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Close this window to return to IVIS wwwivisorg
Proceedings of the 36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress
WSAVA
Oct 14 - 17 2011 Jeju Korea
Next Congress
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA httpwwwivisorg
1352011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
AL_A30
14(Fri) ~ 17(Mon) October 2011
ICC Jeju Korea
2011 WSAVAFASAVA World Congress
wwwwsava2011org
BH-E04
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Karen L Overall MA VMD PhD Diplomate ACVB ABS
Certified Applied Animal Behaviorist
Philadelphia PA USA
Communication involving ritualized displays or graded signals is used to confirm or reject information
received from others Contexts in which this occurs varies considerably general social interactions indications
for species sex and sexual receptivity situations pertaining to relative social status negotiation of social
interactions et cetera Communication can be instantaneous as is the case with tactile behaviors and visual
displays These behaviors are also relatively ldquoshort-distancerdquo signals Vocal communication is instantaneous
but may reach over longer distances Olfactory and pheromonal signals provide information that can be
assessed over distances and across time Dogs use all of these modalities and we can best understand what the
dog is telling us when we have sets of information that are congruent (eg the vocal signal matches the physical
behavior) Extremely important signals are always redundant so that more than one modality is involved in the
signal Such patterns act over evolutionary time to minimize costly errors
To understand canine vocal behavior behaviors it is critical to understand the component signals as they are
used to communicate with conspecifics (see table)
CANINE SIGNALS
Signal Circumstance Information
barkingbull alertingwarning
bull attention-seeking
growlingbull warning
bull distance-increasing
crying
whimpering
whining
bull et-epimeletic
bull paindiscomfort
bull fear
bull solicitation ndash depending on frequencies
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
136 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Signal Circumstance Information
howlingbull elicit social contact
bull anxiety situations (social contact = reassure
moans bull pleasure contentment
tail and ears up forefoot in front of other bull alert ready to participate
direct gaze
bull challenge
bull confident
bull absence of threat and seeking information
bull distance-increasing
averted gaze
bull fear
bull profound avoidance
bull deference
bull absence of challenge (not the same as deference for confident high-ranking dogs)
bull distance-decreasing signal
belly presented
bull deference - if neck back and other solicitation cues given
bull disengagement - if inguinal area and or chest covered may become aggressive if pursued
bull relaxation - if flaccid
tail tucked when belly presentedbull fear
bull uncertainty
tail tucked when belly presented with
urination
bull profound fear and social withdrawal
bull panic
grinbull deference
bull distance-decreasing signal
piloerectionbull arousal associated with anxiety fear aggression
bull distance-increasing
piloerection restricted to neck or tail
regionbull confident dog
rigid stance stiff torso musculaturebull confidence and intent to interact (may not be aggressive)
bull distance-increasing
tail above horizonbull confident
bull assertive but calm
tail below horizon
bull less confident
bull less assertive
bull deference
bull fear
tail wag bull willingness to interact
tail tip wag stiff
bull confident
bull assertive
bull offensively interactive
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
1372011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Signal Circumstance Information
neck erect or archedbull confident
bull challenging
ears erectbull alert
bull confident
ears back bull fear
ears vertically dropped
bull deference
bull avoidance
bull withdrawal
bull anxiety
snarlgrowl with only incisors and canines
apparent
bull confident
bull offensively aggressive
bull distance-increasing
snarlgrowl with all teeth and back of
throat apparent
bull defensively aggressive
bull fearful
bull distance-increasing
body lowered
bull defensive
bull distance-decreasing
bull fearful
bull deferential
bull relaxed
licking lips flicking tongue
bull appeasement
bull et-epimeletic
bull distance-decreasing
bull anxious (and solicitation of reassurance derived from et-epimeletic)
raising forepaw
bull distance-decreasing
bull solicitation of attention
bull deference (off balance)
paws out front end down rump up tail
waggingbull body bow invitation to play
perpendicular posturebull challenge
bull confidence
mounting or pressing on back or
shoulders of another dog
bull challenge
bull marking claiming
licking at corner of another dogrsquos (or
personrsquos) mouth
bull et-epimeletic
bull deference
bull solicitation
blowing out lipscheeksbull anticipation (positive or negative)
bull anxiety (if very fast)
popping or snapping of upper and lower
jaws (bill pops)
bull capitulation to a non-preferred request
bull intention to comply as a last resort but without agonistic behavior
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
138 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Vocalizingbarking is an excellent example of a canine behavior that is complex and best interpreted within
the context of the circumstances and the dogs other behaviors Human response to the barking becomes part of
the context
Dogs do not continuously bark in response to every stimulus nor do they use the same bark in all
circumstances We can measure aspects of vocalizations by using sonographs ndash voice spectrographs - of the
vocalizations Analysis of dog barks has revealed that regardless of their experience with dogs the vast
majority of humans would correctly identify a dog who was vocalizing in a fight and one who was vocalizing
when a stranger approached [1] Less agreement was found for dogs who vocalized on walks in play when
alone or for those given a ball While people may be confident that they recognize a frank aggressive or alert
response we should be aware that they may not know that they are not accurately identifying the information
contained in barks in other situations This is important because the information contained in vocalizations
across such situations is different
One study examined growls in 3 contexts (play when guarding a bone and when approached by a
threatening stranger)[2] Play growls differed from growls in the two agonistic contexts with respect to
frequency and formant(spectralamplitude peaks in frequencies) dispersal play growls had higher frequencies
and lower formant dispersal While lower frequency growls usually correlate with larger dogs itrsquos important to
note that growl frequency has a functional component which can be altered by contracting the muscles of the
throat Formants can also be functionally altered when a dog stretches his neck he behaviorally lengthens his
vocal tract and disperses formants making him appear lsquolargerrsquo to someone who has made the general
association between these vocal characteristics and dog size This information content is recognized by and
affects dogs [3] When dogsrsquo heart rates are measured in response to a series of auditory cues they significantly
increase after hearing a recording of a dog barking at a stranger
Classes of barks and other vocalizations are consistent across different dogs given the specific context [4]
When 10 pet dogs were tested in 3 contexts (play isolation and disturbance) the dogs vocalized in ways that
were similar showing that the signature of the bark was associated with the context This pattern indicates that
dogs are communicating useful context-dependent information We should learn from such information
Similar patterns for vocal signatures were found when barks from dogs with separation anxiety were
compared with barks from unaffected dogs [5] The barks used by unaffected dogs in response to outdoor
stimuli indicated an alert similar to the high frequency solitary note shown by dogs in play but the repetitive
atonal complex barks exhibited by dogs with separation anxiety resembled the vocalizations in both the
disturbance and isolation contexts Dogs can clearly recognize the information provided in such signals and for
us to understand dog behavior we must do so also
Humans have been shown to classify the lsquoemotionalityrsquo of canine vocalization with respect to tone pitch
and inter-bark interval [6] If both formant dispersions and fundamental frequencies are manipulated lower
formants and fundamental frequencies are rated as belonging to larger dogs and those doing the rating give
more weight to formants which more accurately reflect vocal tract length because they correlate with the weight
of the dog [7]
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
1392011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Dogs are cognitive and complex Their signaling behaviors are a reflection of these characteristics Dogs
use signals to convey information and to provoke the social situation to gain information Dogs ask questions
Given their ability to identify specific dogs and contexts from barks we should consider testing whether (and
likely accept that)vocal signaling in dogs has rules (grammar) that is providing more information than is
currently recognized When we evaluate or classify canine behaviors we need to be acutely aware of such
patterns and how inadequate our labels can be for conveying such complexity lsquoBarkingrsquo can be involved in a
number of behavioral conditions and client complaints Addressing the underlying context is going to result in
the most successful outcome
lsquoNuisancersquo barking ndash even if the dog is behaving in a contextually appropriate manner ndash can cause the dogrsquos
death or relinquishment Redress should be appropriate and humane The single most appropriate intervention
strategy is to acknowledge the dog and provide the information requested This is easy to do if the dog is not
distressed and the human is present acknowledge the alert check to see what the dog is barking at and thank
the dog Reward the dog for being quiet Barking in distress requires that the distress be addressed
In neither of these situations are bark collars the best choice Collars that make a spraying sound andor
spray the dog with citronella solution can startle and render more fearful susceptible dogs Dogs can and will
learn to bark below the level necessary to trigger the collar or to quickly empty the collar but they will still not
have their needs met Because electric shock collars actually cause pain they are likely to stop all behaviors
associated with shock including normal social behaviors
If shock and pain are profound it is possible to quickly induce long-term potentiation (LTP) the molecular
changes associated with hippocampal memory which will lead to a strong aversion or phobia The
hippocampus is the primary region where fears and anxieties associated with specific stimuli originate so a
logical sequelae to a stressful painful stimulus may be fear phobia or withdrawal Less painful stimuli over
time because of the nature of repeated reinforcement ensures better more numerous and more efficient
connections between neurons [8] This is how fear and avoidance are learned When stimulation continues we
know that activity dependent plasticity at synapses (eg learning) occurs in the lateral amygdale which is
involved in learning contextual fear [9]
Untoward negative long-term effects of training with shock have been demonstrated for German shepherd
guard dogs [10] Dogs that were shocked in training showed a lower ear posture in free-walking and more
stress-related behaviors than did dogs who had not been shocked in training These differences were also found
when these dogs participated in obedience training and manwork Physiological differences in the HPA axis
were also found and were most profound when the person associated with the shock (the owner or handler) was
present The resulting conclusions were (1) this type of training in general is stressful (2) receiving shocks is
painful for the dogs and (3) the dogs make a context-specific association where the presence of the owner
handler and his her commands provokes a stress response [10] Because the behaviors leading to the
vocalization matter we can expect shocks ndash even those delivered in response to barking - to be perceived by
many dogs to be unpredictable Laboratory research has shown that in normal dogs such interventions cause
stress and help produce pathological behaviors [11]
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
140 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Early intervention appropriate treatment and meeting the dogrsquos needs are more humane solutions for dogs
who are sharing with us information about how they perceive their world and its attendant discomforts
References1 Molnar C Kaplan F Roy P Pachet F Pongracz P Doka A Miklosi A Classification of dog barks a machine
learning approach Anim Cogn 20011389ndash400
2 Farago T Pongracz P Range F Viranyi Z Miklosi A lsquoThe bone is minersquo affective and referential aspects of
dog growls Anim Behav 201079917-925
3 Maros K Pongracz P Bardos G Molnar C Farago T Miklosi A Dogs can discriminate barks from different
situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 2008114159-167
4 Yin S McCowan B Barking in domestic dogs context specificity and individual identification Anim Behav
200468343355
5 Overall KL Agulnick L Kapes M Dunham AE Sonographic analysis of dog vocalization a pilot study
involving distressed and unaffected dogs [poster abstract] American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior
(AVSAB) meeting New Orleans LA July 1999
6 Pongracz P Molnar C Miklosi A Acoustic parameters of dog barks carry emotional information for humans
Appl Anim Behav Sci 2006100228-240
7 Taylor A M Reby D amp McComb K Human listeners attend to size information in domestic dog growls J
Acoust Soc Amer 20081232903ndash2909
8 Wittenberg GM Tsien JZ An emerging molecular and cellular framework for memory processing by the
hippocampus TRENDS Neurosci 200225 501-505
9 Schafe GE Nader K Blair HT LeDoux JE Memory consiliation of Pavlovian fear contditioning a
cellular and molecular perspective TRENDS Neurosci 200124540-546
10 Schilder MBH van der Borg JAM Training dogs with help of the shock collar short and long term
behavioural effects Appl Anim Behav Sci 200485319-334
11 Schalke E Stichnoth J Ott S Jones-Baade R Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars
on dogs in everyday life situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 105369-380
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
1352011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
AL_A30
14(Fri) ~ 17(Mon) October 2011
ICC Jeju Korea
2011 WSAVAFASAVA World Congress
wwwwsava2011org
BH-E04
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Karen L Overall MA VMD PhD Diplomate ACVB ABS
Certified Applied Animal Behaviorist
Philadelphia PA USA
Communication involving ritualized displays or graded signals is used to confirm or reject information
received from others Contexts in which this occurs varies considerably general social interactions indications
for species sex and sexual receptivity situations pertaining to relative social status negotiation of social
interactions et cetera Communication can be instantaneous as is the case with tactile behaviors and visual
displays These behaviors are also relatively ldquoshort-distancerdquo signals Vocal communication is instantaneous
but may reach over longer distances Olfactory and pheromonal signals provide information that can be
assessed over distances and across time Dogs use all of these modalities and we can best understand what the
dog is telling us when we have sets of information that are congruent (eg the vocal signal matches the physical
behavior) Extremely important signals are always redundant so that more than one modality is involved in the
signal Such patterns act over evolutionary time to minimize costly errors
To understand canine vocal behavior behaviors it is critical to understand the component signals as they are
used to communicate with conspecifics (see table)
CANINE SIGNALS
Signal Circumstance Information
barkingbull alertingwarning
bull attention-seeking
growlingbull warning
bull distance-increasing
crying
whimpering
whining
bull et-epimeletic
bull paindiscomfort
bull fear
bull solicitation ndash depending on frequencies
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
136 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Signal Circumstance Information
howlingbull elicit social contact
bull anxiety situations (social contact = reassure
moans bull pleasure contentment
tail and ears up forefoot in front of other bull alert ready to participate
direct gaze
bull challenge
bull confident
bull absence of threat and seeking information
bull distance-increasing
averted gaze
bull fear
bull profound avoidance
bull deference
bull absence of challenge (not the same as deference for confident high-ranking dogs)
bull distance-decreasing signal
belly presented
bull deference - if neck back and other solicitation cues given
bull disengagement - if inguinal area and or chest covered may become aggressive if pursued
bull relaxation - if flaccid
tail tucked when belly presentedbull fear
bull uncertainty
tail tucked when belly presented with
urination
bull profound fear and social withdrawal
bull panic
grinbull deference
bull distance-decreasing signal
piloerectionbull arousal associated with anxiety fear aggression
bull distance-increasing
piloerection restricted to neck or tail
regionbull confident dog
rigid stance stiff torso musculaturebull confidence and intent to interact (may not be aggressive)
bull distance-increasing
tail above horizonbull confident
bull assertive but calm
tail below horizon
bull less confident
bull less assertive
bull deference
bull fear
tail wag bull willingness to interact
tail tip wag stiff
bull confident
bull assertive
bull offensively interactive
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
1372011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Signal Circumstance Information
neck erect or archedbull confident
bull challenging
ears erectbull alert
bull confident
ears back bull fear
ears vertically dropped
bull deference
bull avoidance
bull withdrawal
bull anxiety
snarlgrowl with only incisors and canines
apparent
bull confident
bull offensively aggressive
bull distance-increasing
snarlgrowl with all teeth and back of
throat apparent
bull defensively aggressive
bull fearful
bull distance-increasing
body lowered
bull defensive
bull distance-decreasing
bull fearful
bull deferential
bull relaxed
licking lips flicking tongue
bull appeasement
bull et-epimeletic
bull distance-decreasing
bull anxious (and solicitation of reassurance derived from et-epimeletic)
raising forepaw
bull distance-decreasing
bull solicitation of attention
bull deference (off balance)
paws out front end down rump up tail
waggingbull body bow invitation to play
perpendicular posturebull challenge
bull confidence
mounting or pressing on back or
shoulders of another dog
bull challenge
bull marking claiming
licking at corner of another dogrsquos (or
personrsquos) mouth
bull et-epimeletic
bull deference
bull solicitation
blowing out lipscheeksbull anticipation (positive or negative)
bull anxiety (if very fast)
popping or snapping of upper and lower
jaws (bill pops)
bull capitulation to a non-preferred request
bull intention to comply as a last resort but without agonistic behavior
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
138 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Vocalizingbarking is an excellent example of a canine behavior that is complex and best interpreted within
the context of the circumstances and the dogs other behaviors Human response to the barking becomes part of
the context
Dogs do not continuously bark in response to every stimulus nor do they use the same bark in all
circumstances We can measure aspects of vocalizations by using sonographs ndash voice spectrographs - of the
vocalizations Analysis of dog barks has revealed that regardless of their experience with dogs the vast
majority of humans would correctly identify a dog who was vocalizing in a fight and one who was vocalizing
when a stranger approached [1] Less agreement was found for dogs who vocalized on walks in play when
alone or for those given a ball While people may be confident that they recognize a frank aggressive or alert
response we should be aware that they may not know that they are not accurately identifying the information
contained in barks in other situations This is important because the information contained in vocalizations
across such situations is different
One study examined growls in 3 contexts (play when guarding a bone and when approached by a
threatening stranger)[2] Play growls differed from growls in the two agonistic contexts with respect to
frequency and formant(spectralamplitude peaks in frequencies) dispersal play growls had higher frequencies
and lower formant dispersal While lower frequency growls usually correlate with larger dogs itrsquos important to
note that growl frequency has a functional component which can be altered by contracting the muscles of the
throat Formants can also be functionally altered when a dog stretches his neck he behaviorally lengthens his
vocal tract and disperses formants making him appear lsquolargerrsquo to someone who has made the general
association between these vocal characteristics and dog size This information content is recognized by and
affects dogs [3] When dogsrsquo heart rates are measured in response to a series of auditory cues they significantly
increase after hearing a recording of a dog barking at a stranger
Classes of barks and other vocalizations are consistent across different dogs given the specific context [4]
When 10 pet dogs were tested in 3 contexts (play isolation and disturbance) the dogs vocalized in ways that
were similar showing that the signature of the bark was associated with the context This pattern indicates that
dogs are communicating useful context-dependent information We should learn from such information
Similar patterns for vocal signatures were found when barks from dogs with separation anxiety were
compared with barks from unaffected dogs [5] The barks used by unaffected dogs in response to outdoor
stimuli indicated an alert similar to the high frequency solitary note shown by dogs in play but the repetitive
atonal complex barks exhibited by dogs with separation anxiety resembled the vocalizations in both the
disturbance and isolation contexts Dogs can clearly recognize the information provided in such signals and for
us to understand dog behavior we must do so also
Humans have been shown to classify the lsquoemotionalityrsquo of canine vocalization with respect to tone pitch
and inter-bark interval [6] If both formant dispersions and fundamental frequencies are manipulated lower
formants and fundamental frequencies are rated as belonging to larger dogs and those doing the rating give
more weight to formants which more accurately reflect vocal tract length because they correlate with the weight
of the dog [7]
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
1392011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Dogs are cognitive and complex Their signaling behaviors are a reflection of these characteristics Dogs
use signals to convey information and to provoke the social situation to gain information Dogs ask questions
Given their ability to identify specific dogs and contexts from barks we should consider testing whether (and
likely accept that)vocal signaling in dogs has rules (grammar) that is providing more information than is
currently recognized When we evaluate or classify canine behaviors we need to be acutely aware of such
patterns and how inadequate our labels can be for conveying such complexity lsquoBarkingrsquo can be involved in a
number of behavioral conditions and client complaints Addressing the underlying context is going to result in
the most successful outcome
lsquoNuisancersquo barking ndash even if the dog is behaving in a contextually appropriate manner ndash can cause the dogrsquos
death or relinquishment Redress should be appropriate and humane The single most appropriate intervention
strategy is to acknowledge the dog and provide the information requested This is easy to do if the dog is not
distressed and the human is present acknowledge the alert check to see what the dog is barking at and thank
the dog Reward the dog for being quiet Barking in distress requires that the distress be addressed
In neither of these situations are bark collars the best choice Collars that make a spraying sound andor
spray the dog with citronella solution can startle and render more fearful susceptible dogs Dogs can and will
learn to bark below the level necessary to trigger the collar or to quickly empty the collar but they will still not
have their needs met Because electric shock collars actually cause pain they are likely to stop all behaviors
associated with shock including normal social behaviors
If shock and pain are profound it is possible to quickly induce long-term potentiation (LTP) the molecular
changes associated with hippocampal memory which will lead to a strong aversion or phobia The
hippocampus is the primary region where fears and anxieties associated with specific stimuli originate so a
logical sequelae to a stressful painful stimulus may be fear phobia or withdrawal Less painful stimuli over
time because of the nature of repeated reinforcement ensures better more numerous and more efficient
connections between neurons [8] This is how fear and avoidance are learned When stimulation continues we
know that activity dependent plasticity at synapses (eg learning) occurs in the lateral amygdale which is
involved in learning contextual fear [9]
Untoward negative long-term effects of training with shock have been demonstrated for German shepherd
guard dogs [10] Dogs that were shocked in training showed a lower ear posture in free-walking and more
stress-related behaviors than did dogs who had not been shocked in training These differences were also found
when these dogs participated in obedience training and manwork Physiological differences in the HPA axis
were also found and were most profound when the person associated with the shock (the owner or handler) was
present The resulting conclusions were (1) this type of training in general is stressful (2) receiving shocks is
painful for the dogs and (3) the dogs make a context-specific association where the presence of the owner
handler and his her commands provokes a stress response [10] Because the behaviors leading to the
vocalization matter we can expect shocks ndash even those delivered in response to barking - to be perceived by
many dogs to be unpredictable Laboratory research has shown that in normal dogs such interventions cause
stress and help produce pathological behaviors [11]
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
140 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Early intervention appropriate treatment and meeting the dogrsquos needs are more humane solutions for dogs
who are sharing with us information about how they perceive their world and its attendant discomforts
References1 Molnar C Kaplan F Roy P Pachet F Pongracz P Doka A Miklosi A Classification of dog barks a machine
learning approach Anim Cogn 20011389ndash400
2 Farago T Pongracz P Range F Viranyi Z Miklosi A lsquoThe bone is minersquo affective and referential aspects of
dog growls Anim Behav 201079917-925
3 Maros K Pongracz P Bardos G Molnar C Farago T Miklosi A Dogs can discriminate barks from different
situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 2008114159-167
4 Yin S McCowan B Barking in domestic dogs context specificity and individual identification Anim Behav
200468343355
5 Overall KL Agulnick L Kapes M Dunham AE Sonographic analysis of dog vocalization a pilot study
involving distressed and unaffected dogs [poster abstract] American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior
(AVSAB) meeting New Orleans LA July 1999
6 Pongracz P Molnar C Miklosi A Acoustic parameters of dog barks carry emotional information for humans
Appl Anim Behav Sci 2006100228-240
7 Taylor A M Reby D amp McComb K Human listeners attend to size information in domestic dog growls J
Acoust Soc Amer 20081232903ndash2909
8 Wittenberg GM Tsien JZ An emerging molecular and cellular framework for memory processing by the
hippocampus TRENDS Neurosci 200225 501-505
9 Schafe GE Nader K Blair HT LeDoux JE Memory consiliation of Pavlovian fear contditioning a
cellular and molecular perspective TRENDS Neurosci 200124540-546
10 Schilder MBH van der Borg JAM Training dogs with help of the shock collar short and long term
behavioural effects Appl Anim Behav Sci 200485319-334
11 Schalke E Stichnoth J Ott S Jones-Baade R Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars
on dogs in everyday life situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 105369-380
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
136 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Signal Circumstance Information
howlingbull elicit social contact
bull anxiety situations (social contact = reassure
moans bull pleasure contentment
tail and ears up forefoot in front of other bull alert ready to participate
direct gaze
bull challenge
bull confident
bull absence of threat and seeking information
bull distance-increasing
averted gaze
bull fear
bull profound avoidance
bull deference
bull absence of challenge (not the same as deference for confident high-ranking dogs)
bull distance-decreasing signal
belly presented
bull deference - if neck back and other solicitation cues given
bull disengagement - if inguinal area and or chest covered may become aggressive if pursued
bull relaxation - if flaccid
tail tucked when belly presentedbull fear
bull uncertainty
tail tucked when belly presented with
urination
bull profound fear and social withdrawal
bull panic
grinbull deference
bull distance-decreasing signal
piloerectionbull arousal associated with anxiety fear aggression
bull distance-increasing
piloerection restricted to neck or tail
regionbull confident dog
rigid stance stiff torso musculaturebull confidence and intent to interact (may not be aggressive)
bull distance-increasing
tail above horizonbull confident
bull assertive but calm
tail below horizon
bull less confident
bull less assertive
bull deference
bull fear
tail wag bull willingness to interact
tail tip wag stiff
bull confident
bull assertive
bull offensively interactive
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
1372011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Signal Circumstance Information
neck erect or archedbull confident
bull challenging
ears erectbull alert
bull confident
ears back bull fear
ears vertically dropped
bull deference
bull avoidance
bull withdrawal
bull anxiety
snarlgrowl with only incisors and canines
apparent
bull confident
bull offensively aggressive
bull distance-increasing
snarlgrowl with all teeth and back of
throat apparent
bull defensively aggressive
bull fearful
bull distance-increasing
body lowered
bull defensive
bull distance-decreasing
bull fearful
bull deferential
bull relaxed
licking lips flicking tongue
bull appeasement
bull et-epimeletic
bull distance-decreasing
bull anxious (and solicitation of reassurance derived from et-epimeletic)
raising forepaw
bull distance-decreasing
bull solicitation of attention
bull deference (off balance)
paws out front end down rump up tail
waggingbull body bow invitation to play
perpendicular posturebull challenge
bull confidence
mounting or pressing on back or
shoulders of another dog
bull challenge
bull marking claiming
licking at corner of another dogrsquos (or
personrsquos) mouth
bull et-epimeletic
bull deference
bull solicitation
blowing out lipscheeksbull anticipation (positive or negative)
bull anxiety (if very fast)
popping or snapping of upper and lower
jaws (bill pops)
bull capitulation to a non-preferred request
bull intention to comply as a last resort but without agonistic behavior
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
138 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Vocalizingbarking is an excellent example of a canine behavior that is complex and best interpreted within
the context of the circumstances and the dogs other behaviors Human response to the barking becomes part of
the context
Dogs do not continuously bark in response to every stimulus nor do they use the same bark in all
circumstances We can measure aspects of vocalizations by using sonographs ndash voice spectrographs - of the
vocalizations Analysis of dog barks has revealed that regardless of their experience with dogs the vast
majority of humans would correctly identify a dog who was vocalizing in a fight and one who was vocalizing
when a stranger approached [1] Less agreement was found for dogs who vocalized on walks in play when
alone or for those given a ball While people may be confident that they recognize a frank aggressive or alert
response we should be aware that they may not know that they are not accurately identifying the information
contained in barks in other situations This is important because the information contained in vocalizations
across such situations is different
One study examined growls in 3 contexts (play when guarding a bone and when approached by a
threatening stranger)[2] Play growls differed from growls in the two agonistic contexts with respect to
frequency and formant(spectralamplitude peaks in frequencies) dispersal play growls had higher frequencies
and lower formant dispersal While lower frequency growls usually correlate with larger dogs itrsquos important to
note that growl frequency has a functional component which can be altered by contracting the muscles of the
throat Formants can also be functionally altered when a dog stretches his neck he behaviorally lengthens his
vocal tract and disperses formants making him appear lsquolargerrsquo to someone who has made the general
association between these vocal characteristics and dog size This information content is recognized by and
affects dogs [3] When dogsrsquo heart rates are measured in response to a series of auditory cues they significantly
increase after hearing a recording of a dog barking at a stranger
Classes of barks and other vocalizations are consistent across different dogs given the specific context [4]
When 10 pet dogs were tested in 3 contexts (play isolation and disturbance) the dogs vocalized in ways that
were similar showing that the signature of the bark was associated with the context This pattern indicates that
dogs are communicating useful context-dependent information We should learn from such information
Similar patterns for vocal signatures were found when barks from dogs with separation anxiety were
compared with barks from unaffected dogs [5] The barks used by unaffected dogs in response to outdoor
stimuli indicated an alert similar to the high frequency solitary note shown by dogs in play but the repetitive
atonal complex barks exhibited by dogs with separation anxiety resembled the vocalizations in both the
disturbance and isolation contexts Dogs can clearly recognize the information provided in such signals and for
us to understand dog behavior we must do so also
Humans have been shown to classify the lsquoemotionalityrsquo of canine vocalization with respect to tone pitch
and inter-bark interval [6] If both formant dispersions and fundamental frequencies are manipulated lower
formants and fundamental frequencies are rated as belonging to larger dogs and those doing the rating give
more weight to formants which more accurately reflect vocal tract length because they correlate with the weight
of the dog [7]
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
1392011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Dogs are cognitive and complex Their signaling behaviors are a reflection of these characteristics Dogs
use signals to convey information and to provoke the social situation to gain information Dogs ask questions
Given their ability to identify specific dogs and contexts from barks we should consider testing whether (and
likely accept that)vocal signaling in dogs has rules (grammar) that is providing more information than is
currently recognized When we evaluate or classify canine behaviors we need to be acutely aware of such
patterns and how inadequate our labels can be for conveying such complexity lsquoBarkingrsquo can be involved in a
number of behavioral conditions and client complaints Addressing the underlying context is going to result in
the most successful outcome
lsquoNuisancersquo barking ndash even if the dog is behaving in a contextually appropriate manner ndash can cause the dogrsquos
death or relinquishment Redress should be appropriate and humane The single most appropriate intervention
strategy is to acknowledge the dog and provide the information requested This is easy to do if the dog is not
distressed and the human is present acknowledge the alert check to see what the dog is barking at and thank
the dog Reward the dog for being quiet Barking in distress requires that the distress be addressed
In neither of these situations are bark collars the best choice Collars that make a spraying sound andor
spray the dog with citronella solution can startle and render more fearful susceptible dogs Dogs can and will
learn to bark below the level necessary to trigger the collar or to quickly empty the collar but they will still not
have their needs met Because electric shock collars actually cause pain they are likely to stop all behaviors
associated with shock including normal social behaviors
If shock and pain are profound it is possible to quickly induce long-term potentiation (LTP) the molecular
changes associated with hippocampal memory which will lead to a strong aversion or phobia The
hippocampus is the primary region where fears and anxieties associated with specific stimuli originate so a
logical sequelae to a stressful painful stimulus may be fear phobia or withdrawal Less painful stimuli over
time because of the nature of repeated reinforcement ensures better more numerous and more efficient
connections between neurons [8] This is how fear and avoidance are learned When stimulation continues we
know that activity dependent plasticity at synapses (eg learning) occurs in the lateral amygdale which is
involved in learning contextual fear [9]
Untoward negative long-term effects of training with shock have been demonstrated for German shepherd
guard dogs [10] Dogs that were shocked in training showed a lower ear posture in free-walking and more
stress-related behaviors than did dogs who had not been shocked in training These differences were also found
when these dogs participated in obedience training and manwork Physiological differences in the HPA axis
were also found and were most profound when the person associated with the shock (the owner or handler) was
present The resulting conclusions were (1) this type of training in general is stressful (2) receiving shocks is
painful for the dogs and (3) the dogs make a context-specific association where the presence of the owner
handler and his her commands provokes a stress response [10] Because the behaviors leading to the
vocalization matter we can expect shocks ndash even those delivered in response to barking - to be perceived by
many dogs to be unpredictable Laboratory research has shown that in normal dogs such interventions cause
stress and help produce pathological behaviors [11]
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
140 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Early intervention appropriate treatment and meeting the dogrsquos needs are more humane solutions for dogs
who are sharing with us information about how they perceive their world and its attendant discomforts
References1 Molnar C Kaplan F Roy P Pachet F Pongracz P Doka A Miklosi A Classification of dog barks a machine
learning approach Anim Cogn 20011389ndash400
2 Farago T Pongracz P Range F Viranyi Z Miklosi A lsquoThe bone is minersquo affective and referential aspects of
dog growls Anim Behav 201079917-925
3 Maros K Pongracz P Bardos G Molnar C Farago T Miklosi A Dogs can discriminate barks from different
situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 2008114159-167
4 Yin S McCowan B Barking in domestic dogs context specificity and individual identification Anim Behav
200468343355
5 Overall KL Agulnick L Kapes M Dunham AE Sonographic analysis of dog vocalization a pilot study
involving distressed and unaffected dogs [poster abstract] American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior
(AVSAB) meeting New Orleans LA July 1999
6 Pongracz P Molnar C Miklosi A Acoustic parameters of dog barks carry emotional information for humans
Appl Anim Behav Sci 2006100228-240
7 Taylor A M Reby D amp McComb K Human listeners attend to size information in domestic dog growls J
Acoust Soc Amer 20081232903ndash2909
8 Wittenberg GM Tsien JZ An emerging molecular and cellular framework for memory processing by the
hippocampus TRENDS Neurosci 200225 501-505
9 Schafe GE Nader K Blair HT LeDoux JE Memory consiliation of Pavlovian fear contditioning a
cellular and molecular perspective TRENDS Neurosci 200124540-546
10 Schilder MBH van der Borg JAM Training dogs with help of the shock collar short and long term
behavioural effects Appl Anim Behav Sci 200485319-334
11 Schalke E Stichnoth J Ott S Jones-Baade R Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars
on dogs in everyday life situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 105369-380
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
1372011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Signal Circumstance Information
neck erect or archedbull confident
bull challenging
ears erectbull alert
bull confident
ears back bull fear
ears vertically dropped
bull deference
bull avoidance
bull withdrawal
bull anxiety
snarlgrowl with only incisors and canines
apparent
bull confident
bull offensively aggressive
bull distance-increasing
snarlgrowl with all teeth and back of
throat apparent
bull defensively aggressive
bull fearful
bull distance-increasing
body lowered
bull defensive
bull distance-decreasing
bull fearful
bull deferential
bull relaxed
licking lips flicking tongue
bull appeasement
bull et-epimeletic
bull distance-decreasing
bull anxious (and solicitation of reassurance derived from et-epimeletic)
raising forepaw
bull distance-decreasing
bull solicitation of attention
bull deference (off balance)
paws out front end down rump up tail
waggingbull body bow invitation to play
perpendicular posturebull challenge
bull confidence
mounting or pressing on back or
shoulders of another dog
bull challenge
bull marking claiming
licking at corner of another dogrsquos (or
personrsquos) mouth
bull et-epimeletic
bull deference
bull solicitation
blowing out lipscheeksbull anticipation (positive or negative)
bull anxiety (if very fast)
popping or snapping of upper and lower
jaws (bill pops)
bull capitulation to a non-preferred request
bull intention to comply as a last resort but without agonistic behavior
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
138 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Vocalizingbarking is an excellent example of a canine behavior that is complex and best interpreted within
the context of the circumstances and the dogs other behaviors Human response to the barking becomes part of
the context
Dogs do not continuously bark in response to every stimulus nor do they use the same bark in all
circumstances We can measure aspects of vocalizations by using sonographs ndash voice spectrographs - of the
vocalizations Analysis of dog barks has revealed that regardless of their experience with dogs the vast
majority of humans would correctly identify a dog who was vocalizing in a fight and one who was vocalizing
when a stranger approached [1] Less agreement was found for dogs who vocalized on walks in play when
alone or for those given a ball While people may be confident that they recognize a frank aggressive or alert
response we should be aware that they may not know that they are not accurately identifying the information
contained in barks in other situations This is important because the information contained in vocalizations
across such situations is different
One study examined growls in 3 contexts (play when guarding a bone and when approached by a
threatening stranger)[2] Play growls differed from growls in the two agonistic contexts with respect to
frequency and formant(spectralamplitude peaks in frequencies) dispersal play growls had higher frequencies
and lower formant dispersal While lower frequency growls usually correlate with larger dogs itrsquos important to
note that growl frequency has a functional component which can be altered by contracting the muscles of the
throat Formants can also be functionally altered when a dog stretches his neck he behaviorally lengthens his
vocal tract and disperses formants making him appear lsquolargerrsquo to someone who has made the general
association between these vocal characteristics and dog size This information content is recognized by and
affects dogs [3] When dogsrsquo heart rates are measured in response to a series of auditory cues they significantly
increase after hearing a recording of a dog barking at a stranger
Classes of barks and other vocalizations are consistent across different dogs given the specific context [4]
When 10 pet dogs were tested in 3 contexts (play isolation and disturbance) the dogs vocalized in ways that
were similar showing that the signature of the bark was associated with the context This pattern indicates that
dogs are communicating useful context-dependent information We should learn from such information
Similar patterns for vocal signatures were found when barks from dogs with separation anxiety were
compared with barks from unaffected dogs [5] The barks used by unaffected dogs in response to outdoor
stimuli indicated an alert similar to the high frequency solitary note shown by dogs in play but the repetitive
atonal complex barks exhibited by dogs with separation anxiety resembled the vocalizations in both the
disturbance and isolation contexts Dogs can clearly recognize the information provided in such signals and for
us to understand dog behavior we must do so also
Humans have been shown to classify the lsquoemotionalityrsquo of canine vocalization with respect to tone pitch
and inter-bark interval [6] If both formant dispersions and fundamental frequencies are manipulated lower
formants and fundamental frequencies are rated as belonging to larger dogs and those doing the rating give
more weight to formants which more accurately reflect vocal tract length because they correlate with the weight
of the dog [7]
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
1392011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Dogs are cognitive and complex Their signaling behaviors are a reflection of these characteristics Dogs
use signals to convey information and to provoke the social situation to gain information Dogs ask questions
Given their ability to identify specific dogs and contexts from barks we should consider testing whether (and
likely accept that)vocal signaling in dogs has rules (grammar) that is providing more information than is
currently recognized When we evaluate or classify canine behaviors we need to be acutely aware of such
patterns and how inadequate our labels can be for conveying such complexity lsquoBarkingrsquo can be involved in a
number of behavioral conditions and client complaints Addressing the underlying context is going to result in
the most successful outcome
lsquoNuisancersquo barking ndash even if the dog is behaving in a contextually appropriate manner ndash can cause the dogrsquos
death or relinquishment Redress should be appropriate and humane The single most appropriate intervention
strategy is to acknowledge the dog and provide the information requested This is easy to do if the dog is not
distressed and the human is present acknowledge the alert check to see what the dog is barking at and thank
the dog Reward the dog for being quiet Barking in distress requires that the distress be addressed
In neither of these situations are bark collars the best choice Collars that make a spraying sound andor
spray the dog with citronella solution can startle and render more fearful susceptible dogs Dogs can and will
learn to bark below the level necessary to trigger the collar or to quickly empty the collar but they will still not
have their needs met Because electric shock collars actually cause pain they are likely to stop all behaviors
associated with shock including normal social behaviors
If shock and pain are profound it is possible to quickly induce long-term potentiation (LTP) the molecular
changes associated with hippocampal memory which will lead to a strong aversion or phobia The
hippocampus is the primary region where fears and anxieties associated with specific stimuli originate so a
logical sequelae to a stressful painful stimulus may be fear phobia or withdrawal Less painful stimuli over
time because of the nature of repeated reinforcement ensures better more numerous and more efficient
connections between neurons [8] This is how fear and avoidance are learned When stimulation continues we
know that activity dependent plasticity at synapses (eg learning) occurs in the lateral amygdale which is
involved in learning contextual fear [9]
Untoward negative long-term effects of training with shock have been demonstrated for German shepherd
guard dogs [10] Dogs that were shocked in training showed a lower ear posture in free-walking and more
stress-related behaviors than did dogs who had not been shocked in training These differences were also found
when these dogs participated in obedience training and manwork Physiological differences in the HPA axis
were also found and were most profound when the person associated with the shock (the owner or handler) was
present The resulting conclusions were (1) this type of training in general is stressful (2) receiving shocks is
painful for the dogs and (3) the dogs make a context-specific association where the presence of the owner
handler and his her commands provokes a stress response [10] Because the behaviors leading to the
vocalization matter we can expect shocks ndash even those delivered in response to barking - to be perceived by
many dogs to be unpredictable Laboratory research has shown that in normal dogs such interventions cause
stress and help produce pathological behaviors [11]
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
140 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Early intervention appropriate treatment and meeting the dogrsquos needs are more humane solutions for dogs
who are sharing with us information about how they perceive their world and its attendant discomforts
References1 Molnar C Kaplan F Roy P Pachet F Pongracz P Doka A Miklosi A Classification of dog barks a machine
learning approach Anim Cogn 20011389ndash400
2 Farago T Pongracz P Range F Viranyi Z Miklosi A lsquoThe bone is minersquo affective and referential aspects of
dog growls Anim Behav 201079917-925
3 Maros K Pongracz P Bardos G Molnar C Farago T Miklosi A Dogs can discriminate barks from different
situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 2008114159-167
4 Yin S McCowan B Barking in domestic dogs context specificity and individual identification Anim Behav
200468343355
5 Overall KL Agulnick L Kapes M Dunham AE Sonographic analysis of dog vocalization a pilot study
involving distressed and unaffected dogs [poster abstract] American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior
(AVSAB) meeting New Orleans LA July 1999
6 Pongracz P Molnar C Miklosi A Acoustic parameters of dog barks carry emotional information for humans
Appl Anim Behav Sci 2006100228-240
7 Taylor A M Reby D amp McComb K Human listeners attend to size information in domestic dog growls J
Acoust Soc Amer 20081232903ndash2909
8 Wittenberg GM Tsien JZ An emerging molecular and cellular framework for memory processing by the
hippocampus TRENDS Neurosci 200225 501-505
9 Schafe GE Nader K Blair HT LeDoux JE Memory consiliation of Pavlovian fear contditioning a
cellular and molecular perspective TRENDS Neurosci 200124540-546
10 Schilder MBH van der Borg JAM Training dogs with help of the shock collar short and long term
behavioural effects Appl Anim Behav Sci 200485319-334
11 Schalke E Stichnoth J Ott S Jones-Baade R Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars
on dogs in everyday life situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 105369-380
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
138 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Vocalizingbarking is an excellent example of a canine behavior that is complex and best interpreted within
the context of the circumstances and the dogs other behaviors Human response to the barking becomes part of
the context
Dogs do not continuously bark in response to every stimulus nor do they use the same bark in all
circumstances We can measure aspects of vocalizations by using sonographs ndash voice spectrographs - of the
vocalizations Analysis of dog barks has revealed that regardless of their experience with dogs the vast
majority of humans would correctly identify a dog who was vocalizing in a fight and one who was vocalizing
when a stranger approached [1] Less agreement was found for dogs who vocalized on walks in play when
alone or for those given a ball While people may be confident that they recognize a frank aggressive or alert
response we should be aware that they may not know that they are not accurately identifying the information
contained in barks in other situations This is important because the information contained in vocalizations
across such situations is different
One study examined growls in 3 contexts (play when guarding a bone and when approached by a
threatening stranger)[2] Play growls differed from growls in the two agonistic contexts with respect to
frequency and formant(spectralamplitude peaks in frequencies) dispersal play growls had higher frequencies
and lower formant dispersal While lower frequency growls usually correlate with larger dogs itrsquos important to
note that growl frequency has a functional component which can be altered by contracting the muscles of the
throat Formants can also be functionally altered when a dog stretches his neck he behaviorally lengthens his
vocal tract and disperses formants making him appear lsquolargerrsquo to someone who has made the general
association between these vocal characteristics and dog size This information content is recognized by and
affects dogs [3] When dogsrsquo heart rates are measured in response to a series of auditory cues they significantly
increase after hearing a recording of a dog barking at a stranger
Classes of barks and other vocalizations are consistent across different dogs given the specific context [4]
When 10 pet dogs were tested in 3 contexts (play isolation and disturbance) the dogs vocalized in ways that
were similar showing that the signature of the bark was associated with the context This pattern indicates that
dogs are communicating useful context-dependent information We should learn from such information
Similar patterns for vocal signatures were found when barks from dogs with separation anxiety were
compared with barks from unaffected dogs [5] The barks used by unaffected dogs in response to outdoor
stimuli indicated an alert similar to the high frequency solitary note shown by dogs in play but the repetitive
atonal complex barks exhibited by dogs with separation anxiety resembled the vocalizations in both the
disturbance and isolation contexts Dogs can clearly recognize the information provided in such signals and for
us to understand dog behavior we must do so also
Humans have been shown to classify the lsquoemotionalityrsquo of canine vocalization with respect to tone pitch
and inter-bark interval [6] If both formant dispersions and fundamental frequencies are manipulated lower
formants and fundamental frequencies are rated as belonging to larger dogs and those doing the rating give
more weight to formants which more accurately reflect vocal tract length because they correlate with the weight
of the dog [7]
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
1392011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Dogs are cognitive and complex Their signaling behaviors are a reflection of these characteristics Dogs
use signals to convey information and to provoke the social situation to gain information Dogs ask questions
Given their ability to identify specific dogs and contexts from barks we should consider testing whether (and
likely accept that)vocal signaling in dogs has rules (grammar) that is providing more information than is
currently recognized When we evaluate or classify canine behaviors we need to be acutely aware of such
patterns and how inadequate our labels can be for conveying such complexity lsquoBarkingrsquo can be involved in a
number of behavioral conditions and client complaints Addressing the underlying context is going to result in
the most successful outcome
lsquoNuisancersquo barking ndash even if the dog is behaving in a contextually appropriate manner ndash can cause the dogrsquos
death or relinquishment Redress should be appropriate and humane The single most appropriate intervention
strategy is to acknowledge the dog and provide the information requested This is easy to do if the dog is not
distressed and the human is present acknowledge the alert check to see what the dog is barking at and thank
the dog Reward the dog for being quiet Barking in distress requires that the distress be addressed
In neither of these situations are bark collars the best choice Collars that make a spraying sound andor
spray the dog with citronella solution can startle and render more fearful susceptible dogs Dogs can and will
learn to bark below the level necessary to trigger the collar or to quickly empty the collar but they will still not
have their needs met Because electric shock collars actually cause pain they are likely to stop all behaviors
associated with shock including normal social behaviors
If shock and pain are profound it is possible to quickly induce long-term potentiation (LTP) the molecular
changes associated with hippocampal memory which will lead to a strong aversion or phobia The
hippocampus is the primary region where fears and anxieties associated with specific stimuli originate so a
logical sequelae to a stressful painful stimulus may be fear phobia or withdrawal Less painful stimuli over
time because of the nature of repeated reinforcement ensures better more numerous and more efficient
connections between neurons [8] This is how fear and avoidance are learned When stimulation continues we
know that activity dependent plasticity at synapses (eg learning) occurs in the lateral amygdale which is
involved in learning contextual fear [9]
Untoward negative long-term effects of training with shock have been demonstrated for German shepherd
guard dogs [10] Dogs that were shocked in training showed a lower ear posture in free-walking and more
stress-related behaviors than did dogs who had not been shocked in training These differences were also found
when these dogs participated in obedience training and manwork Physiological differences in the HPA axis
were also found and were most profound when the person associated with the shock (the owner or handler) was
present The resulting conclusions were (1) this type of training in general is stressful (2) receiving shocks is
painful for the dogs and (3) the dogs make a context-specific association where the presence of the owner
handler and his her commands provokes a stress response [10] Because the behaviors leading to the
vocalization matter we can expect shocks ndash even those delivered in response to barking - to be perceived by
many dogs to be unpredictable Laboratory research has shown that in normal dogs such interventions cause
stress and help produce pathological behaviors [11]
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
140 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Early intervention appropriate treatment and meeting the dogrsquos needs are more humane solutions for dogs
who are sharing with us information about how they perceive their world and its attendant discomforts
References1 Molnar C Kaplan F Roy P Pachet F Pongracz P Doka A Miklosi A Classification of dog barks a machine
learning approach Anim Cogn 20011389ndash400
2 Farago T Pongracz P Range F Viranyi Z Miklosi A lsquoThe bone is minersquo affective and referential aspects of
dog growls Anim Behav 201079917-925
3 Maros K Pongracz P Bardos G Molnar C Farago T Miklosi A Dogs can discriminate barks from different
situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 2008114159-167
4 Yin S McCowan B Barking in domestic dogs context specificity and individual identification Anim Behav
200468343355
5 Overall KL Agulnick L Kapes M Dunham AE Sonographic analysis of dog vocalization a pilot study
involving distressed and unaffected dogs [poster abstract] American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior
(AVSAB) meeting New Orleans LA July 1999
6 Pongracz P Molnar C Miklosi A Acoustic parameters of dog barks carry emotional information for humans
Appl Anim Behav Sci 2006100228-240
7 Taylor A M Reby D amp McComb K Human listeners attend to size information in domestic dog growls J
Acoust Soc Amer 20081232903ndash2909
8 Wittenberg GM Tsien JZ An emerging molecular and cellular framework for memory processing by the
hippocampus TRENDS Neurosci 200225 501-505
9 Schafe GE Nader K Blair HT LeDoux JE Memory consiliation of Pavlovian fear contditioning a
cellular and molecular perspective TRENDS Neurosci 200124540-546
10 Schilder MBH van der Borg JAM Training dogs with help of the shock collar short and long term
behavioural effects Appl Anim Behav Sci 200485319-334
11 Schalke E Stichnoth J Ott S Jones-Baade R Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars
on dogs in everyday life situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 105369-380
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
1392011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
UNDERSTANDING BARKING IN DOGS CAUSE AND CREATIVE AND HUMANE TREATMENT
Dogs are cognitive and complex Their signaling behaviors are a reflection of these characteristics Dogs
use signals to convey information and to provoke the social situation to gain information Dogs ask questions
Given their ability to identify specific dogs and contexts from barks we should consider testing whether (and
likely accept that)vocal signaling in dogs has rules (grammar) that is providing more information than is
currently recognized When we evaluate or classify canine behaviors we need to be acutely aware of such
patterns and how inadequate our labels can be for conveying such complexity lsquoBarkingrsquo can be involved in a
number of behavioral conditions and client complaints Addressing the underlying context is going to result in
the most successful outcome
lsquoNuisancersquo barking ndash even if the dog is behaving in a contextually appropriate manner ndash can cause the dogrsquos
death or relinquishment Redress should be appropriate and humane The single most appropriate intervention
strategy is to acknowledge the dog and provide the information requested This is easy to do if the dog is not
distressed and the human is present acknowledge the alert check to see what the dog is barking at and thank
the dog Reward the dog for being quiet Barking in distress requires that the distress be addressed
In neither of these situations are bark collars the best choice Collars that make a spraying sound andor
spray the dog with citronella solution can startle and render more fearful susceptible dogs Dogs can and will
learn to bark below the level necessary to trigger the collar or to quickly empty the collar but they will still not
have their needs met Because electric shock collars actually cause pain they are likely to stop all behaviors
associated with shock including normal social behaviors
If shock and pain are profound it is possible to quickly induce long-term potentiation (LTP) the molecular
changes associated with hippocampal memory which will lead to a strong aversion or phobia The
hippocampus is the primary region where fears and anxieties associated with specific stimuli originate so a
logical sequelae to a stressful painful stimulus may be fear phobia or withdrawal Less painful stimuli over
time because of the nature of repeated reinforcement ensures better more numerous and more efficient
connections between neurons [8] This is how fear and avoidance are learned When stimulation continues we
know that activity dependent plasticity at synapses (eg learning) occurs in the lateral amygdale which is
involved in learning contextual fear [9]
Untoward negative long-term effects of training with shock have been demonstrated for German shepherd
guard dogs [10] Dogs that were shocked in training showed a lower ear posture in free-walking and more
stress-related behaviors than did dogs who had not been shocked in training These differences were also found
when these dogs participated in obedience training and manwork Physiological differences in the HPA axis
were also found and were most profound when the person associated with the shock (the owner or handler) was
present The resulting conclusions were (1) this type of training in general is stressful (2) receiving shocks is
painful for the dogs and (3) the dogs make a context-specific association where the presence of the owner
handler and his her commands provokes a stress response [10] Because the behaviors leading to the
vocalization matter we can expect shocks ndash even those delivered in response to barking - to be perceived by
many dogs to be unpredictable Laboratory research has shown that in normal dogs such interventions cause
stress and help produce pathological behaviors [11]
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
140 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Early intervention appropriate treatment and meeting the dogrsquos needs are more humane solutions for dogs
who are sharing with us information about how they perceive their world and its attendant discomforts
References1 Molnar C Kaplan F Roy P Pachet F Pongracz P Doka A Miklosi A Classification of dog barks a machine
learning approach Anim Cogn 20011389ndash400
2 Farago T Pongracz P Range F Viranyi Z Miklosi A lsquoThe bone is minersquo affective and referential aspects of
dog growls Anim Behav 201079917-925
3 Maros K Pongracz P Bardos G Molnar C Farago T Miklosi A Dogs can discriminate barks from different
situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 2008114159-167
4 Yin S McCowan B Barking in domestic dogs context specificity and individual identification Anim Behav
200468343355
5 Overall KL Agulnick L Kapes M Dunham AE Sonographic analysis of dog vocalization a pilot study
involving distressed and unaffected dogs [poster abstract] American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior
(AVSAB) meeting New Orleans LA July 1999
6 Pongracz P Molnar C Miklosi A Acoustic parameters of dog barks carry emotional information for humans
Appl Anim Behav Sci 2006100228-240
7 Taylor A M Reby D amp McComb K Human listeners attend to size information in domestic dog growls J
Acoust Soc Amer 20081232903ndash2909
8 Wittenberg GM Tsien JZ An emerging molecular and cellular framework for memory processing by the
hippocampus TRENDS Neurosci 200225 501-505
9 Schafe GE Nader K Blair HT LeDoux JE Memory consiliation of Pavlovian fear contditioning a
cellular and molecular perspective TRENDS Neurosci 200124540-546
10 Schilder MBH van der Borg JAM Training dogs with help of the shock collar short and long term
behavioural effects Appl Anim Behav Sci 200485319-334
11 Schalke E Stichnoth J Ott S Jones-Baade R Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars
on dogs in everyday life situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 105369-380
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea
140 2011 WSAVAmiddotFASAVA World Congress Proceedings
Early intervention appropriate treatment and meeting the dogrsquos needs are more humane solutions for dogs
who are sharing with us information about how they perceive their world and its attendant discomforts
References1 Molnar C Kaplan F Roy P Pachet F Pongracz P Doka A Miklosi A Classification of dog barks a machine
learning approach Anim Cogn 20011389ndash400
2 Farago T Pongracz P Range F Viranyi Z Miklosi A lsquoThe bone is minersquo affective and referential aspects of
dog growls Anim Behav 201079917-925
3 Maros K Pongracz P Bardos G Molnar C Farago T Miklosi A Dogs can discriminate barks from different
situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 2008114159-167
4 Yin S McCowan B Barking in domestic dogs context specificity and individual identification Anim Behav
200468343355
5 Overall KL Agulnick L Kapes M Dunham AE Sonographic analysis of dog vocalization a pilot study
involving distressed and unaffected dogs [poster abstract] American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior
(AVSAB) meeting New Orleans LA July 1999
6 Pongracz P Molnar C Miklosi A Acoustic parameters of dog barks carry emotional information for humans
Appl Anim Behav Sci 2006100228-240
7 Taylor A M Reby D amp McComb K Human listeners attend to size information in domestic dog growls J
Acoust Soc Amer 20081232903ndash2909
8 Wittenberg GM Tsien JZ An emerging molecular and cellular framework for memory processing by the
hippocampus TRENDS Neurosci 200225 501-505
9 Schafe GE Nader K Blair HT LeDoux JE Memory consiliation of Pavlovian fear contditioning a
cellular and molecular perspective TRENDS Neurosci 200124540-546
10 Schilder MBH van der Borg JAM Training dogs with help of the shock collar short and long term
behavioural effects Appl Anim Behav Sci 200485319-334
11 Schalke E Stichnoth J Ott S Jones-Baade R Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars
on dogs in everyday life situations Appl Anim Behav Sci 105369-380
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of WSAVA Close this window to return to IVIS
36th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress 2011 - Jeju Korea