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Understanding Sociology & Sociological Research
Chapters 1 & 2
A Look Ahead
• How did sociology develop?• How does it differ from
other social sciences?• Who are the pioneers and what
are their theoretical perspectives?• How does sociology help us
develop a sociological imagination?
What is Sociology?
• Sociology: Scientific study of social behavior and human groups
• Focus on:– How relationships
influence people’s attitudes and behavior
– How societies develop and change
Sociological Perspective
• Special vision
– Seeing the general in the particular– Seeing the strange in the familiar– Seeing individuality in social context
Benefits of the Sociological Perspective
• Question “common sense”• Assess opportunities and constraints • Empowerment• Living in a diverse world
The Sociological Imagination
• C. Wright Mills’ sociological imagination:– An awareness of the
relationship between an individual and the wider society
– Ability to view society as an outsider would
Sociology and the Social Sciences
• Study influence society has on people’s attitudes and behavior– Seek to understand ways in which
people interact and shape society– Examine social relationships scientifically
Sociology and the Social Sciences
• Science: Body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation– Natural science: Study of physical features of
nature and the ways they interact and change– Social science: Study of social features of
humans and the ways they interact and change
Sociology and Common Sense
• Sociologists do not accept something as fact because “everyone knows it”– Each piece of information must
be tested, recorded, and analyzed
Key concepts in Sociology
• Skepticism– Uncovering “inconvenient facts”- Weber
• Method of organizing perspectives• Objectivity• Ethics• Critical thinking
The Development of Sociology
• Industrial Revolution– Growth of cities• Pull of factories• Push of enclosure
• Political Change – Pursuit of self-interest
Early Thinkers
• Auguste Comte (1798–1857)– Systematic investigation of behavior– Coined term “sociology”
• Harriet Martineau (1802–1876)– Studied social behavior in Britain and U.S.– Emphasized impact of economy, law, trade,
health, and population on social problems• Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)– Studied “evolutionary” change in society
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)
• Behavior must be understood within larger social context– Anomie: Loss of direction felt in a
society when social control of individual behavior becomes ineffective
Max Weber (1864–1920)
• To comprehend behavior, one must learn subjective meaning people attach to actions– Verstehen: understanding; insight– Ideal type: Construct for evaluating specific cases
Karl Marx (1818–1883)
• Society divided between two classes that clash in pursuit of interests– The Communist Manifesto• Working class
should overthrow existing class system
– Emphasized group identification and associations that influence one’s place in society
Modern Developments
• W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963)– Black sociologists assisted struggle
for racially egalitarian society– Knowledge essential in combating prejudice– Double consciousness: Division of individual’s
identity into two or more social realities
Twentieth-Century Developments
• Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929)– Used sociological perspective
to examine face-to-face groups• Jane Addams (1860–1935)– Combined intellectual inquiry, social
service work, and political activism– Co-founded Hull House
Modern Developments
• Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002)– Capital sustains individuals and
families from one generation to the next– Cultural capital: noneconomic goods
reflected in knowledge of language and arts– Social capital: collective benefit of social networks
Why Theory?
• Allows for full exploration of an issue or problem
• 3 sociological theoretical paradigms– Sets of assumptions that guide thinking and
research
Functionalist Perspective
• Emphasizes the way parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability
• Views society as vast network of connected parts• Each helps maintain
the system as a whole
Functionalist Perspective
• Manifest functions: Open, stated, conscious functions; intended and recognized consequences of an aspect of society
• Latent functions: Unconscious or unintended functions; may reflect hidden purposes
• Dysfunctions: Elements or processes of society that may disrupt a social system or reduce its stability
Conflict Perspective
• Assumes social behavior best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups– Conflict theorists interested in how
institutions may help maintain privileges of some groups and keep others subservient
Conflict Perspective
• The Feminist view– Sees inequality in gender as central
to all behavior and organization– Often allied with conflict theory– Broadened social behavior by extending
analysis beyond male point of view
Interactionist Perspective
• Generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction to explain society as a whole– Humans viewed as living in
a world of meaningful objects– Nonverbal communication: Includes
gestures, facial expressions, and postures
What is the Scientific Method?
• Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem– Defining the problem– Reviewing the literature– Formulating the hypothesis– Selecting the research design
and collecting and analyzing data– Developing the conclusion
Scientific Method
• Defining the Problem– Operational definition: Explanation of
an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept
• Reviewing the Literature– Refines problem under study
Scientific Method
• Formulating the Hypothesis– Hypothesis: Speculative statement
about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables
– Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions• Independent variable: Variable
hypothesized to cause or influence another• Dependent variable: Action depends
on influence of the independent variable
Scientific Method
• Formulating the Hypothesis (continued)
– Causal logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other
– Correlation: Exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another• Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation
Figure 2-3: Causal Logic – page 36
Major Research Designs
• Research design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically– Surveys– Observation– Experiments– Existing sources
Surveys
• Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think– Interview: Researcher obtains information
through face-to-face or telephone questioning– Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written
form to obtain information from respondent
Ethnography
• Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community– Ethnography: Efforts to describe
an entire social setting through extended systematic observation
– Observation: Sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates
Surveys
• Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form
• Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities
Experiments
• Experiment: Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables– Experimental group:
Exposed to independent variable– Control group: Not exposed
to independent variable– Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence
of observers or experiments on subjects
Use of Existing Sources
• Secondary analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data
• Content analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale
Scientific Method
• Collecting and Analyzing Data– Selecting the Sample• Sample: Selection from a larger population
that is statistically typical of that population• Random sample: When every
member of a population has the same chance of being selected• Snowball samples (Convenience Samples):
participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet
Scientific Method
• Collecting and Analyzing Data– Ensuring Validity and Reliability• Validity: Degree to which the
measure reflects the phenomenon being studied• Reliability: Extent to
which the measure provides consistent results
Scientific Method
• Developing the Conclusion– Supporting the Hypothesis• Sociological studies do not always generate
data that support original hypothesis
– Controlling for other factors• Control variable: factor held constant to
test the impact of the independent variable
Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method – page 33
Using Statistics
• Percentage: Shows portion of 100• Mean: Average; sum of a series of
values divided by the number of values• Mode: Single most common
value in a series of values• Median: Midpoint that divides
a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values
Figure 2-2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States – page 35
Source: 2010 American Community Survey in Bureau of the Census 2011b:Table S1903; 2011a:Table 233.
Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income – page 37
Source: Author’s analysis of DeNavas-Walt et al. 2011, Detailed Table PINC-03.
Ethics of Research
• Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)– Maintain objectivity and integrity in research– Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity– Protect subjects from personal harm– Preserve confidentiality– Seek informed consent– Acknowledge collaboration and assistance– Disclose sources of financial support