Understanding the Adult Learners’ Motivation and Barriers ... · PDF fileUnderstanding the Adult Learners’ Motivation and Barriers ... learners understanding the adult learners’

6‐8 November 2009 | University of Macedonia | Thessaloniki | Greece

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5 CHAO Jr. Roger, Yap Danish School of Education, Århus University,

Denmark

Understanding the Adult Learners’ Motivation and Barriers to Learning.

Introduction With the changing demographic situation of the developed world, there has been a

focus on the concept of lifelong learning, where people learning throughout their lives. The emergence of the knowledge society, rapid introduction of new technology and the changing work place increases the importance of adult learning. Understanding motivation and barriers to adult learning is therefore a highly relevant issue to the current situation of the world and not only in the field of education.

To facilitate learning in adult learners, a thorough understanding of how they are motivated to learn, what and how barriers to learning are formed. Adult learners have their own personal biography, view of the world, what is needed to survive and succeed in their personal endeavors and they even have their own personal view of success. Internal and external influences on the adult learner both in their past and present experiences form these views. These views in turn form the adult learners’ motivation and barriers to learning. With this in mind, the need to create a tool to help teachers of adult learners understanding the adult learners’ motivation and the barriers to learning is of great importance and the reason for this particular paper.

Motivation and Barriers to learning are created, formed and changed in two spaces; the individual learner and the socio‐environment and this requires a comprehensive understanding of learning and the two spaces. Understanding which are the intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting motivation and creating barriers to learning enables us to focus our efforts on the root cause of the problem. It further allows the facilitators of learning, the teachers of adult learners, to gain a better understanding of the adult learner and find ways how to motivate them and break down their barriers to learning.

Initially, this paper will define an adult learner and its different stages in life using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and the ERG theory and the theory of margins. Knud illeris’ 3 dimensions of learning will then be introduced and discussed to facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of the adult learner and learning. Motivation and barriers to adult learning will then be discussed and an attempt towards a categorical typology of motivation and barriers is made to show that they affect different dimensions of an adult learner. A model “The Decision Funnel” will then be introduced to explain the dynamic interaction between the various variables affecting participation to adult learning to understand how adult learners’ motivation and barriers influence participation to adult learning. The Adult and Adult Learning

Adults learners can be defined either based on age, cognitive maturity or a nontraditional learner. Each definition has his/her own strong points however it is much more pragmatic to define an adult learner based on age. Various international organizations such as the OECD, EC and UNESCO have referred to adult learners in various documents within the age group of 24 to 65. Furthermore the selection, evaluation and classification of an adult learner become a lot simpler if it were based on age. A growing number of retired


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persons have also been engaging in adult learning so it is only pragmatic to change the age grouping to 24 years and above. To further breakdown, adult learners consideration has to be made that some are employed and some are unemployed thus a categorization of adult learners can be made into employed, unemployed and retired adult learners.

According to Knowles (1973, 1980, 1984), adults are distinct as learners in terms of self‐direction, experience, readiness to learn, problem oriented and motivation to learn. To come up with a definition of an adult learner, certain assumptions about the adult learner published by Malcolm Knowles, the founder of andragogy, should be considered. Knowles (1973, 1980, 1984,p 12) assumptions listed below although criticized by some academics that it does not hold true for every situation and is more Eurocentric still is widely used and is a general description of an adult learners characteristics. 1. As a person matures, his or her self concept moves from that of a dependent personality

towards one of a self‐directing human being. 2. An adult accumulates a growing reservoir of experience, which is a rich resource for learning 3. The readiness of an adult to learn is closely related to the developmental tasks of his or her

social role. 4. There is a chance in time perspective as people mature – from future application of

knowledge to immediacy of application. 5. The most potent motivations are internal rather than external 6. Adults need to know why they need to learn something

Knowles assumptions have been highly criticized that it does not hold true for all and that it is Eurocentric however it serves as a good starting point towards understanding an adult learner aside from the fact that his assumptions are still being used in the field of adult education today.

Based on Knowles assumptions and this papers decision to use age as a key determinant of the term adult, an adult learner is a self directed person, 24 years of age and above whose engagement and readiness to learn is based on the immediate applicability to the development tasks of his/her social role incorporating his/her reservoir of experience.

Learning is defined by Illeris (2006,p. 3) as “any process that in living organisms leads to permanent capacity change and which is not solely due to biological maturation or ageing”. This his paper defines “learning as any process leading to a change in efficiency or use of conscious and unconscious cognitive processes that lead to a permanent capacity change not solely caused by biological maturation or ageing” (Chao, 2009) considering that learning is both a conscious and unconscious cognitive process influenced by the interaction between either both or all of the 3 dimensions of learning. Adult learning is therefore defined as any process of an adult learner that leads to learning as defined above. Stages in an adult learner life and the Theory of Margins

Learning is a complicated process notwithstanding the fact that the individual learners particularly adults learners are complicated beings. The adult learner is a social being who in relation to learning has to contend with his individual person and the social and societal environment he belongs to. As an individual, the adult learner would have his individual priorities and value system in life which is a product of previous years experience or life, influence by his environment and his individual preference and priorities. Furthermore, the adult learners’ interaction with social and societal forces also influences his value system, priorities and views about life and learning in this particular context.



A number of theories regarding a person’s life stages are been developed over the years, however this paper will only be looking into the works of Abraham Maslow and Clayton Alderfer regarding the different life stages one undergoes.

Abraham Maslow (1943) in his paper “A Theory of Human Motivation” proposed a hierarchy of needs, depicted as a pyramid with 5 levels. The lower 4 levels physiological, security, love/belonging and esteem (arranged from the lowest) are what he calls deficiency needs, while the highest level is self actualization. According to Maslow, deficiency needs must be met first and that once the lower need is met the individual moves upward to the next level. However, should the lower level need is no longer being satisfied the individual will temporarily re‐prioritize the lower set of needs no longer being met.

Clayton Alderfer, an American Psychologist, came up with the ERG Theory which expanded Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs and reclassified it into Existence, Relatedness and Growth. The lower order needs (Physiological and Safety), love and esteem was reclassified into the Existence and Relatedness category respectively. Self esteem and self actualization needs were classified into the growth category (Alderfer, 1972).

Understanding where a person is in their life stage gives an understanding of one’s motivation for learning. A person in the existence category may be benefitted by the increased economic benefits of adult learning rather than someone in the growth category, who would be more interested in getting more self esteem and connected with their higher focus in life. People in the relatedness category most probably are interested in the social aspect of adult learning. Take caution though that this is not a generalization but a tendency. Furthermore, it is impossible to truly categorize a person into life stages as often times the needs of a person would be dynamic and falls within more than one of the categories.

McClusky’s theory of margins is grounded in the notion that adulthood is a time of growth, change, and integration in which one constantly seeks balance between the amount of energy needed (Load) and the amount available (Power) (Merriam 2007,p 93). Both load and power consists of both internal and external factors. External load consists of tasks involved in normal life requirements (such as family, work and community responsibilities) while internal load consists of life expectancies developed by people (such as aspirations, desires, and future expectations). Power consists of a combination of such external resources (family support, social abilities, and economic abilities). It also includes internally acquired or accumulated skills and experiences contributing to effective performance such as resilience, coping skills and personality (Merriam 2007, pp. 93‐94)

McClusky (1970 cited by Merriam et al 2007, p. 94) says that Margin may be increased either by reducing load or increasing power. When load continually matches or exceeds power and if both are fixed the situation becomes highly vulnerable and susceptible to breakdown. If load and power can be controlled and if a person is able to lay a hold of a reserve (Margin) of power, he/she is better equipped to meet unforeseen emergencies and better positioned to take risks, engage in exploratory, creative activities and more likely to learn.

Even though formulated in the 1970s, the theory of margins is still highly relevant towards understanding the balance between motivation and barriers to adult learning participation. A simple metaphor illustrates this. When a person is hungry and tired, often times he has to make a choice of either getting some rest or eating. If it takes more energy to cook then most of the time he/she might just go to sleep ignoring the need to feed the



hunger. A person balances his power and load rationally (with some exceptions) based on the individual’s perceived value placed in their participation in adult learning. Cognition, Emotion and the Environment in Learning Knud Ileris (2007,p. 25) in his book ‘how to learn’ introduced a model called ‘the 3 dimensions of learning’, which takes incorporates both the internal and external processes of learning. To understand the entire learning process one has to understand the internal knowledge acquisition process and the external interaction between the learner and his environment. The knowledge acquisition learning process is divided into the cognitive and the psychodynamic (emotion) function. The learning content is in the cognitive dimension while the provision of the mental energy necessary involves the psychodynamic function. Ileris’ 3 dimensions of learning (Figure 1) shows the 3 dimensions namely the cognitive, emotive or psychodynamic and the social dimension of learning.

Figure 1

Knud Illeris’ “Three Dimensions of Learning” Source: Ileris’ 3 Dimensions of Learning (Ileris 2007, p. 26)

Learning content (knowledge or skills), which builds up the learners understanding

and abilities are the core of the cognitive dimension. Meaning construction and ability is the key word in the cognitive dimension. The emotive or psychodynamic dimensions’ function is to secure the mental balance of the learner and involves the encompassing feelings, motivations and mental energy of the learner. Finally, the social dimension is related to the external interaction and serves the learners interaction in society.



Furthermore, Illeris sees the learning process as 5 stages: perception, transmission, experience, imitation and activity/participation. Perception is a totally unmediated sense impression of the surrounding world, transmission is when someone transmits specific sense impressions or messages, experience may include both perception and transmission where the learner also acts in order to benefit from the interaction. Imitation is when the learner attempts to copy or model another’s action and activity/participation is when there is engagement in a goal directed activity or even participating in a community of practice. (Illeris 2007, pp. 100‐101). Motivation and Barriers to Adult Learning Dr. Karen Thoms (2001, pp. 5‐6) characterized adult learners as having set habits and strong taste, a great deal of pride, a rational framework (values, attitudes etc) by which they make decisions and have developed group behavior consistent with their needs and have a strong need to apply what is learned and apply it now. Taking into consideration these characteristics, the adult learners’ motivation to learn would be different from those of children. To further complicate the adult learners’ situation, they also have to perform their individual culturally associated roles as husband/wife, worker and citizen and perceive themselves as responsible for his/her own individual life (Wlodkowski 1993, p. 5 cited by Merriam 2007). Individual adults learn differently depending upon their experience, aptitude and attitude (O’Conner et al quoted by Thoms 2001, p. 4), an adult learners’ motivation to learn would also differ based on their individual experience, aptitude and attitude. This would include individual characteristics of the learner, the perceived value of the learning task and how much experience the adult learner had with the topic. Reasons and purposes why adults learn are varied especially at different stages in the adult learner’s life. To fill in educational gaps, to develop personally, to perform a job better, enhance employment opportunities, or simply to join the job market are just some of the reasons but whatever the reason it can be classified as intrinsic, extrinsic or a combination of both. The adult learners’ reason and purpose for learning creates the motivation to engage in adult learning therefore one has to understand why and what is the reason and purpose for engaging in adult learning. Adult learners can be segregated into 3 groups namely employed, unemployed and retired people. Each of these groups has both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations towards participating in adult learning also taking into consideration their individual personal and social life. An employed adult can engage in adult learning out of his own initiative or through the initiative of his employer. Unemployed adults either engage in learning to gain new competences to participate in the job market and is motivated by their own desire or coerced by society thru the punitive act of the withdrawal of unemployment benefits for non‐participation in adult learning for the case of most welfare states. New immigrants can engage in adult learning through extrinsic pressures of the government to integrate by learning their host countries culture, language and etc or for their own personal development. Retired adults, however, have a different reason for engaging such as finding something to do in their retirement age, personal fulfillment or simply the quest for knowledge. Each and every stage of life and every individual will have their own reason and purpose for engaging in adult learning and it will be almost impossible to list all the reasons



down. It is only appropriate to come up with a typology of reasons for each group of adults to analyze barriers to learning associated with each reason. Research into why adult learn has uncovered a range of factors, including communication improvement, social contact, educational preparation, professional advancement, family togetherness, social stimulation and cognitive interest and that there are many complex (Boshier, 1977; Fujita‐Starck, 1996 cited in Dymock, 2007). Dymock (2007, pp 6‐7) stated that the main reason perceived by providers for learners coming to adult language, literacy and numeracy programs was to improve their language, literacy and numeracy for everyday living followed by employment or training reasons. He also pointed out that there are many complex reasons for learner’s participation in adult learning, which are also subject to change and that Barriers to learning can be in the form of lack of confidence and identity. Boshier, Morstain and Smart came up with six factors for participating in adult learning (Merriam & Caffarella, 1991, pp. 83‐86).

• Social Relationships: make friends and meet others. • External Expectations: complying with the wishes of someone else with authority. • Social Welfare: desire to serve others and/or community. • Professional Advancement: desire for job enhancement or professional

advancement. • Escape/Stimulation: to alleviate boredom and/or to escape home or work routine. • Cognitive Interest: learning for the sake of learning itself.

Motivation towards adult learning can be categorized into work/economic (higher earning potential, professional advancement and work retention), personal (cognitive interest, family togetherness) and social. Merriam & Cafferella (1991, pp 86‐90) stated that studies focusing on the psychological perspective have categorized barriers to participation to adult learning into situational (depending on a person’s situation at a given time), institutional (all practices and procedures that discourage adults from participation), dispositional or psychosocial (person’s attitudes about self and learning) and informational (person is not aware of educational activities available). Further categorizations based on the social structure were namely geographic conditions, demographic factors, socio‐economic conditions and education and cultural determinants. Geographic conditions deals with the division between urban, suburban and rural settings in relation to educational opportunities. Demographic factors include age and sex, which influences who participates and does not participate in adult learning. Socioeconomic conditions and education relates to a person’s background and place in society. Less wealthy people oftentimes participate less due to their socioeconomic situation and prior education. The degree of this happening in welfare state countries, where education is free or highly subsidized is potentially lesser than in developing and non‐welfare state countries. Cultural determinants usually deter minority groups to participate less than majority groups in adult learning (Merriam & Caffarella,1991, pp 86‐90).

Table 1. Motivational Factors and Life Stages Motivational Factors Maslow’s Heirarchy ERG Theory

Social Relationships Belonging / Esteem Relatedness External Expectations Belonging / Esteem Relatedness Social Welfare Self Esteem / Actualization Growth



Professional Advancement Physiological / Security Existence Escape/Stimulation Belonging / Esteem Relatedness Cognitive Interest Self Esteem / Actualization Growth

Table 2Motivational Factors and the Dimensions of Learning

Motivational Factors Cognitive Emotive Environment Sociological Relationships X X External Expectations X X Social Welfare X X Professional Advancement X X Escape/ Stimulation X X Cognitive Interest X X

Note: x marks the dimension affected or involved in the various barriers to learning

Barriers and Resistance to learning are also an interaction between the 3 dimensions of learning (Ileris, 2007). In a previously written paper, I have categorized various resistance to mathematics learning into the 3 dimensions namely cognitive, emotive and environmental (Chao, 2009). Even though this categorization was mainly for mathematics learning, the same categorization can be made for barriers to adult learning. The Barriers to adult learning would be the interplay between the internal factors (both cognitive and emotive) and the external factors (environment).

Table 3. Barriers to Participation and Life Stages/Needs Barriers to Participation Maslow’s Hierarch ERG Theory Situational Physiological / Security Existence Institutional Belonging / Esteem Relatedness Dispositional Self Esteem & Actualization Growth Informational Belonging / Esteem Relatedness Geographic Physiological / Security Existence Demographic Belonging / Esteem Relatedness Socioeconomic & Education Physiological /Security Existence Cultural Determinants Belonging Relatedness

Table 3 above attempts to place the various categories of barriers towards

participation to adult learning into the different needs/stages of life based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Alderfer’s ERG Theory. This categorization is useful in giving the users a better understanding of the adult learning in relation to where they are in their life stage and the barriers that they face.

The classification of Situational, Geographic and Socioeconomic & Education to Physiological / Security needs under Maslow’s hierarch of needs is based on the fact that a person’s situation, geographical location and socioeconomic and educational status is highly affected by their economic needs (which includes security) and is a choice between their existence or participation in adult learning. This also is the basis for placing them under the Existence category under the ERG theory.

Institutional, informational and Demographic barriers are classified in belonging and esteem (Relatedness) as these barriers can be reduced or negated with a stronger sense of belonging or esteem in relation to the institution, groups and society.

Dispositional barriers are classified into the self esteem and actualization because it is highly related to the person’s individual perception of themselves in relation to the social environment. Their own perception (usually influenced by society) of their competencies



and abilities highly affects their disposition, growth as an individual and their value system in relation towards participation in adult learning.

In an attempt to see which dimensions are involved in the different categories of barriers to adult learning participation, one fact seems to be undeniable. The environmental dimension is affected in all the categories of barriers (see table 4). It is also noticeable that both the emotive and environment are mostly affected by the different barriers.

This paper is not suggesting that the cognitive dimension is irrelevant but suggesting that in relation to motivation and barriers to adult learning both the emotive and environmental dimension seems to play a more important role.

Table 4. Barriers to Participation and the 3 Dimensions of Learning

Barriers to Participation Cognitive Emotive Environment Situational X X Institutional X X Dispositional X X Informational X X Geographic X X Demographic X X Socioeconomic & Education X X Cultural Determinants X X

Note: x marks the dimension affected or involved in the various barriers to learning

The Margin in Adult Learning

Using the various tables above (Tables 1 to 4), identification of an adult learners life stage/needs and which particular dimensions are involved in various motivational factors and barriers to adult learning becomes more visible. The simplification of the identification process (though an oversimplification of a rather complex process) enable the various stakeholders to focus on the motivational aspects necessary for an adult to participate in learning. McClusky’s theory of margin gives a general perspective towards the concept of motivation and when used with the above mentioned tables should prove to be useful looking at the challenges within adult learning.

According to McClusky, power should equal or exceed load. This means that somehow a person’s motivation to participate should exceed the barriers towards non‐participation in adult learning. In relation to the cognitive dimension, power can be seen in one’s cognitive abilities, while load is in the form of academic or learning requirements set by the learning institutions. If one’s ability falls short of the requirement then there would be a negative margin for lack of a better word in various forms such as anxiety, stress or resistance to learning. In the emotion dimension, power is in the form of a person’s energy and motivation towards learning, which varies individually based on their own value system particularly those related to learning, and load would be in the various work load in the person’s personal, professional and academic life. With the environmental dimension, power and load can be seen in how supportive or restrictive the environment is towards a person’s participation in adult learning. By environment, it does not only refer to the institutions of learning but also the family, work place, society including the culture of the person’s community.

Motivation and Barriers (being power and load) are two opposing forces which is greatly involved adult learning participation. Motivation gives the energy towards participation in adult learning while the barriers drain the energy. A margin of reserve is



necessary to ensure continuous participation in adult learning. With this theoretical underpinning, a model to understand the dynamics between life stages, motivational factors and barriers to adult learning becomes necessary.

Figure 2 The Adult Learning Funnel

The Adult Learning Funnel (figure 2) takes the adult learners experience as a starting

point. Experience includes his/her value system, cultural heritage, personal and social maturity including the skills and competences of the individual learner. The learner’s experience also determines one’s life stage/needs (Maslow’s Hierarchy and ERG Theory). Various motivational factors and barriers to participation to adult learning (opposing forces) interacts with the different dimensions of a person (cognitive, emotive and environment) adding power and load. The accumulation of power and load within the different dimensions are funneled based on the learner’s value placed on the different aspects of his/her life namely personal, professional and social. This would result to a margin (or a negative margin) which gives the learner the energy to pursue and participate in adult learning. The complexities of understanding an adult learner

Further research is needed to fully comprehend the complex nature of an adult learner. Knowles assumptions of an adult’s self‐direction, experience, readiness to learn and immediacy of application cannot fully explain such complexities. Somehow, he forgot to take into consideration the multi‐faceted life of an adult involving not only the professional life but also the family, personal, social and cultural aspects of their life. Furthermore, his assumptions that the most potent motivations are internal rather than external could be



challenged taking into consideration that internal motivation is formed by external and internal forces. It is almost impossible to determine the real distinction between internal and external motivation.

The life stage/needs of an adult learner also determine his/her value system be it existence, relatedness or growth needs. It also has a significant influence on the adult learner’s decision to participate in adult learning as it affects one or even all of the 3 dimensions of learning (cognition, emotion or environment). This decision can be seen in line with the theory of margins (McClusky) where the dynamic interaction between power and load defines the energy available to participate in adult learning.

The varied motivations of adult learners, which change during the different stages/needs in their live, add to the complexity of their nature. Motivational factors to participate in adult learning as social relationships, external expectations, social welfare, professional advancement, escape/stimulation and cognitive interest dynamically changes (Dymock 2007) based on one’s self direction, experience, readiness to learn and immediacy of application aside from which stages of life/needs they are in.

The different categories of barriers towards participation to adult learning can be seen affecting a person in their different life stages/needs and in different dimensions of learning. Most importantly the emotion and environment dimension seems to be mostly affected by the different barriers and as such it needs a high degree of attention.

What this paper succeeded in pointing out is that barriers to learning can be understood in terms of adult learners’ life stages/needs and that certain dimensions of learning is involved in different barriers. The adult learning funnel serves as a tool (though it still needs further refinement) to understand the dynamic interaction between the adult learners experience (including life stage), motivational factors, barriers to adult learning with the multi‐faceted life (personal, professional and social) of an adult learner.

However, there is much to be researched in the various aspects of the model. Experience and how an adult learner actually values education in relation to their life stages need to be further studied. How motivational factors and barriers to adult learning affect the different dimensions of learning and how the different dimensions actually interact together and forms the decision to participate in adult learning especially in an adult learner’s multi‐faceted life. References Alderfer, C. P. (1972). Existence, Relatedness and Growth; Human Needs in Organizational

Settings. New York: Free Press. Chao, R. (2009). A Holistic View towards Resistance to Mathematics Learning.

EDULEARN09 the International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies (s. 878‐889). Barcelona: The International Association for Technology, Education and Development.

Dymock, D. (2007). Engaging Adult Learners. Canberra: Adult Learning Australia. Illeris, K. (2003). Learning Changes Through Life. Lifelong Learning in Europe . Illeris, K. (2006). How We Learn: Learning and non learning in school and beyond (2nd Edition).

New York: Routledge. Illeris, K. (2007). How We Learn: Learning and non‐learning in school and beyond. New York:

Routledge. Knowles, M. S. (1973). The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston: Gulf.



Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (2nd Edition) . New York: Cambridge Books.

Knowles, M. S. (1984). The adult learner: A neglected species (3rd Edition). Houston: Gulf. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review , 50, 370‐396. Merriam, S. B. Caffarella, R. S. & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A

Comprehensive Guide (3rd Edition). San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass. Merriam, S. & Caffarella, R. (1991). Learning in Adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass. Thoms, K. J. (2001). They're Not Just Big Kids: Motivitating Adult Learners. Annual Mid‐

South Instructional Technology Conference. Murfreesboro, TN.

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Understanding the Adult Learners’ Motivation and Barriers ... · PDF fileUnderstanding the Adult Learners’ Motivation and Barriers ... learners understanding the adult learners’