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Understanding Evolution and Inheritance
in the National Curriculum KS2-KS3
Final Report of Project: EDU/42298
January 2019
Terry Russell & Linda McGuigan
University of Liverpool
2
Contents
Executive summary .................................................................................................. 3
Final Report
1. Project Objectives ................................................................................................ 8
2. Project methods .................................................................................................... 8
3. Key Findings and Linked Outputs ................................................................... 10
3.1 Macroevolution .............................................................................................. 10
3.2 Development of evolution and inheritance curriculum framework, KS1-2 .. 12
3.3 Pupils’ ideas about DNA ............................................................................... 15
3.4 Argumentation ............................................................................................... 17
4. Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 19
5. Implications and Recommendations for Policy and Practice ........................ 20
6. Project dissemination outputs .......................................................................... 21
Appendix 1. Macroevolution Interview Protocol ................................................ 23
Appendix 2. DNA Administration and Questions: ‘Ideas about DNA’ ............ 26
Appendix 3. Guidelines for Teachers on Discussion/Argumentation Criteria . 29
Appendix 4. Class Discussion and Science Understanding Rating Scales ........ 30
Pupil rating scale .................................................................................................. 30
Teacher rating scale ............................................................................................. 30
Appendix 5. Description of the Sample ............................................................... 31
Appendix 6. Overview of Study 2’s Sources of Data ......................................... 32
3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Context
This report presents a summary of work carried out under the Nuffield Foundation’s
Project: EDU/42298 in terms of dissemination activities and outputs. Because of the
extent of project activities, the empirical findings are only briefly described. This
report references all related results from empirical project activities to date. Related
research and dissemination activities and outputs are also referenced, where more
detailed descriptions can be located.
1. Project Objectives
A new national curriculum for science in England was introduced to all year groups
from September 2016 and the implementation of the new area of Evolution and
Inheritance was expected to bring novel challenges, particularly at KS2. The project
undertook to conduct research that would inform and support all stakeholders’
understanding of the implications: KS2-3 teachers, children, policymakers,
curriculum and assessment developers and others. Our previous study funded by the
Nuffield Foundation (Evolution & Inheritance Project, Study 1, Nuffield Foundation
grant reference EDO/41491), provided evidence that included children’s conceptual
difficulties with macroevolution. In the context of discussions about inheritance, the
researchers noted that some KS2 pupils referred to DNA, albeit this was beyond the
remit and expectation of the formal curriculum. The more general and overall
conclusion from Study 1 was that much more attention and support was required for
progression in understanding Evolution and Inheritance, both within Key Stage 2 and
in the transition across to Key Stage 3. The intended foci for the Study 2 research
were three specific areas where curriculum and pedagogy at the KS2-3 transition hold
the prospect of novel and useful insights to inform the introduction of improved
continuity and progression into teaching and learning.
Focus i): Macroevolution. The project explored the extent to which encouraging
pupils’ metacognitive reflection – that is, thinking about their own thinking - on the
meaningfulness to them of a variety of relevant 2-D and 3-D representations might
support a ‘big picture’ or macroscopic view of evolution. In addition, this focus also
helped to link Studies 1 and 2 by supporting construction of an overall Darwinian
framework for the KS1-2 biology curriculum.
Focus ii): DNA. The intention was to explore pupils’ informal understandings about
DNA as garnered from entertainment and other broadcast media. This information
would be used to consider the implications for understanding of inheritance together
with any implications for the curriculum in the KS2-KS3 transition.
4
Focus iii): Working scientifically using argumentation. The intention in this aspect
of the research was to explore what can be learned about the successes (and ways of
building on these) and difficulties (and ways of obviating or finding positive solutions
to these) of managing scientific discourse activities across KS2-3 in the conceptual
domains (ideas about macroevolution and DNA) that were the focus of this enquiry.
2. Project methods
A sample of twelve teachers across the Years 5-9 (age 9 to 14) range was drawn from
primary and secondary schools in the Northwest of England from an assortment of
urban and rural catchment areas, informed by contacts with Local Authority
personnel. The sample teachers were identified as having expressed an interest and
motivation to engage in classroom research.
A range of enquiry methods was adopted according to the needs of the various aspects
of the research. To explore effective strategies for approaching the teaching and
learning of macroevolution, teachers were invited to introduce all pupils to six
different representations of the Tree of Life metaphor. Interviews were conducted by
the researchers with a sample of six pupils drawn from each class, stratified by gender
and overall attainment. Pupils were selected for interview by their teacher to ensure as
far as possible, three males and three females each of low, medium and high overall
attainment. This procedure resulted in a sample of 72 pupils (see Table 1) who were
interviewed individually by one or other of the two university-based researchers. (The
interview protocol is reproduced as Appendix 1.)
Table 1. Number of teachers and pupils involved in the project
Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8 Y9 Total
Number of teachers/classes 2 3 3 3 1 12
Pupil interviews (sub-sample) 12 18 18 18 6 72
Pupils responding to DNA questionnaire (all) 41 76 77 83 21 298*
Number of pupils completing rating scales (all) 40 63 80 83 45 311*
Classroom activities (all) 41 76 80 83 45 325*
*Data were collected at different times and the presence of all pupils on all occasions could not be
assured. Table 1 contains the base figures for subsequent percentages relating to year group responses
to the DNA questionnaire and rating scales. While the samples for Years 5 and 9 are comparatively
small, for consistency, percentages have been included for all year groups.
A structured questionnaire (Appendix 2) was used to elicit all pupils’ (in participating
classes or science sets) awareness of DNA (n=298). It was emphasised to pupils that
this procedure was not a test, but a means of finding out their existing ideas as
gathered from everyday sources. The collection, coding and subsequent analysis of
pupils’ ideas about DNA involved responses from all pupils in the project classes.
Teachers arranged class discussion sessions following all pupils’ collection of
evidence for beliefs about macroevolution and DNA. All pupils present (n=311) and
teachers (n=12) completed a rating scale that probed their views about the value of
various aspects of discussion to science learning. The total number of pupils in each
class or set responding to the questionnaire and rating scale varies as pupils completed
these on different occasions and the number of pupils present on the different
occasions varied.
5
3. Key Findings
3.1 Macroevolution
Despite initial unfamiliarity with cladograms – branching diagrams showing the
relationship between species as they have evolved from most recent common
ancestors into different species over millions of years - teachers welcomed
unanimously the suggested innovation of their introduction at around the time of the
primary-secondary transition. Almost all (94%) of those pupils interviewed suggested
that the simplified primate cladogram helped their understanding of evolution. Studies
1 and 2 enabled the researchers to construct a curriculum map for KS1-2, including
introduction to cladograms, (see Table 2, page 14).
Introducing a variety of representations of the Tree of Life metaphor (reproduced as
Figures 1-6 on page 11) consolidated the notion of macroevolution by providing
pupils with the opportunity to reflect upon and to discuss, using evidence-based
exchanges, the affordances or weaknesses of each formulation and translations
between them.
3.2 Pupils’ ideas about DNA
The premise, confirmed by this research, had been that pupils construct an awareness
of DNA through their exposure to popular media. While the concept is not included in
the KS2 science curriculum, half the pupils responding to the questionnaire in Y5
(54%) and four-fifths (79%) in Y6 demonstrated awareness of DNA in their
responses. They showed awareness of how DNA might be used by police (for
forensic identification) and how DNA might be used by medical professionals (to
identify family members and to treat and cure diseases).
Younger pupils tended to hold macroscopic ideas about the location of DNA in the
body, suggesting it could be found in ‘hair’ or ‘skin’. In contrast, microscopic
responses describing DNA as being located in cells, increased with age, reflecting
exposure to the KS3 biology curriculum.
Small proportions of pupils at Year 5 (12%) and 6 (20%) revealed awareness that
DNA can cross generations. The proportions expressing this belief gradually
increased with age so that by Year 9, almost two-thirds (62%) explicitly expressed
awareness of the transfer of DNA from parents to offspring.
A possible link with experience of the function of computer software was inferred
when understanding of DNA’s mechanism was expressed by pupils as a set of
‘instructions’. There was an age-related increase in this interpretation, with only a
single pupil in Years 5 and 6 and two pupils in Year 7 describing DNA as having an
instructional function, rising to a quarter (24%) of Y8 and two-thirds (67%) of Year 9
pupils.
It is a fact that the Human Genome project (2003) has enormous implications for
peoples’ lives as well as the future of scientific research. However, the majority of
pupils (93%) showed no awareness of this programme of research, despite its social
and scientific significance.
6
Currently, the educational implications for understanding DNA’s function in the
primary phase converge around several far-reaching developments. Genome editing is
moving closer to therapeutic intervention. Public understanding needs to be kept
abreast of ‘rewriting the human genetic code’. Young people are gaining life-world
awareness of ways in which DNA can provide significant evidential influence on real
world issues. Important educational innovations in the Computing and Personal,
Social and Health Education (PHSE) curricula have the potential to reinforce both the
metaphor and the mechanism of DNA’s role in inheritance.
Currently, the late primary to early secondary science curriculum in England does not
support the basis for beginning to comprehend DNA’s role. Some steps are missing to
arrive at a developmental learning progression (DLP) offering continuity in pupils’
understanding. Yet such an approach is feasible. The primary to secondary transition
is suggested to be an appropriate time to introduce the currently missing core concepts
of the cell, containing a controlling nucleus in which DNA acts as a code, and cell
division as a key feature of sexual reproduction. Relationship and sex education
(RSE) introduces terms including ‘egg’ and ‘sperm’, these special cells carrying only
half the code as compared with other cells in the body. The introduction of these ideas
can be framed in a manner that helps pupils to make better sense of knowledge about
DNA gained from out-of–school sources and could smooth progression in science
learning about inheritance. The innovation of introducing these conceptual steps to
facilitate pupils’ appreciation of the role of DNA is logically compelling.
3.3 Argumentation
Argumentation practices (as these are currently understood in science education
research) were not embedded in project teachers’ habitual approaches to working
scientifically. In the course of the project, teachers developed strategies designed to
encourage pupils’ active identification, evaluation and use of information as evidence
to support claims.
On reflection, almost all pupils (95%) and all of their teachers agreed that they found
this form of discussion helpful to pupils’ science understanding. Illustrative responses
suggest pupils believed they modified their ideas during these discussions.
4. Implications and Recommendations for Policy and Practice
Our programme of research was intended, first and foremost, to generate evidence-
based practical advice for the teaching and learning of a Darwinian perspective on
evolution and inheritance across the years of primary to secondary transition. Various
strategies in pursuit of this aim are set out below.
A Darwinian curriculum framework. A major outcome of the research is a
curriculum framework for evolution and inheritance (see Table 2, p.14) that has a
consistent Darwinian underpinning. This ‘road map’ incorporates developmental
learning progressions (DLPs) and offers teachers practical suggestions for introducing
and developing incrementally the key concepts within evolution and inheritance to
support progression across Key Stages 1 and 2 and transition to KS3. The early
introduction of macroevolution to pupils in Y5-6 along with the use of a range of
7
representations of the Tree of Life is advocated on the basis of the research, with
pupils encouraged to use discussion to translate between different formats or models.
A Developmental Learning Progression for understanding Inheritance. Pupils’
awareness of DNA and its technical application in forensics, in identifying disease
and in establishing family relationships was confirmed even amongst some of the
younger pupils in the sample, those in years 5 and 6. Earlier introduction of the
concept of the cell is recommended along with strategies that encourage pupils to
think of DNA within the cell nucleus as a set of instructions (like computer software
code) that transfers from one generation to the next. Significant educational
innovations within the Computing curricula in the form of a renewed emphasis on
programming, coupled with proposed changes to the PSHE education curriculum,
have the potential to reinforce both the metaphor and the scientific mechanism of
DNA’s role in inheritance.
A practical resource to support Argumentation. An important aspect of
argumentation is pupils’ expression of a diverse range of claims to which other pupils
can respond. The project has created audio clips of pupils’ ideas that are available to
teachers as a free resource at www.ideasaboutevolution.com. These clips, together
with associated teacher guidance notes, are intended to be used formatively to help
identify and make explicit pupils’own ideas that will provide valuable starting points
for teachers’ use as triggers for classroom science discourse or argumentation
sessions. Dissemination of the website’s availability has included hard copy
notifications via Association for Science Education publications (in press), various
online sites and through references in publications.
A number of outputs, summarised in Section 6 of this report, have been made possible
by the Study 2 research, building on Study 1 findings. These outputs seek to ensure
wide dissemination of what has been learned and help to ensure the practical
implementation of the project’s findings.
8
FINAL REPORT
1. Project Objectives
A new national curriculum for science in England was introduced to all year groups
from September 2016; the implementation of the new area of Evolution and
Inheritance was expected to bring novel challenges to teachers and pupils, particularly
at KS2. The project undertook to conduct research that would inform and support all
stakeholders’ understanding of the implications of Evolution and Inheritance in the
National Curriculum KS2-3: teachers, children, policymakers, curriculum and
assessment developers and others. Our previous study funded by the Nuffield
Foundation (Evolution & Inheritance Project, Study 1, ref. 41491), provided evidence
including children’s conceptual difficulties with macroevolution – a key concept and
critically important in understanding biological science. In the context of discussions
about inheritance, some KS2 pupils referred to DNA, though this is not an expectation
of the national curriculum and had not been explicitly explored by teachers.
The overall conclusion from Study 1 was that much more attention and support for
progression in understanding Evolution and Inheritance, both within KS2 and across
Key Stages 2-3 was needed. (This was confirmed by the group of secondary teachers
who commented upon ‘secondary readiness’ of primary pupils, see report,
‘Understanding of Evolution and Inheritance at KS1 and KS2: Report on feedback
from KS3-KS4 biology teachers’ at http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/pupils-
understanding-evolution-inheritance-and-genetics ). Three specific areas where
curriculum and pedagogy at the KS2-3 transition hold the prospect of novel and
useful insights into teaching and learning were the intended foci for the Study 2
research.
Focus i): Macroevolution. The project explored the extent to which encouraging
pupils’ metacognitive reflection on the meaningfulness to them of a variety of 2-D
and 3-D representations of the Tree of Life metaphor might support a ‘big picture’ or
macroscopic view of evolution (described in section 3.1). This focus also supported
linking Studies 1 and 2 by informing the construction of a curriculum plan for
incorporating a Darwinian perspective on biology in KS1-2 (described in section 3.2).
Focus ii): DNA. The intention was to explore pupils’ informal understanding as
garnered from entertainment and other broadcast media and to arrive at practical
guidance for science teachers on the basis of a better understanding of pupils’
informal ideas about DNA, including suggestions for adjustments to the curriculum,
(described in section 3.3).
Focus iii): Working scientifically using argumentation. This aspect of the research
explored what can be learned about the successes (and ways of building on these) and
difficulties (and ways of obviating or finding positive solutions to these) of managing
pupils’ scientific discourse activities across KS2-3 in the conceptual domains of
macroevolution and DNA (described in section 3.4).
2. Project methods
The sample of twelve teachers, teaching across Years 5-9 (aged 9-14 years), was
drawn from primary and secondary schools in the North West of the UK (Lancashire
and Fylde). This region of the UK was geographically convenient to the researchers
9
and like all other areas of England, included schools that deliver the statutory national
curriculum. The sample covered a range of urban and rural catchment areas (see
Appendix 5 for sample details) and can be considered as representative of science
teaching in general for the purposes of our research.
The regulations of the University of Liverpool’s ethics committee along with the
guidance offered by ESRC and BPS were observed in all aspects of activity including
the collection, recording, reporting, evaluating, disseminating and archiving of data.
Written carer or parental consent was collected for children involved in the project.
Additionally, prior to observing and audio recording children and adults, the
researchers asked for their permission so as to ensure they were comfortable with our
presence. Drafts and final versions of materials and reports etc. along with any edited
images and audio files were shared with teachers prior to publication. This practice
ensured that participants were in agreement with the interpretation and use of the
evidence collected
(http://www.esrc.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/Images/ESRC_Re_Ethics_Frame_tcm6-
11291.pdf)
There were differences in the methods adopted for various aspects of the research.
• To explore effective strategies for approaching the teaching and learning of
macroevolution, all teachers introduced all pupils to six different
representations of the Tree of Life metaphor (Figures 1-6, page 11). Each
teacher worked with all the pupils in their class in an open-ended manner,
promoting intra-psychological (within-pupil) reflection coupled with inter-
psychological (between-pupil) exchanges of ideas and understandings. The
order in which the different representations were introduced was at each
participating teacher’s discretion. Pupil interviews were conducted by the
researchers with a sample of six pupils stratified by gender and overall
attainment drawn from each class, attainment being by teacher judgement of
science at KS3 and across all subjects at KS2. The 72 interviews, each lasting
around 20 minutes, were audio recorded and transcribed in full prior to
analysis. (The interview protocol is reproduced as Appendix 1.)
• A structured questionnaire (see Appendix 2) was used to elicit written
responses to a set of questions that probed all pupils’ awareness of DNA. It
was emphasised to pupils that this procedure was not to be regarded as a
science test but rather as a means of finding out their existing ideas as
gathered from everyday sources. The collection, coding of responses and
subsequent analysis of pupils’ ideas about DNA involved all available pupils
in the project classes (n=298), not just the interview sub-sample.
• Teachers arranged class argumentation activities around pupils’ beliefs about
macroevolution and DNA, some of which sessions the researchers were able
to observe. Prior to discussion, pupils explored ideas using the Internet.
Teachers’ written reflections on the effectiveness of the organisation and
process of the science discourse, including evidence of the quality of pupils’
arguments, were collected. In response to a request from some teachers for
guidance as to the criteria to apply in their reflections on the success of the
10
discussions, some suggestions were offered (see Appendix 3). However, these
criteria were not imposed (in order to avoid a further demand on teachers’
time) and so were not mandatory. In the event, only one teacher used the full
set of criteria to report her reflections on argumentation. Others commented
more generally on the argumentation process in their written feedback. In
addition, pupils’ perceptions of the role of such discussions in promoting their
science understanding were collected using rating-scale responses (see
Appendix 4). All available pupils (n=311) and their teachers (n=12) completed
this rating scale.
Appendix 6 summarises the different sources of data gathered in Study 2.
3. Key Findings and Linked Outputs
3.1 Macroevolution
Despite teachers’ own initial unfamiliarity with cladograms (branching diagrams
showing the relationship between species as they have evolved from most recent
common ancestors into different species over millions of years), pupils’ positive
responses led both teachers and pupils to welcome almost unanimously the early
introduction of this representational format. A positive impact of cladograms on
pupils’ understanding of hominid evolution in particular and the process of speciation
more generally was confirmed. Almost all those pupils interviewed (94%) suggested
that the simplified primate cladogram helped their understanding of evolution,
explaining that it supported their appreciation of evolutionary timescale, speciation
and extinction. Older pupils mentioned in addition an enhanced appreciation of the
significance of the concept of Most Recent Common Ancestor (MRCA) and its
relevance to the process of speciation.
Introducing a variety of representations of the Tree of Life metaphor (see Figures 1-6,
page 11) served to consolidate the notion of macroevolution by providing pupils with
the opportunity to reflect upon and to discuss, using evidence-based exchanges, the
affordances or weaknesses of each formulation. For instance, a simple real branch
introduced to pupils as a physical metaphor for the Tree of Life was confirmed as a
valuable and engaging resource that helped to demonstrate abstract ideas in concrete
form throughout the age range of the sample. This concrete 3-D model supported
appreciation of common ancestry, extinctions and the branching manner in which
species separate.
11
Figures 1-6 Representations of Macroevolution
Eighty-eight per cent of the interview sample pupils in Years 5-9 recognised the
formal but simplified cladogram diagram and the real tree branch as different
representational versions of the same Tree of Life metaphor.
12
Science educators’ scepticism about the use of fictional narrative text in scientific
contexts tend to centre around concerns about personalising, and perhaps
anthropomorphising, the agents, coupled with doubts about pupils’ abilities in
distinguishing fact from fiction. Teachers found the fictional narrative story of One
Smart Fish (Wormell, 2010) a valuable way of introducing pupils to macroevolution.
(Younger pupils had the story read to them; older pupils considered the story’s
suitability for younger children.) Pupils demonstrated that they could distinguish
factual and fictional events in the story and almost all the pupils interviewed (86%)
believed that fictional narrative supported their understanding of the process of
speciation specifically and evolution more generally.
The invitation to contribute a chapter drawing on our Nuffield Foundation-funded
research to the Springer book edited by Ute Harms of IPN (Kiel) and Michael Reiss
(UCL) was opportune. In the submitted chapter, we review both Nuffield Foundation-
funded phases of our research into the teaching and learning of evolution across the 5-
14 age range. The need we perceived was to link disconnected but relevant curricular
fragments into a coherent experience of progression that would reflect the
underpinning breadth, depth and interconnectedness of Darwinian evolutionary
theory. Five themes were identified to make this ambition manageable: variation,
fossils, deep time, selective breeding and macroevolution, exploring what ideas can
be developed, at what age and in what order.
Our chapter describes some resulting classroom validated instructional design
strategies as an introduction to looking at the primary-secondary transition in more
detail. A particular focus is on pupils’ access to the key concept of macroevolution,
exploring alternative representations of the Tree of Life metaphor as described above.
A complementary enquiry was into the practice of science or ‘Working Scientifically’
as described by the national curriculum. Here the emphasis was on communicative
processes and on pupils’ epistemic understanding (that is, knowing how their own
science knowledge is built up), using science argumentation, during which pupils
explored and articulated by reference to evidence what aspects of the various
representations helped or hindered their understanding of evolution.
An invitational seminar at IPN, Kiel, in August 2017, provided a platform for the
dissemination of Study 2 to about thirty fellow researchers having a profile in
evolutionary education research and development internationally.
Output 1: Russell, T. & McGuigan,L. ‘Developmental Progression in learning about
Evolution in the 5-14 age range in England’. Chapter 4. In Harms, U. and Reiss, M.,
‘Evolution Education Re-considered – understanding what works’. Springer. (2018).
3.2 Development of a curriculum framework for evolution and inheritance, KS1-2
Study 2 has benefitted from and built on the findings from Study 1; the accumulating
evidence has provided the basis for a curricular overview that incorporates a
comprehensive Darwinian perspective for biology teaching at KS1-2. Rather than
being framed in terms of addressing ‘misconceptions’, our framework is based on,
and assumes the utility to teachers of, developmental learning progressions (DLPs).
The implication is that all concepts are approached with a view to pupils’ incremental
construction of a Darwinian perspective on biological knowledge. One of the products
13
of the collaborative research with teachers, review of the literature and analysis of the
practical possibilities for classroom-based progressive activities is an article submitted
to the ASE’s (Association for Science Education) Primary Science. It is aimed at
teachers, teacher educators, advanced teachers and teachers in training. Its unique
value is its comprehensive developmental perspective that aims at supporting
curricular continuity and progression and a consistent cumulative understanding of
the Darwinian perspective. This article uses the same framework that is summarised
in Table 2, ‘Outline of Developmental Learning Progressions suggested by the
research activities’, page 14) but populated with a more detailed range of practical
examples. While it is not claimed that the DLPs as suggested constitute the only
routes towards understanding evolution and inheritance, we have confidence in the
classroom validation established by our collaborating teachers, who strongly affirm
the developmental perspective advocated.
Opportunity for arguing for a consistent developmental outlook in science education
was also presented in the updating of the authors’ chapter in the ASE publication,
‘ASE Guide to Primary Science’: ‘Progression’, published in January 2018 to
coincide with the ASE annual conference. This chapter describes a developmental
approach to science education in general and suggests the value for practice of taking
account of children’s development of thinking and reasoning. This outlook is gaining
increased attention: just as society’s expectations develop and change, so also
education policies and practices are continually revised to keep abreast. In early
science education, important shifts in three areas have been driving change. Firstly,
there have been changes in expectations for early childhood educational provision,
and consequently, a greater awareness of the training needs for practitioners working
with younger children. Secondly, recent years have seen increased research and
insight into early child development of direct relevance to science education - in
particular, a greater awareness of the largely untapped reasoning abilities of young
children in selected areas of science. Thirdly, there has been an elaboration of ideas
about the ‘Nature of Science’, with far greater awareness of the importance of
communication and children’s own mindfulness of what science knowledge is – the
epistemic dimension.
We argue that pupils’ development of scientific knowledge and knowing about the
how and why of science are intimately connected through domain-specific learning
progressions such as those we describe. These suggested DLPs have been informed
by and emanate from our research into understanding of evolution and inheritance.
This approach can and should inform teaching and learning within and across years
and phases of schooling.
Table 2, constructed on the basis of Studies 1 and 2 research activities, provides a
succinct overview of the coverage of Output 2.
Output 2: Russell, T. & McGuigan, L. ‘Teaching and learning about evolution: A
developmental overview’. Article accepted for publication in ASE’s Primary Science
journal.
14
Table 2. Outline of Developmental Learning Progressions suggested by the
research activities
Developmental
Learning
Progression
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year
5
Year 6
Variation Observing, counting & measuring within species differences in plants and animals in
different habitats, moving to measuring & recording differences & distributions of e.g.
size, shape, colour.
Observe &
compare
within-
species
plant &
animal
differences
Order,
count &
measure
range of
attributes
of living
things
Observe &
record the
shapes of
distributions of
differences
Measure and plot
distributions
Explore
different
shapes of
normal
distributions
Deep Time Learning the names & magnitude of numbers through tens, hundreds, thousands, millions
to billions; construct & appreciate the meaning, need for and use of scales
Informal surrogate measures for passage of time (‘sleeps’, birthdays, generations, etc.)
Understanding passage of seasons & structure of calendar time (days, weeks, months,
years).
Lifespans & timelines of historical events.
Models of evolutionary time using approximation of 4.5 billion years to range of scales:
timelines of different scale & sides of paper in ring binder
Fossils Observe,
handle and
name a
range of
plant &
animal
fossils
Extend the
range of
experience
of fossils
through
fieldwork
& museum
visits.
Sequenced
drawings back
through time
of fossil
formation
Modelling
reconstructions
of animals from
fossils
Biographies - (Darwin,
Mary Anning, etc.).
Special interests of
individuals – e.g.
dinosaurs or fieldwork,
collections.
Model the sedimentation process, fossil formation & links
between extinct and living species
Selective Breeding Cross-generational
likeness in animals and
plants
Making imaginary pets
with focus on their traits
Histories of
domestication
of animals,
crops & pets.
Investigate breeding for
desirable traits: e.g.
assistance dogs, designer
pets, meaning & process
of pedigree breeding.
Animal &
plant breeding.
Continuous &
discontinuous
traits
Macroevolution
descent, Most
Recent Common
Ancestors
(MRCAs) &
extinctions.
Narrative fiction describing speciation events throughout the age range & beyond,
antecedents of appreciating homologies.
Real tree branch as developing metaphor for common descent,
speciation, MRCAs & extinctions & analogue for Darwin’s tree of life
sketch
Construction of posters in the form of collages of illustrations of
the history of life on Earth
Simple cladograms
introduce quantification
of evolutionary change;
3-D models of partial
cladograms.
*Adaptation – Different habitats & animals’ and plants’ adaptive features; awareness of habitat loss or
destruction threatening extinction; conservation possibilities. Food chains and moving towards food
webs, interdependence, developing towards an ecological perspective. * Not part of current reported
research as this area tends to be well covered in primary schools.
15
3.3 Pupils’ ideas about DNA
The evidence from our questionnaire enquiry involving 298 pupils in Years 5-9 (see
Appendix 2 for questionnaire) suggests that pupils construct informally an awareness
of DNA through their exposure to popular media. Although the concept is not
included in the KS2 science curriculum for England, half the pupils ( 54%) in Y5 and
about four-fifths (79%) in Y6 demonstrated awareness of DNA in their responses to
the conceptual probes. Television, news and film as well as popular music were most
frequently cited as their sources of information. They showed awareness of how DNA
might be used by police (for forensic identification) and medical professionals (to
identify, treat and cure diseases), and by the general public to identify missing or re-
discovered family members. Their sources included popular TV programmes, but also
direct personal experience.
Macroscopic ideas about the location of DNA being found in e.g. ‘hair’ and ‘skin’ etc.
were held by about three-quarters (72%) of pupils. The frequency of such ideas
decreased with age, whereas microscopic responses describing DNA as being located
in cells, increased with age. An awareness of DNA in cells was expressed by less than
a tenth (8%) of pupils in Years 5-7, but was mentioned by two-thirds (66%) of Year
8 pupils and almost three-quarters (71%) of Year 9, reflecting exposure to the KS3
biology curriculum.
One tenth (12%) of Year 5 pupils and a fifth (20%) of Year 6 revealed awareness that
DNA can cross generations. The proportions expressing this belief gradually
increased with age so that by Year 9, almost two-thirds (62%) explicitly confirmed
understanding of the transfer of DNA from parents to offspring.
A possible link with experience of the function of computer software was inferred
when understanding of DNA’s mechanism was expressed as a set of ‘instructions’.
This formulation was in evidence from just under a tenth of pupils overall, but with an
age-related increase in this interpretation. While in years 5 and 6 only one pupil and
in year 7, only two pupils framed their understanding in this manner, the proportion
rose to a quarter (24%) of Y8 and two thirds (67%) of Year 9 students.
The Human Genome project (2003) has enormous implications for therapeutic
intervention as well as other aspects of peoples’ lives; it is and will be hugely
important in scientific research. Despite its importance, almost all pupils were
unfamiliar with this programme of research.
In the context of ‘three-parent-babies’ (a topic that had received widespread attention
in the broadcast media at the time of our research), about a fifth (21%) of respondents
suggested that the expression referred to some form of exchange of genetic material
between three people. This quality of response tended to increase in line with
increasing maturity across the Years 5-9. Genetic exchange was rarely mentioned
(4%) at Year 5 but was suggested by all (100%) of the Y9 pupils.
Given some expressed public alarm in the context of genetically modified crops, for
example, pupils were asked if they had heard of concerns about DNA research and if
they held any concerns themselves. The majority of pupils suggested they had not
heard any concerns about DNA, though just over a tenth (14%) suggested they had
heard of some apprehensions. Fewer (8%), claimed to hold concerns themselves.
16
Having concerns about DNA research was very much age related. While two-thirds
(62%) of Y9 pupils had concerns, there were few such expressions from Y7 (5%) and
Y8 (7%) pupils and none from primary phase pupils.
Pupils’ views on the location of DNA, its function and more specifically, its role in
human reproduction, were recorded and age-related trends identified. It was
confirmed that some knowledge of the term ‘DNA’ and superficial aspects of
technical applications had been gained. However, there was little awareness of the
underlying science prior to formal teaching in secondary school.
Currently, curriculum changes in England in science, but also in Computing and in
PSHE education, can be interpreted as converging in an important manner relevant to
learning about inheritance. Inheritance introduced to the primary curriculum finds
pupils expressing some notions of traits crossing generations, but little awareness of
mechanisms. Yet there is fairly widespread use of the term ‘DNA’ amongst primary
pupils and some understanding of links to individual characteristics. The PSHE
curriculum has been under recent review and a joint ASE-PSHE recommendation
addresses the manner in which Relationship and Sex Education (RSE) might be
approached. For example, appropriate vocabulary to use to teach sexual reproduction
in plants and animals, including ‘sperm’ and ‘egg’.
In parallel developments, even at KS1 in the Computing curriculum, pupils should be
taught to understand that ‘programs execute by following precise and unambiguous
instructions’. Together, significant educational innovations of the Computing and
PHSE curricula have the potential to reinforce both the metaphor and the mechanism
of DNA’s role in inheritance.
The late primary to early secondary science curriculum in England currently does not
support the basis for beginning to comprehend DNA’s role. Some steps are missing to
arrive at a DLP offering continuity in pupils’ understanding. Yet such an approach,
one that favours defining a progression from late primary to early secondary
education, is feasible. Around this primary to secondary transition, our research
suggests, is an appropriate time to introduce the currently missing core concepts of
the cell, controlling nucleus and cell division.
Rather than view informal ideas as misconceptions to be eradicated, erroneous though
they often are, it is argued that educational interventions are better thought of within
the framework of DLPs. Within such an overarching perspective, the roles of
metaphors, simulations, narrative and concrete modelling as strategies for supporting
the development of understanding are considered. This broad strategy addresses
approximate, fragmentary and disconnected ideas in pursuit of continuity and
progression in learning. We draw the conclusion that an approach that favours
defining a DLP relating to inheritance from late primary to early secondary education
is feasible and logically compelling.
A Primary Science article will be aimed more specifically at primary teachers. Our
research has confirmed that while KS2 pupils use some notions of kinship similarities,
little awareness of the mechanism of inheritance was in evidence. The intention is to
offer a curriculum analysis that results in building on existing awareness in the
direction of continuity and progression in older primary pupils’ appreciation of the
17
role of DNA in inheritance. A full analysis of all the data pertaining to pupils’ ideas
about DNA has helped us to identify the direction and content of this article.
Output 3: Paper for submission to the ASE’s Primary Science journal. ‘DNA,
Computing and Relationships & sex education at KS2’
3.4 Argumentation
Argumentation practices (as these are currently understood in science education
research) were not found to be part of our project teachers’ current habitual practices
and were not embedded in schools’ approaches to working scientifically. In the course
of the project, teachers were encouraged to develop strategies designed to encourage
pupils’ active identification, evaluation and use of information as evidence to support
claims. The feedback from pupils confirmed the success of these strategies, with
almost three-quarters (70%) of pupils agreeing that their peers used evidence to back
up their claims during their discussions.
A novel aspect of the project was the focus on pupils’ cognitive and affective
responses to the opportunity to engage in argumentation. Following the
encouragement to explore argumentation sessions within the framework of our
research, almost all pupils (95%) and their teachers agreed that they found discussion
helpful to their science understanding. Some illustrative responses from pupils
(tagged by gender and Year group in the examples that follow) suggest they modified
their ideas during these discussions.
I think discussion with my classmates was probably the best helping me to
understand the evolution. I changed some of my opinions because I thought that
some of my classmates’ opinions were actually right. (Y7M)
The most helpful was the debate. We heard other people’s ideas and I learned
from their arguments and evidence. I really thought it was helpful. (Y7F)
The thing that helped me understand it was having a discussion about it and, like
most of understanding it from listening to other peoples’ points and thinking
about what it could be. (Y8M)
The results of the research with pupils in the range years 5-9 suggest an
overwhelmingly positive response to argumentation by pupils and their teachers.
Nonetheless, about a fifth (21%) expressed some apprehension in relation to
expressing their ideas in a classroom context. The requirements of this minority group
need to be taken seriously. Our previous research with a younger age range than
reported on here points to the priority that must be given to encouraging the
expression of ideas from the point of entry to school. Urgent attention to this need is
integral to educational socialisation. It would be helpful to adopt a long view of the
developmental process of students’ engagement in dialogic practices. There is
evidence from project teachers’ views of the impact of involvement in the project on
their practice that the argumentation techniques developed in the course of the
research were rapidly generalised to other curriculum areas. They occasionally
assumed the centre piece of cross-school events, such as SALAD (Speaking and
Listening Days) days, in which the major focus was the encouragement of pupils’
participation in speaking and listening.
18
The need we perceived in the context of teachers’ efforts to promote argumentation
was for some form of resource that would faciltate the development of teachers’
management of classroom discussion processes. Previous research experience had
confirmed pupils’ strong attraction to engage when exposed to their peers’ recorded
ideas. The audio recordings collected in the course of pupil interviews were
recognised as a valuable re-usable classroom resource: a set of pupils’ claims that
might be made freely available to teachers. The audio clips are intended to be used
practically by teachers and pupils as starting points for argumentation sessions.
(Permissions from parents were gathered and identifying names are removed so that
anonymity is safeguarded.)
One of the difficulties of managing classroom argumentation is the maintenance of a
focus on particular expressed idea-claims when discourse is so fluid and ephemeral.
The Teachers’ Notes accompanying the audio clips emphasise the identification of the
specific claims made in any particular utterance. The recordings enable an argument
to be re-visited as many times as necessary, by teachers or pupils, and as such, offer a
rehearsal experience for both parties. It is anticipated that the website resource will
encourage pupils to attend closely to each other’s ideas, help to overcome any
reticence on the part of some pupils and facilitate the development of argumentation
practices in schools as routine. An important aspect of argumentation is pupils’
expression of a diverse range of claims to which other pupils can respond. We
anticipate that pupils across the age range will find the diversity of claims expressed
engaging, both more and less enlightened than their own currently held beliefs, and
that this will, in turn, encourage wider participation.
Output 4: A website resource for teachers and pupils constructed around a selection
of audio clips of pupils’ ideas drawn from the interview record, together with teacher
guidance notes for classroom use across Y5-9: www.ideasaboutevolution.com The
site is publicised in hard and digital copy publications including those of the
Association for Science Education and the European Science Education Research
Association. The Internet is anticipated to offer a wide range of possibilities for
raising awareness of this free resource for teachers.
Increasingly, science education assumes an important role for the epistemic
dimension in which classroom discussion and argumentation play a vital role. As
described above, all pupils had opportunity to exchange their ideas with their peers
through teacher-managed classroom discussion and argumentation processes,
allowing the researchers to ascertain pupils’ affective and cognitive perceptions of
such exchanges, a relatively neglected area of enquiry. Although research into the
instrumental value of argumentation assumes students’ active participation in their
own learning, there has been a dearth of curiosity about the pupils’ own reflections on
the process. A priori, several contributory factors might be identified as influencing
willingness to participate: (i) Individual factors including pupil personality and
disposition; (ii) school ethos and educational induction over years of schooling into
‘communication rules’ and (iii) classroom micro-climate (e.g. teaching style,
curriculum and exam pressure, as well as peer social behaviour). The project collected
evidence of pupils’ affective and cognitive responses to argumentation. We have
analysed the complete data set (n=311) and results are summarised in this report
(section 3.4) and in the Springer chapter.
19
Output 5: The role of class discussion in learning about evolution and inheritance at
KS2-3. Paper submitted to ESERA (European Science Education Research
Association), Dublin 2017 (not accepted for ESERA, but the data are introduced to
the Harms & Reiss chapter.) 'Students’ perspectives on science discussion and
argumentation'. A modified paper to the ASE’s School Science Review explores
pupils’ own views of the contribution of class discussion to their learning.
Output 6: Helping children to express their ideas and move towards justifying them
with evidence : A developmental perspective. Association of Science Education
(ASE) International no2, pp6-10, 2018.
Over the past decade or so, science education researchers’ views of science have been
extended to include an emphasis on social and epistemic processes that may be
realised in science discourse practices. We argue that this contemporary
understanding of what constitutes science education should be acknowledged in the
form of new possibilities for early years practitioners to make significant
contributions to an authentic science experience for young children. The epistemic
and communicative aspects of science that are increasingly recognised as essential
can be introduced by all early years practitioners as a form of discussion that can
permeate all settings. Using quantitative and qualitative evidence derived from our
linked projects we argue that practitioners are well placed to nurture early scientific
reasoning behaviours that resonate with contemporary views of science. Although
focusing on the needs of a younger age group than is the focus for Study 2, we draw
on some of the evidence from Study 2 along with Study 1 to argue for an epistemic
approach to science in the early years, coupled with practical guidance.
Output 7: ‘Reflections on guidance to orientate untrained practitioners towards
authentic science for children in the early years’. Paper presented to ESERA
(European Science Education Research Association), Dublin, August 2017. The
published extended paper is McGuigan, L. & Russell, T. (2018). Reflections on
guidance to orientate untrained practitioners towards authentic science for children in
the early years. In Finlayson, O.E., McLoughlin, E., Erduran, S., & Childs, P. (Eds.),
Electronic Proceedings of the ESERA 2017 Conference. Research, Practice and
Collaboration in Science Education, Part 15: Strand 15 co-eds. Bodil Sundberg &
Maria Kallery (pp. 2034 - 2045). Dublin, Ireland: Dublin City University. ISBN 978-
1-873769-84-3
Output 8: McGuigan, L. & Russell, T. (2018). Reflections on guidance to orientate
untrained practitioners towards authentic science for children in the early years.
Journal of Emergent Science 15. pp28-37.
4. Evaluation
An evaluation of the impact of Study 2 teachers’ project involvement on their
practices was carried out in July 2017, immediately following completion of their
participation. All twelve teachers responded to semi-structured interviews. Although
the project did not undertake professional development activity per se, the evaluation
invited comments on any project impacts on their own practice, on pupils and on their
schools.
20
This brief Study 2 evaluation of impacts found evidence that teachers viewed the
project as having helped to increase their awareness of some of the ideas pupils held
in relation to macroevolution and DNA, contributed to teachers’ pedagogical
knowledge and helped develop teachers’ confidence and science content knowledge
associated with macroevolution and DNA. Teachers reported that pupils engaged with
the targetted conceptual domains and produced some pleasing and surprising learning
outcomes in response to what many initially believed were challenging activities.
Some of the teachers described how the argumentation strategies had been
disseminated and incorporated into practice across their school. While we
acknowledge that it takes time for new strategies to become embedded into practice,
feedback on this occasion suggested some immediate and positive impacts.
Output 9: Research to Support Understanding of Evolution and Inheritance in the
National Curriculum at KS2 and KS3: Teachers' views of the impact of
involvement in the project on their practice. This evaluation of teachers’ views of
impacts of Study 2 is available on the Nuffield Foundation website and on the
authors’ ResearchGate profile pages.
Output 10: Research to Support Understanding of Evolution and Inheritance in the
National Curriculum at KS1 and KS2: Evaluation of impact. This evaluation of
teachers’ views of impacts of Study 1 is available on the Nuffield Foundation website
and on the authors’ ResearchGate profile pages.
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/pupils-understanding-evolution-inheritance-and-
genetics
Output 11: ‘Ideas about Evolution: a website resource to support the development of
pupils’ argumentation.’ An article prepared for ASE’s ‘Primary Science’ and
‘Education in Science’ journals (2018) to disseminate the website
www.ideasaboutevolution.com to Primary and Secondary science teachers.
5. Implications and Recommendations for Policy and Practice
The Study 1 and Study 2 projects argue strongly for a developmental perspective on
pupils’ understanding of evolution and inheritance. While it is not claimed that the
developmental learning progressions (DLPs) suggested constitute the only routes
towards understanding evolution and inheritance, we argue that the claim for initial
classroom validation of this perspective has been established. Our argument is that
DLPs do not sit waiting to be discovered by researchers: they must be actively and
imaginatively constructed by considering developmental capabilities, the logic of the
subject matter and optimal representational formats (or models) for encapsulating
knowledge that can be invented by educators. Evidence from Study 2 has enabled us
to add to the developmental picture across KS1-2 and into KS3. One major outcome
is that we have attended to the practical implementation of a curricular map for the
introduction of a Darwinian perspective on evolution and inheritance. This framework
(see Table 2) sets out for practical purposes the way in which the curriculum might be
sequenced to support progression across Key Stages 1 and 2 and transition to KS3.
Evidence from Study 2 confirms the validity of the early introduction of
macroevolution to pupils in Y5-6. Speciation within macroevolution and the idea of
common descent as a precursor to appreciating the idea of MCRAs was found to be
21
accessible to older primary pupils. The use of a range of representations of the Tree of
Life is advocated by the research, with pupils encouraged to use a metacognitive
process of representational redescription to translate between formats. Translation
between representations, it is argued, serves to consolidate understanding.
Pupils’ awareness of DNA and its technical application in forensics, in identifying
disease and in establishing family relationships was confirmed, even amongst some of
the younger pupils in Years 5 and 6. Earlier introduction of the concept of cell is
recommended along with strategies that encourage pupils to think of DNA within the
cell nucleus as a set of instructions (akin to their learning about computer software
code) that transfers from one generation to the next. Significant educational
innovations of the Computing curriculum in the form of an emphasis on
programming, coupled with proposed changes to the PSHE and relationship education
curriculum have the potential to reinforce both the metaphor and the mechanism of
DNA’s role in inheritance.
An important aspect of argumentation is pupils’ expression of a diverse range of ideas
as claims to which other pupils can respond. The project’s accumulated examples of
pupils’ claims across Y5-9 recorded in audio format provide a valuable starting point
for argumentation sessions. The website www.ideasaboutevolution.com including a
selection of audio files makes this resource widely available.
6. Project dissemination outputs
In summary, the following outputs fulfil our dissemination commitments:
Output 1: Russell,T. & McGuigan, L. (2018) ‘Developmental Progression in learning
about Evolution in the 5-14 age range in England’. Chapter 4, In Harms, U. and Reiss,
M., ‘Evolution Education Re-considered – understanding what works’. Springer.
Awaiting final copy, page numbers and ISBN information
Output 2: Russell, T. & McGuigan, L. (2018) ‘Teaching and learning about
evolution: A developmental overview’. Accepted for publication in ASE’s Primary
Science journal.
Output 3: Paper for submission to the ASE’s Primary Science journal, provisional
title, ‘DNA, Computing and Relationships & sex education at KS2’
Output 4: Russell, T. & McGuigan, L. (2018). A published resource for teachers
comprising a selection of audio clips of pupils’ claims drawn from the interview
record together with teacher guidance notes, available on line for classroom use
across Y5-9. Web site: www.ideasaboutevolution.com
Output 5: 'Students’ perspectives on science discussion and argumentation'. A paper
to the ASE’s School Science Review explores pupils’ own views of the contribution
of class discussion to their learning.
Output 6: McGuigan, L & Russell, T. (2018) ‘Helping children to express their ideas
and move towards justifying them with evidence : A developmental perspective’.
Association for Science Education (ASE) International no2, pp6-10, 2018.
Output 7: McGuigan, L. & Russell, T. (2018) Reflections on guidance to orientate
untrained practitioners towards authentic science for children in the early years. In
Finlayson, O.E., McLoughlin, E., Erduran, S., & Childs, P. (Eds.), Electronic
Proceedings of the ESERA 2017 Conference. Research, Practice and Collaboration in
Science Education, Part 15: Strand 15 co-eds. Bodil Sundberg & Maria Kallery (pp.
2034 - 2045). Dublin, Ireland: Dublin City University. ISBN 978-1-873769-84-3
22
Output 8: McGuigan, L. & Russell, T. (2018). Reflections on guidance to orientate
untrained practitioners towards authentic science for children in the early years.
Journal of Emergent Science. 15. pp28-37.
Output 9: ‘Research to Support Understanding of Evolution and Inheritance in the
National Curriculum at KS2 and KS3: Teachers' views of the impact of involvement
in the project on their practice’. http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/pupils-
understanding-evolution-inheritance-and-genetics
Output 10: Research to Support Understanding of Evolution and Inheritance in the
National Curriculum at KS1 and KS2: Evaluation of impact.
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/pupils-understanding-evolution-inheritance-and-
genetics
Output 11: ‘Ideas about Evolution: a website resource to support the development of
pupils’ argumentation.’ An article prepared for ASE’s ‘Primary Science’ and
‘Education in Science’ journals to disseminate the website ideasaboutevolution.com
to Primary and Secondary science teachers. Accepted for publication.
Acknowledgement.
The Nuffield Foundation is an endowed charitable trust that aims to improve social well-being in the widest sense. It funds research and innovation in education and social policy and also works to build capacity in education, science and social
science research. The Nuffield Foundation has funded this project, but the views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Foundation. More information is available at www.nuffieldfoundation.org.
23
Appendix 1. Macroevolution Interview Protocol
24
25
26
Appendix 2. DNA Administration and Questions: ‘Ideas about DNA’
The exploration of pupils’ ideas about DNA: notes for teachers’ administration.
The four steps we would like followed are:
1. DNA questions via PPT. Brief teacher introduction to administering the DNA
questions via PPT using interactive whiteboard (IWB). This will be a standalone
activity.
2. Pupils’ personal research. Some time after responding to the DNA questions –
the time lapse is not important - pupils can be invited to carry out some personal
research, perhaps as homework. As an orientation to setting this ‘finding out’ task,
the class discussion question can be introduced. Step 3, class discussion, should
follow on fairly closely, within a few days.
3. Argumentation/Class discussion centred on the agreed class discussion question,
with pupils referring to the evidence they have collected in their research.
4. Rating scale. To round off the DNA activities, pupils complete the rating scale,
administered via PPT.
1. DNA questions via PPT. Our intention is to capture pupils’ ‘naïve’ or
‘untutored’ ideas, prior to any teaching or personal research, using the set of
PPT questions. This should proceed after only a very brief teacher
introduction, e.g. (in your own style and words): ‘Some of you have mentioned
DNA when we have talked about evolution. You may have heard DNA
discussed on TV, radio, and newspapers or in conversations. Before doing any
further research or finding out, I would like to get an idea of what ideas you
have, if any, and what you know about DNA.’ Emphasise that this is not a test
of what they have been taught, but what they have picked up informally. ‘We
are not looking for ‘right answers’ because this is not a science test. It is
about your everyday knowledge, so we would like you to write about your own
ideas.’ Pupils write their responses on paper with name, form and school and
carefully numbered responses corresponding to the IWB presentation.
2. Some time later – the time lapse between steps 1 and 2 is not important so
could be a few days or a few weeks - pupils are invited to discuss their
knowledge and understanding of DNA in pairs and to carry out some online
research. This could be introduced as a homework topic. To give some
structure to their finding out, the class discussion question could be
introduced. ‘The discovery of DNA is one of the most important and life
changing scientific breakthroughs in the history of science’. What evidence
would you suggest to support or argue against this statement? Tell them that
later, they will have an opportunity to discuss this in class.
3. Introduce the class discussion or argumentation session. There may be
different points of view in support of the statement that could be contested. Or
some pupils may wish to argue against the statement. Teachers are asked to
record their observations about the quality of pupils’ argumentation. (See
Guidelines on Discussion/Argumentation Criteria.)
4. Some time after the class discussion session (the time lapse is not critical, but
it may be convenient to complete this and wind up the topic right away), all
pupils in the class can be invited to respond to the Class Discussion Rating
Scale. This can be presented via the IWB, with each pupil recording their
decisions in the form of numbers 1-5, using pencil and paper.
27
28
29
Appendix 3. Guidelines for Teachers on Discussion/Argumentation Criteria
The criteria below are to help you to structure your observational notes on how you
feel the class discussion/argumentation session went.
Speaking
How clearly presented are pupils’ presentation of their ideas or ‘claims’
Is evidence used to support the claims made?
Is there a good relevant match between claims and supporting evidence?
Is there a calm, rational and logical style adopted in presentations?
Listening
Do all class members listen to ideas attentively, with engagement?
Is respect show towards presenters and their claims?
Are there any requests for clarification of the claims that have been presented?
Making counter-claims
Are pupils able to keep track of the claims being made?
Are disagreements expressed as counter-claims that are relevant to the initial claim?
Are counter claims supported with evidence?
Are counter-claims treated with respect and seriousness?
Pupils’ Engagement
Were pupils engaged with and attentive to the discussion?
Was your impression that this is the kind of activity they would like to repeat?
Teacher management
How did you organise the argumentation session and introduce the question to make it
age appropriate?
How would you sum up your attitude to class discussion/argumentation sessions in
science lessons?
Has the procedure as we have described it in this project added anything novel to your
teaching? (Please be as specific as you can.)
Any difficulties?
30
Appendix 4. Class Discussion and Science Understanding Rating Scale
Pupil rating scale
How did you find the exchange of ideas during whole class discussions?
5 4 3 2 1
A. Did you agree with the
ideas expressed by other
children?
I always
agreed
Mostly agreed Couldn't decide if I
agreed with others
or not
Mostly
disagreed
Always
disagreed
B. Did people give reasons
for their ideas?
They
always
gave
reasons
Mostly gave
reasons
Not sure if they
gave reasons
Mostly did not
give reasons
Never gave
reasons
C. Did the others give
evidence to back up their
ideas?
They
always
used
evidence
Sometimes
used evidence
Not sure if they
used evidence
Mostly did not
use evidence
They never
used evidence
D. Did you find others’
ideas interesting?
Extremely
interesting
Slightly
interesting
Neither interesting
nor uninteresting
Not very
interesting
Not in the least
interesting
E. Did you find others’
ideas surprising?
Extremely
surprising
Slightly
surprising
Neither surprising
nor unsurprising
Not very
surprising
Not in the least
surprising
F. Did you think that
others’ ideas were
scientifically accurate?
Extremely
accurate
Slightly
accurate
Neither accurate
nor inaccurate
Slightly
inaccurate
Very
inaccurate
G. Did you find discussion
was helpful to your own
understanding?
Extremely
helpful
Slightly
helpful
Neither helpful nor
unhelpful
Slightly
unhelpful
Extremely
unhelpful
Teacher rating scale
How did you find the exchange of ideas during whole class discussions/argumentation? 5 4 3 2 1 A. Did pupils agree with
the ideas expressed by
others?
They always
agreed
Mostly agreed They couldn't decide if
they agreed with
others or not
Mostly
disagreed
Always
disagreed
B. Did people give
reasons for their ideas?
They always
gave reasons
Mostly gave
reasons
Not sure if they gave
reasons
Mostly did
not give
reasons
Never gave
reasons
C. Did the pupils give
evidence to back up their
ideas?
They always
used
evidence
Sometimes
used evidence
Not sure if they used
evidence
Mostly did
not use
evidence
They never
used evidence
D. Did you find pupils’
ideas interesting?
Extremely
interesting
Slightly
interesting
Neither interesting nor
uninteresting
Not very
interesting
Not in the
least
interesting
E. Did you find pupils’’
ideas surprising?
Extremely
surprising
Slightly
surprising
Neither surprising nor
unsurprising
Not very
surprising
Not in the
least
surprising
F. Did you think that
pupils’
ideas were scientifically
accurate?
Extremely
accurate
Slightly
accurate
Neither accurate nor
inaccurate
Slightly
inaccurate
Very
inaccurate
G. Did you find
discussion was
helpful to pupils’
understanding?
Extremely
helpful
Slightly helpful Neither helpful nor
unhelpful
Slightly
unhelpful
Extremely
unhelpful
31
Appendix 5. Description of the Sample.
Number of teachers participating in the project
Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8 Y9 Total
Number
of classes
2 3 3 3 1 12
Number
of
teachers
2 3 3 3 1 12
Number of pupils involved in the project
Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8 Y9 Total
Interview
(subsample)
12 18 18 18 6 72
Written
ideas about
DNA (all)
41 76 77 83 21 298*
Rating
scales (all)
40 63 80 83 45 311*
Classroom
activities
(all)
41 76 80 83 45 325*
*Data were collected at different times and the presence of all pupils on all occasions
could not be assured.
32
Appendix 6. Overview of Study 2’s Sources of Data
Source Number Study focus Nature of
evidence
Mode
Pupil
interviews
72 Macroevolution
Argumentation
Quantitative
data
Illustrative
exemplification
Written
Audio
Pupil rating
scales
311 Argumentation Quantitative
data
Written
Pupils’ written
ideas about
DNA
298 DNA Quantitative
data
Illustrative
exemplification
Written
Teachers’
rating scales
12 Argumentation Quantitative
data
Written
Teachers’
writing
24 Macroevolution
DNA
Argumentation
Illustrative
exemplification
Written
Researcher
classroom visit
notes
48 Macroevolution
DNA
Argumentation
Illustrative
exemplification
Written
Photos
Audio
Project
Meeting notes
2 Macroevolution
DNA
Argumentation
Illustrative
exemplification
Written
Teacher
evaluation
questionnaire
12 Project
Evaluation
Quantitative
data
Illustrative
exemplification
Written
