) UCR (fear)• CS (soundtrack) CR (fear)

Examples of Classical Conditioning

• Drug Use– NS (syringe) no response– UCS (drug) UCR (bio change, creates pleasure)– NS (syringe) + UCS (drug) UCR (bio change)– CS (syringe) compensatory CR (prepares for bio

change – reduce body’s normal amount of NT to prepare for extra NT by drug)

– However, this is one reason for tolerance (need larger and larger amounts of the drug to feel the same effect and reasons for overdose – change scene or method, lose compensatory effect

Better Applications of Classical Better Applications of Classical ConditioningConditioning

TreatmentTreatmentofof

PhobiasPhobias

RatsRatsSnakesSnakes

Enclosed PlacesEnclosed PlacesOpen PlacesOpen Places

DirtDirtWalrusWalrus

Mrs. Walenga’s Phobia• Acquisition

– NS (ocean) no response

– UCS (jelly fish sting) UCR (pain/fear)

– NS + UCS UCR

– CS (ocean) CR (pain/fear)

• Extinction

– Systematic desensitization

• Generalization

– Fear response to any ocean, any time of year, photos

• Discrimination

– Fear response is only to Gulf of Mexico at specific time of year

• Spontaneous Recovery

– Need numerous extinction trials to get rid of link

Classical Conditioning Behavior Therapies• Counter-conditioning – uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering

unwanted behaviors

– EX: Fear of being in a confined space, such as elevators

• Pairs the trigger stimulus (elevator) with a new response (relaxation)

– NS (elevator) no response (response of fear at least)

– UCS (listening to music) UCR (relaxation/upbeat mood)

– NS (elevator) + UCS (listening to music) UCR (relaxation/upbeat mood)

– CS (elevator) CR (relaxation/upbeat mood)

– Exposure Therapies – treats anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid. With repeated exposure, people can become less anxious to things that once petrified them.

• Systematic Desensitization – associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli.

– EX: Fear of public speaking

– Construct a hierarchy of anxiety-triggering speaking situations, speaking up in a small group of friends to panic provoking situations, such as having to address a large audience

– Next, using progressive relaxation, the therapist would train you to relax one muscle group after another, until you achieve a drowsy state of complete relaxation and comfort.

– Therapist pairs each anxiety arousing situation on hierarchy with relaxation, until you can move to a real situation.

• Virtual reality exposure therapy - anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears virtually, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking.

Classical Conditioning Behavior Therapies

Counter-conditioning – uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors

Aversive Conditioning - associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

Classical Conditioning Practice(pgs 28-29)

1. NS (dog bark) no response

UCS (bitten) UCR (whimper)

NS (dog bark) + UCS (bitten) UCR (whimper)

CS (dog bark) CR (whimper)

2. NS (jar of pickles) no response

UCS (eating pickles) UCR (salivate)

NS (jar of pickles) + UCS (eating pickles) UCR (salivate)

CS (jar of pickles) CR (salivate)

3. NS (mutton – sheep meat) no response

UCS (poison) UCR (nausea)

NS (mutton) + UCS (poison) UCR (nausea)

CS (sheep) CR (fear because expect to get nauseous)

4 . NS (saccharine flavored water) no response

UCS (drug) UCR (weakened immune system)

NS (saccharine flavored water) + UCS (drug) UCR (weakened immune system)

CS (saccharine flavored water) CR (weakened immune system)

Classical Conditioning Practice(pgs 30-31)

1. NS (song “tonight”) no response

UCS (popped eardrum) UCR (pain)

NS (song “tonight) + UCS (popped eardrum) UCR (pain)

CS (song “tonight” or any other song by Smashing Pumpkins) CR (pain)

illustrates generalization

2. NS (Mr. Williams) no response

UCS (yelled at) UCR (nervous)

NS (Mr. Williams) + UCS (yelled at) UCR (nervous)

CS (Mr. Williams) CR (nervous)

illustrates discrimination – only nervous when he sees Mr. Williams

3. NS (Pavlov) no response

UCS (lemonade mix) UCR (salivate)

NS (Pavlov) + UCS (lemonade mix) UCR (salivate)

CS (Pavlov) CR (salivate)

illustrates discrimination – only salivate at Pavlov’s name, not Watson’s or Skinner’s name

4. NS (Space Mountain) no response

UCS (ill) UCR (queasy stomach)

NS (Space Mountain) + UCS (ill) UCR (queasy stomach)

CS (Space Mountain or any other roller coaster) CR (queasy stomach)

illustrates generalization

5. NS (Abe) no response

UCS (love) UCR (beating heart)

NS (Abe) + UCS (love) UCR (beating heart)

CS (Abe – seeing him or seeing a picture of him) CR (love)

illustrates generalization – can see him or see a picture of him and her heart starts to beat

Different Types of Behavior

ClassicalClassical RespondentRespondent BehaviorBehaviorBehavior occurs as an automatic response to stimulus.

Associating differentstimuli that the organism does not control.

ClassicalClassical RespondentRespondent BehaviorBehaviorBehavior occurs as an automatic response to stimulus.

Associating differentstimuli that the organism does not control.

OperantOperant Operant BehaviorOperant BehaviorAction that operates on environment to produce

rewarding or punishing stimulus.Associating your behavior with its’ consequences

(e.g., teaching a child to say “Please”)

OperantOperant Operant BehaviorOperant BehaviorAction that operates on environment to produce

rewarding or punishing stimulus.Associating your behavior with its’ consequences

(e.g., teaching a child to say “Please”)

Fear response toa white beard

Fear response toa white beard

versusversus Saying “Please”to elicit praise

Saying “Please”to elicit praise

Operant Conditioning

• Discovering Psychology: Learning – start at 11:30 or 15:30. http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=1529

• Take notes on the following:– B.F. Skinner’s beliefs about free will!– Psychology’s ABC’s– Skinner Box– Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning Operant Behavior• Learning an association between a response (behavior) and its consequence

(EX: studying hard and a high test-grade, bar pressing and food)

• Action that operates on environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimulus – instead of simply reacting to stimuli (Behavior/Response Stimulus)

– Also called Instrumental Learning – learning is controlled by consequences

• Based on Law of Effect - actions that were rewarded become more likely to occur and actions that were punished or not reinforced become less likely to occur (Behavior Consequence decrease or increase in behavior in future)

• Acquisition is based on shaping - gradual rewarding the organism as it approaches the desired behavior.

• Skinner’s ABCs

Operant Conditioning Operant Behavior• Skinner’s ABCs

– A (antecedent) = stimulus/environmental cues (situation) present at time of reinforcement. What is happening before behavior occurs?

– B (behavior - accidental)

– C (consequence) = reinforcement

– D (determines the frequency of deliberate behavior in future)

* Behavior is most likely to occur in

situations similar to the one in which it has been reinforced

B. F. Skinner

B. F. Skinner(1904-1990)

Skinner elaborated on Thorndike’sLaw of EffectLaw of Effect

““Rewarded behavior is likelyRewarded behavior is likelyto reoccur”to reoccur”

E. L. Thorndike

External influences,not internal thoughts

& feelings, governbehavior.

External influences,not internal thoughts

& feelings, governbehavior.

Skinner’s Experiments

Fave SubjectsFave Subjects Rats & Pigeons

Fave OperatusFave Operatus Skinner Box

Fave ProcedureFave Procedure Shaping

ShapingShapingGuiding current behavior

toward some desiredbehavior through

successive approximations

Principles of Reinforcement

ReinforcerReinforcer - any event that increases the frequencyof the preceding event

Positive ReinforcersPositive ReinforcersIntroduce (+) stimulus

(e.g., food)

Negative ReinforcersNegative ReinforcersRemove (-) stimulus(e.g., electric shock)

Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior!Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior!

Operant Conditioning versus Punishment Matrix

Stimulus Type Supply a stimulus (+) Remove a stimulus (-)

Appetitive Stimulus(something desired/good)

Aversive Stimulus(something not desired/bad)




Positive Reinforcement(Adding a good/desired stimulus – strengthens or encourages behavior in future. EX = presenting food, money, praise, attention, or other rewards)






Negative Punishment(Subtracting a good/desired stimulus – weakens behavior or discourages behavior in future. EX = time-out, removing some pleasant stimulus or taking away privileges such as TV watching or use of automobile)








Positive Punishment (Adding a bad stimulus – weakens behavior or discourages behavior in future. EX = delivering a pain-producing or otherwise aversive stimulus, such as a spanking or an electric shock)







Positive Punishment (Adding a bad stimulus – weakens behavior or discourages behavior in future. EX = delivering a pain-producing or otherwise aversive stimulus, such as a spanking or an electric shock)

Negative Reinforcement(Subtracting a bad stimulus – strengthens behavior or encourages behavior in future. EX = removing or terminating some pain-producing or otherwise aversive stimulus, such as an electric shock, buzzer, )

Reinforcement vs. PunishmentScenario #1:

• Negative reinforcement – “Since you cleaned your room, you will no longer have to stay inside!”

• Punishment – “Since you did not clean your room, you will have to stay inside!”

Scenario #2:

• Negative reinforcement – “Since you got to AP Psych on time, you will not get a tardy detention!”

• Punishment – “Since you got to AP Psych late, you will get a tardy detention!”


Punishments ALWAYS weaken behavior!Punishments ALWAYS weaken behavior!

Reinforcement vs. Punishment1. PR

2. NP

3. PP

4. PR

5. PR

6. NR

7. NR

8. NP

9. PR

10. NP or PP (However, time out is usually considered NP)

11. NR

12. NR


Punishments ALWAYS weaken behavior!Punishments ALWAYS weaken behavior!

More Reinforcement

Primary ReinforcersPrimary ReinforcersInnately satisfying,

not learned(e.g., getting food, water,warmth, relief from pain)

Secondary Secondary ReinforcersReinforcers

Associated with primaryreinforcers & learned(e.g., $ can buy food, praise leads to feeling

happy)


POSITIVE REINFORCERS NEGATIVE REINFORCERS

PRIMARY SECONDARY PRIMARY SECONDARY

Food Money Electric shock Rejection

Water Grades Intense heat Failure

Sex Status Pain of any sort

Criticism

Warmth Praise Suffocation Avoidance

Still More Reinforcement

Immediate ReinforcementImmediate ReinforcementReinforce immediately preceding

behavior (e.g., nicotine)

Delayed ReinforcementDelayed ReinforcementReinforcement at some point

after behavior occurs(e.g., paychecks)


Reinforcement Schedules

ContinuousContinuous - every time behavior occurs (rare)or

PartialPartial - not every time behavior occurs(learning is slower but more resistant to extinction)

Partial Reinforcement(a pigeon will peck 150,000 times without reward)

Fixed Ratio - reinforce every n responsesVariable Ratio - reinforce after ?? responses

Behavior-Based ReinforcersBehavior-Based Reinforcers

Fixed Interval - reinforce after fixed timeVariable Interval - reinforce after ?? time

Time-Based ReinforcersTime-Based Reinforcers

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA&feature=PlayList&p=483DE7E9D04B2BFF&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=3

Schedules of Reinforcement• Behavior-based reinforcers (ratio = # of responses)

• Fixed Ratio = reinforce every “n” responses

– Factory workers make 10 clocks = earn $100

– Every time you get a 100% on a test = get $5

– Buy 3 sandwiches = get 4th free

• Variable Ratio = reinforce after ?? responses)

– Finding parking in busy mall (you need to drive and look, not just wait)

– Most gambling behaviors (slot machines)

– Fly-fishing

– Perfect golf shot

– Selling vacuums door to door

Schedules of Reinforcement• Time-based reinforcers (interval = time period to pass before you complete a behavior and

get reinforcer (does not matter how many times you complete the action)

• Fixed Interval = reinforce after fixed time

– Students waiting near door at end of class, shuffling books near end of class

– Watching Gilmore Girls every Tuesday

– Doing extra credit before end of quarter

– Known quizzes and tests

– Work for salary – get paid on the 15th of every month

• Low Response Rate – rapid responding near time of reinforcement (cognitive processes - animals learn predictability)

• Variable Interval = reinforce after ?? time

– “pop’ quizzes

– regular fishing

– raising hand in class

– pacing while waiting for phone to ring

– waiting for doctor

Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement

TYPE MEANING OUTCOME

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement depends on a definite number of responses

Activity slows after reinforcement and then picks up

Variable Ratio

Number of responses needed for reinforcement varies

Greatest activity of all schedules

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement depends on a fixed time

Activity increases as deadline nears

Variable Interval

Time between reinforcement varies

Steady activity results

Reinforcement Schedules

1. VR

2. FR

3. VI

4. FI

5. VI

6. VR

7. FI

8. FR

9. VR

10. VI

11. FR

12. FI

Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed interval Reward on fixed time basis

Leads to average and irregular performance

Fast extinction of behavior

Fixed ratio

Variable ratio

Variable interval

Reward tied to specific number of responses

Leads quickly to very high and stable performance

Moderately fast extinction of behavior

SCHEDULEFORM OF REWARD

Reward given after varying periods of time

Leads to moderately high and stable performance

Slow extinction of behavior

Reward given for some behaviors

Leads to very high performance

Very slow extinction of behavior

INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE

EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR

FI, VI, FR, or VR?

1. When I bake cookies, I can only put one set in at a time, so after 10 minutes my first set of cookies is done. After another ten minutes, my second set of cookies is done. I get to eat a cookie after each set is done baking.

2. After every 10 math problems that I complete, I allow myself a 5 minute break.

3. I look over my notes every night because I never know how much time will go by before my next pop quiz.

4. When hunting season comes around, sometimes I’ll spend all day sitting in the woods waiting to get a shot at a big buck. It’s worth it though when I get a nice 10 point.

5. Today in Psychology class we were talking about Schedules of Reinforcement and everyone was eagerly raising their hands and participating. Miranda raised her hand a couple of times and was eventually called on.

1. FI

2. FR

3. VI

4. VI

5. VR

FI, VI, FR, or VR?

6. Madison spanks her son if she has to ask him three times to clean up his room.

7. Emily has a spelling test every Friday. She usually does well and gets a star sticker.

8. Steve’s a big gambling man. He plays the slot machines all day hoping for a big win.

9. Snakes get hungry at certain times of the day. They might watch any number of prey go by before they decide to strike.

10. Mr. Vora receives a salary paycheck every 2 weeks.

11. Christina works at a tanning salon. For every 2 bottles of lotion she sells, she gets 1 dollar in commission.

12. Mike is trying to study for his upcoming Psychology quiz. He reads five pages, then takes a break. He resumes reading and takes another break after he has completed 5 more pages.

6. FR7. FI8. VR

9. VI

10. FI

11. FR

12. FR

FI, VI, FR, or VR?

13. Megan is fundraising to try to raise money so she can go on the annual band trip. She goes door to door in her neighborhood trying to sell popcorn tins. She eventually sells some.

14. Kylie is a business girl who works in the big city. Her boss is busy, so he only checks her work periodically.

15. Mark is a lawyer who owns his own practice. His customers makes payments at irregular times.

16. Jessica is a dental assistant and gets a raise every year at the same time and never in between.

17. Andrew works at a GM factory and is in charge of attaching 3 parts. After he gets his parts attached, he gets some free time before the next car moves down the line.

18. Brittany is a telemarketer trying to sell life insurance. After so many calls, someone will eventually buy.

13. VR

14. VI

15. VI

16. FI

17. FR

18. VR

Handout 7-7• Sensitivity to Punishment (BIS)

– Score one point for a “yes” to each of the odd-numbered items

– Range = 0-24 higher scores reflecting greater sensitivity to punishment

• Sensitivity to Reward (BAS)

– Score one point for a “yes” answer to each of the even-numbered items.

– Range = 0-24 higher scores reflecting greater sensitivity to reward

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory – two biological systems in the brain1.Behavioral activation system (BAS) – responds to rewards and regulates approach behavior. Accelerator motivates approach behavior.

• A person with a highly reactive BAS is especially sensitive to incentive and reward and thus is vulnerable to impulsivity.

• Reactions to going to a concert: high sensitivity to BAS – euphoria thinking about going; low sensitivity to BAS = knows it will be enjoyable but calm

2.Behavioral inhibition system (BIS) – responds to punishments and regulates avoidance behavior. Brakes that stop behavior.

• A person with a highly reactive BIS is especially sensitive to threat and punishment and thus is vulnerable to anxiety.

• Student reactions to poor performance on a test: high sensitivity to BIS = panic; low sensitivity to BIS = hardly bothered.

Handout 8-4• Measures our tendency to consider potential distant outcomes of current behaviors as

well as the tendency for current behaviors to be influenced by these potential distant outcomes.

• Scoring:

– Reverse the numbers you gave in response to statements # 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12.

– Total the numbers in front of all twelve items.

– Total scores can range from 12 to 60. Higher scores reflect greater consideration of future consequences.

• Research suggests that greater consideration of future consequences is positively linked to conscientiousness, optimism, hope and an internal locus of control. Higher scores are also positively related to general concern for health, and negatively related to cigarette and alcohol consumption. Those with higher scores were also more likely to be environmentally conscientious by recycling, driving a fuel-efficient car, and using a water-saving shower head.

• Marshmallow Test: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amsqeYOk--w&feature=related

Biological Preparedness• Instinctive Drift – instinctive behaviors interfere with learned behaviors.

Animals cannot be trained to do anything.

– Pigeons easily learn to flap their wings to avoid being shocked and to peck to obtain food, because it is natural for them to flee with their wings and eat with their beaks. However, they have a hard time learning to peck in order to avoid a shock or to flap their wings to obtain food. Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.

– Miserly Raccoons - Training some raccoons to deposit coins in a piggy bank. They were successful in shaping the raccoons to pick up a coin and put it into a small box, using food as the reinforcer. However, when they gave the raccoons a couple of coins, an unexpected problem arose: the raccoons wouldn’t give the coins up. They would sit and rub the coins together like so many little misers. Associating the coins with food had brought out the raccoons’ innate food washing behavior. Raccoons often rub things together to clean them.

Why would parents want to use reinforcement over punishment? Carrot or Stick Approach?

• Problems with Punishment:• Punishment does not guide toward acceptable

behavior (doesn’t tell you what you should do)

• Behavior is not forgotten – merely suppressed (may reappear in other situations). Punishment + reinforcement = more effective

• Triggers strong emotional responses (fear, anxiety, anger) disrupt normal functioning

Does reinforcement always work to increase behavior?

• NO! Why?

– Overjustification Effect: Promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do.

• The intrinsic motivation might be lost. Humans must recognize the reinforcer has value and is effective in changing their behavior; therefore, undermining the intrinsic motivation.

– EX: Earn a full ride to play sports; however, the athlete starts to hate the sport they play even though they are being paid. Now must play the sport for the scholarship. Playing the sport became overjustified.

– EX: Drummer quits band REM at the height of their success. He reports that he has “lost the love” for the music. Reports later that the $, touring were not enough. Music lost its appeal. The act of playing music became overjustified

Is There No Cognition?

Can we think?Can we think?Do we think?Do we think?

Rats can learn maze evenwithout reinforcementCognitive MapsCognitive Maps

Cog Map rats performas well as Reinforced rats

Latent Learning• E.C. Tolman – experiment

with rats.• Some rats went through maze

for food goals, while others were given no reinforcement for several days.

• After 10 days, rewards were put in with the rats that had previously been given no rewards for 2 or 3 trials.

• Those rats reached the food box as quickly as the rats that had been getting reinforcement for over a week.

• Rats learn about mazes in which they roam even if they are unrewarded for doing so. Rats learn about their environments in the absence of reinforcement.

Operant + Classical Conditioning• Escape Learning – an organism acquires a response that decreases or

ends some aversive stimulation.

– Shuttle Box – cage with two compartments connected by a doorway, which can be opened and closed by the experimenter. Animal learns to escape a shokc by running to the other compartment. Negative reinforcement

• Avoidance Learning – an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring. Escape learning often leads to avoidance learning.

• *Distinguish classical from operant conditioning by asking: Is the organism learning associations between events that it doesn’t control (classical conditioning)? Or is it learning associations between its behavior and resulting events (operant conditioning)?

Classical Versus Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Review Exercises: Classical Conditioning1. NS = rolled up newspaper, UCS = spanking, UCR = fear, CS = rolled up newspaper, CR = fear. Principle:

Nothing special beyond simple acquisition. Perhaps generalization to others holding newspapers.

2. NS = sight of monkeys, UCS = attack, UCR = pain, CS = sight of monkeys, CR = apprehension, tense. Principle: Extinction is occurring because of repeated exposure to the CS (sight of monkey) without another exposure to the US (attack). Additionally, you might note that a bit of counter-conditioning is occurring-- she is feeling calm, positive feelings while being exposed to a stimulus (monkeys) that used to cause fear.

3. NS = screech of tires, UCS = car accident, UCR = tense, scared, CS = screech of tires, CR = tense, scared. Principle: Higher-order conditioning is occurring here-- The dangers of a car accident have been well-learned, even if never experienced. However, the mental images of an accident become a powerful CS in their own right. Discrimination-- given the context of the situation (accompanying stimuli), screeching tires have better ability to predict possible danger at an intersection than at a race track.

4. NS = Donna, UCS = romantic relationship, UCR = arousal, CS = Donna, CR = arousal. Principle: Again, a bit of higher-order conditioning occurring. Jack had come to expect (sexual) stimulation within a relationship-- a connection made through experience, expectations, etc. Initially, extinction, because of no stimulation (CR) occurred in the presence of Donna (CS). The other principle, spontaneous recovery, occurred when he saw her again after a delay of time. That's the reemergence of a conditioned response after it has been extinguished (and why people should be very cautious at high school reunions!)

5. NS = taste, sight, and smell of chicken, UCS = bacteria/virus, UCR = sick, nauseous, CS = taste, sight, smell of chicken, CR = sick, nauseous Principle: Generalization is happening-- not only does he react to chicken, but other foods that are similarly "fowl." This is the opposite of stimulus discrimination.

Review Exercises: Operant Conditioning

Stimulus-Response Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Schedules of Reinforcement

1. S2. R3. S4. S5. R6. R7. S8. S9. S10. R11. R12. S

1. PR2. NP3. PP4. NR5. PR6. PP7. NP8. NR9. PR10. PP11. PP12. NP13. PR vs NP

1. VR2. FI3. FR4. VI5. FI6. FR7. FR8. FR9. VI10. VR

Documents

Unit 1 Exam Review