Under cover - cancernz.org.nzUnder cover: Guidelines for shade planning and design. NSW Cancer Council and NSW Health Department Sydney, 1998. ... Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is part

Guidelines forshade planning and design

coverUnder

With grateful acknowledgement to theNew South Wales Cancer Council and theNew South Wales Health Department

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Undercover

Guidelines forshade planning and design2000

With grateful acknowledgement to theNew South Wales Cancer Council andthe New South Wales Health Department

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This publication is intended as a guide onlyand should not be relied upon as a definitiveor complete statement of the relevant laws orscientific evidence.

Citation:The following citation should be used when reproducing orquoting any part of this publication:

Greenwood JS, Soulos GP, Thomas ND.Under cover: Guidelines for shade planning and design.NSW Cancer Council and NSW Health Department Sydney, 1998.Adapted for New Zealand use by the Cancer Society of New Zealand, 2000

Authors:JS Greenwood – B.Sc (Arch), B.Arch (Hons), A.R.A.I.A.Principal, Shelter Strategies Shade Planners and Consultants

GP Soulos and ND Thomas – NSW Cancer CouncilAdapted for New Zealand use by Penny St John, John Greenwood and Belinda McLean

Additional copies of this publication are available from your local Cancer Society

© 1998 NSW Health Department

Cancer Society of New Zealand Inc,PO Box 12-145, Wellington2000

ISBN 0-908933-44-4

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Sun facts

This chapter discusses some importantinformation relating to solar UVR such asdirect and indirect UVR, factors that affectUVR levels and the effects of UVRexposure on health. It also explains thesun’s daily and annual paths, which is thebasis for understanding how to planeffective shade.

Acknowledgements 7

1 About this document 9

The need for shade 9Who is this publication for? 10

Using this publication 10

2 Sun facts 11

The sun and solar ultraviolet radiation 11The solar spectrum 11

Direct and indirect UVR 12

Factors affecting UVR levels 13

Health effects of exposure to solar UVR 16

Earth–sun relationships 17Sun angles and their effects on shadow 17

Daily path 18

Annual path 18

Equinox and solstice 20

Shadow angles 21

3 Protecting against solar UVR 23

Environmental strategiesfor controlling solar UVR 23Control of direct UVR 24

Control of indirect UVR 25

Design strategies for the control of indirect UVR 26

Designing shade for climate and comfort 27Shade planning for specific climate zones 27

Climate characteristics and design considerations 28

Designing for comfort: general principles 34

Contents

Protecting against solar UVR

This chapter focuses on the useof environmental strategies, eglandscaping and/or built structures,to protect against over exposure to UVR.It also suggests methods for creatingshaded areas that are comfortable to useyear round, for the different climatezones of New Zealand.

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4 Providing shade 37

Natural shade 38Landscape planning and design 39

Built shade 42Permanent systems 42

Demountable systems 43

Adjustable systems 43

Components of built shade 46

Selecting shade materials 50

Tension membrane structures 51

Vandalism 52

Off-the-shelf structures 52

Combinations of natural and built shade 53

5 The shade project 55

Planning 56

Design 58

Construction 60

The Shade Audit 61How to conduct a Shade Audit 61

How to measure shade 62

Stage 1: Interviews 63

Stage 2: Site fieldwork 66

Stage 3: Assessment 76

Stage 4: Recommendations 77

A design brief for your shade project 78

Shade project case studies 79Waikawa Bay School 80

Balmain Public School 81

Baradine Multipurpose Courts 82

Campion College 82

Springwood High School 83

Western Suburbs Olympic Pool, Unanderra 84

Providing shade

This chapter provides information on therange of shade solutions and how tocreate attractive UVR protectiveenvironments. The qualities of commonlyused shade materials are discussed.

The shade project

This chapter presents an overviewof the major stages of a shade project:planning, design and construction.The key steps to be taken during each ofthese stages are explained. In particular,a step by step procedure is provided forconducting a Shade Audit of a site.

Case studies are presented at the end of thechapter to illustrate aspects of a shadeproject.

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Site specific considerations

This chapter provides recommendationsand considerations for shade provision at arange of common sites. Planning anddesign issues for each site are alsodiscussed.

6 Site specific considerations 85

Early childhood services 86

Schools 94

Swimming pools 102

Beaches 108

Sports grounds and facilities 114

Parks and reserves 120

General streetscape 126

Resorts, motels and hotels 132

Outdoor restaurants,cafes and beer gardens 138

The home 142

The workplace 148

AppendicesAppendix ARisks for public authorities: issues of legal liability –the general situation 153

Appendix BProfessional and industry contacts 155

Appendix CQualities of shade materials 157

Appendix DThe Shade Inventory 175

Appendix EExample of a completed Shade Audit 177

References 186

Glossary 188

The Appendices contain specific supportinformation.

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Acknowledgements

Material in this book has been adapted from theAustralian version of Under cover: Guidelines forshade planning and design. The Cancer Society ofNew Zealand would like to thank the New SouthWales Cancer Council and the New South WalesHealth Department for allowing the use of theAustralian material. Thanks are also given to the manyAustralian contributors who are fully acknowledged inthe Australian version.

Many references to Australian publications have beenretained, because comparable New Zealandpublications on the provision of shade are notavailable. We have also included four case studies ofAustralian shade projects because these examples ofsuccessful, well-planned projects are applicable toNew Zealand.

We gratefully acknowledge assistance from thefollowing:

Building Industry Authority

Campion College

KPMG Legal

Ministry of Education

National Institute of Water and AtmosphericResearch Ltd (NIWA)

Occupational Safety and Health Service,New Zealand (OSH)

Cancer Society of New Zealand Divisions and Centres

Waikawa Bay Primary School.

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The need for shade

1 About this document

Shade is necessary at outdoor spaces if activities takeplace there on a regular basis during times of highUVR levels. Most outdoor facilities and venues fit thisdescription, whether they are recreational,educational, commercial or occupational.

As an increasing number of organisations recognisethe need for shade, there is also a need to ensure thatefforts to provide shade are as effective as possible. Itis intended that this publication will contribute to theachievement of such outcomes.

The aims of this publication are to:• highlight the important contribution shade can make

in reducing mortality and morbidity associated withexposure to solar UVR

• explain how to assess the shade needs of a site

• explain how to provide shade that will fall at the rightplace, at the right time of the day, at the right time ofthe year

• encourage the provision of shade that is functionally,environmentally and aesthetically sympathetic tosurrounding areas.

Consistent with the principles of ecologicallysustainable design, this publication seeks to minimisethe potential for environmental harm that may resultfrom inappropriate shade design, as well asencourage the ‘greening’ of both the urban and rurallandscape.

1 New Zealand Health InformationService. Mortality anddemographic data 1997.Wellington, Ministry of Health, 2000.

Skin cancer is a major health problem in New Zealand.It is the commonest cancer in this country, with about20,000 people developing new skin cancers eachyear.1 Melanoma rates are among the highest in theworld and about 200 New Zealanders die frommelanoma each year.

The factors which contribute to these high ratesinclude:• the intense solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) levels

that characterise the New Zealand environment(most skin cancers are caused by exposure toUVR from the sun)

• large proportion of fair-skinned population

• the outdoor nature of daily life in New Zealand. Thismeans that many activities take place when UVRlevels are high

• social values which support the belief that a suntanis healthy and attractive.

Public education campaigns over the last twodecades have resulted in an increase in the adoptionof personal sun protective behaviours. Acomprehensive approach to sun protection, however,includes another vital component. This is the provisionand use of UVR protective shade.

Many outdoor facilities and venues in New Zealandcurrently lack adequate shade. Spectators at localsporting events, picnickers in the local park, schoolchildren in the playground or office workers in cityplazas at lunchtime may be at risk of excessive UVRexposure due to the lack of shade.

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Who is this publication for?

This publication is written as a comprehensivereference tool for professionals, organisations andindividuals involved in shade planning and design.For example:• local government officers who have a role in

planning shade for outdoor facilities and venues atparks, swimming pools and sporting fields

• employers who are responsible for health and safetyin outdoor workplaces

• school principals and childcare centre directors whoare responsible for the well-being of children usingoutdoor play and learning spaces

• operators and managers of outdoor facilities

• home owners who want to provide shade at theirresidences.

Using this publicationThis publication is structured to inform progressivelythe reader about the fundamental issues of shadeplanning and design. As each section contains vitalinformation for effective shade planning, it is thereforesuggested that Chapters 1–5 be read before Chapter6, Site specific considerations. The text is cross-referenced where necessary.

It is also important that the relevant section of Chapter6 be read before attempting to carry out the ShadeAudit described in Chapter 5. The planning anddesign issues discussed in Chapter 6 will help shadeplanners adapt the Audit procedure to suit a particularsite.

Every effort has been made to simplify what issometimes a technical and complex issue. However, ifsome parts of the publication are found to be overlytechnical, it may be necessary to obtain professionaladvice, eg from architects, landscape architects orsurveyors. Appendix B lists contact details for anumber of relevant professional associations.

This publication aims to assist organisations andindividuals to assess their specific circumstances and

*

develop appropriate solutions. The information isapplicable to both the design of new facilities and theredevelopment of existing facilities.

Responsibilities of public authorities

It is possible that public authorities may be foundliable for not providing shade and warnings about skincancer. In addition to owing a general duty of care atcommon law, there may well be particular statutoryduties that are incumbent on councils or other publicauthorities which could found liability. Breach of eitherof these could result in liability being visited on publicauthorities.

However, in the face of growing evidence about therisks of melanoma and skin cancer from exposure toUVR, public authorities should be anxious to takeappropriate steps to prevent further damage,especially to children, by pursuing policies now for theprovision of shade in outdoor spaces under theirmanagement and control (see Appendix A).

* Information supplied by KPMG Legal

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The sun and solar ultraviolet radiation

the solar spectrum2

UVA transmits freelythrough the earth’satmosphere.

Approximately 15% ofthe UVB entering theatmosphere reaches theearth’s surface. This isdue to absorption bystratospheric ozone.

UVB is the mostbiologically damagingform of UVR whichreaches the earth’ssurface.

UVC is completelyabsorbed bystratospheric ozoneand also atmosphericgases.

1 Gies PH, Roy CR and Elliot G.Ultraviolet radiation protectionfactors for personal protection inboth occupational and recreationalsituations. Radiation protection inAustralia 1992;10:3.

2 Groves G. Sunburn, suntan andsunscreens. Australian CancerSociety, 1981.

2 Sun facts

The solar spectrum

Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is part of the spectrum ofelectromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Otherparts of the spectrum include gamma rays, X-rays,visible light, infra-red radiation and radio waves.Gamma rays, X-rays and very short wavelength UVR(called UVC) are absorbed by gases in the upperatmosphere and therefore do not affect us. Infra-redradiation can be felt as heat; visible light can be seenas light. Although present in sunlight, UVR can neitherbe seen nor felt.1

The different parts of the spectrum are referred to asenergy bands and are characterised by varyingwavelengths. UVR consists of the following differentwavelength ranges:• UVA with wavelengths between 315 and 400

nanometres (nm)

• UVB with wavelengths between 280 and 315 nm

• UVC with wavelengths between 100 and 280 nm.

2 Sun facts

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noteSee Chapter 3, Protectingagainst solar UVR, for adiscussion of the control ofdirect and indirect UVR.

Direct and indirect UVR

direct and indirect UVR

There is more direct thanindirect UVR at noon on acloud-free day.

However, when the sun islow in the sky in themorning and evening,indirect UVR is moreintense than direct UVR.

There are also somecircumstances whenindirect UVR can accountfor more than half of thetotal incidence of UVR.For example, partial cloudcover above snow fieldscreates high levels ofindirect UVR, due to thecombined effect of UVRbeing scattered by theclouds and reflected bythe snow.


UVR that reaches us directly from the sun is known asdirect UVR.

UVR can be scattered by water droplets in clouds andother particles such as dust in the atmosphere. It canalso be reflected by surfaces such as walls,pavements, sand and snow. When UVR is reflected orscattered, it is referred to as indirect UVR. While directUVR travels in a straight line through the atmosphere,indirect UVR may come from any direction.

Indirect UVR can be more intense than direct UVR andcan cause damage to the skin. For example, sunburnfrom reflected or scattered UVR can occur in shadedareas.

The ratio of direct to indirect UVR varies throughoutthe day. The combination of direct and indirect UVRwill result in a greater risk of sunburn and skin damagethan that of direct UVR alone.

minimal erythemal dose(MED)

The amount of exposureto UVR required toproduce the firstdetectable reddening ofthe skin is called theminimum erythemal dose(MED). The time taken toreceive the MED variesconsiderably betweenindividuals, depending ontheir skin type.

Typically a fair-skinnedperson would receive theMED in 11 to 12 minutesat solar noon in summerin most parts of New

Zealand. At the equinoxesUVR levels are highenough to cause damagein 18 to 30 minutes. In themonths May–July in NewZealand, except at highaltitudes and in the snow,it would take so long toreceive a MED that thereis little or no risk ofburning.

As sunburn is stronglyrelated to an increasedrisk of melanoma, theMED is a useful measureof the intensity ofbiologically effective UVR.

noteSolar noon is the time ofthe day when the sun is atits highest point in the sky.In summer this occurs atabout 1.30pm New Zealanddaylight saving time.

2 Sun facts

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season and time of dayThe single most important factor affecting UVR levelsis the height of the sun in the sky – the higher the sun,the higher the levels of solar UVR. During winter, UVBlevels are considerably lower than those in summer.This is because the sun is lower in the sky in winter,and the path of the radiation through the atmosphereis longer. More UVR is absorbed and scattered.

The most intense UV is received when the sun ishighest in the sky – UV radiation shows a strong dailyvariation, with peak values at noon. In summer thisoccurs at about 1:30 pm New Zealand daylight savingtime.

The same process occurs on a daily basis. The solarUVR around noon is more intense than it is early andlate in the day. More than 50 percent of the daily totalof solar UVR is received within two hours either sideof solar noon, when the sun is at its highest point inthe sky.

4 McKenzie RL. Information suppliedby National Institute of Water andAtmospheric Research. Furtherreferences available on request.


Factors affecting UVR levels

comparable latitudes because of:• the smaller sun–earth separation in during December

and January

• hemispheric differences in ozone which result in lessozone in the southern hemisphere summer

• the generally more polluted skies in the northernhemisphere that provide further shielding.

UV radiation also tends to be highest in the north ofNew Zealand because the sun rises higher in the sky atthose latitudes, and also because (contrary to publicperceptions), there is generally less ozone there.

daily UVR variation in summer at a site at 34o latitude

geographic location4

The geographic location or lattitude of a sitedetermines, to an extent, the intensity of the radiationreceived.

New Zealand’s UV is about 50 percent higher than atsimilar latitudes in Europe. The UV received here ismuch more intense than in the northern hemisphere at

Latitude Summer Autumn Winter SpringSite (°S) Solstice Equinox Solstice Equinox

21 Dec 21 Mar 21 Jun 21 Sep

Suva 18.2 14.6 12.6 6.8 12.2

Brisbane 27.4 13.8 10.3 3.9 9.4

Sydney 33.9 12.9 8.4 2.4 7.2

Kaitaia 35.2 12.7 8.1 2.2 6.9

Auckland 36.9 12.3 7.5 1.7 6.1

New Plymouth 39.1 11.8 6.8 1.4 6.4

Wellington 41.3 11.2 6.3 1.1 5.0

Christchurch 43.5 10.4 5.6 0.9 4.4

Dunedin 45.9 10.0 4.9 0.6 4.0

Invercargill 46.4 9.9 4.8 0.6 3.8

Campbell Island 52.6 8.2 3.3 0.2 2.7

Scott Base 77.9 2.9 0.3 0 0.6

Typical UV index values near midday for clear skies overNew Zealand and its surrounding region. Seasonalvariations are larger at high latitudes.

Refer to page 14 for burn times.

50

1

2

3

4

5

6

7 9 11 1pmam

60% of total

30%of total

effe

ctiv

e U

VR

(ME

Ds/

hr)

3 5 7 9

2 Sun facts

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note

cloud coverCloud cover can significantly affect solar UVR levels,particularly UVB levels. Heavy cloud can reduce UVBto less than five percent of that present under clearskies. Scattered cloud has a variable effect, with thelevels rising and falling significantly as clouds pass infront of the sun. In the absence of cloud, levels of UVBfor consecutive days would be almost identical.

stratospheric ozoneOzone is a gas that is present in the earth’satmosphere. It is formed naturally in the upperatmosphere (the stratosphere). Ozone can also befound in the lower atmosphere as a component ofindustrial air pollution. In the stratosphere, ozoneabsorbs most of the UVR entering the atmospherebefore it reaches the earth’s surface.

New Zealand is not under the ozone hole but isaffected when the ozone hole breaks up, andfilaments of air with low levels of ozone move out fromthe Antarctic. As these filaments of air pass over NewZealand extreme variations in ozone levels can occur,especially during late spring. Over New Zealand ozonehas declined by five to 10 percent in the last 15 to 20years.6 It has been estimated that for every onepercent sustained decrease in ozone, there will be a1.7 percent long-term increase in basal cell carcinomaand a 3.0 percent increase in squamous cellcarcinoma of the skin. The increase of melanoma ofthe skin is less certain, but would probably be at least0.4 percent for each one percent sustained decreasein ozone.7

The predicted long-term decreases instratospheric ozone are associatedwith the release into the atmosphere ofindustrial chemicals such aschlorofluorocarbons and halons whichhas occurred during recent decades.

effect of cloud on UVB 5

This graph shows theeffect of the differentcloud conditions on theUVB levels (in MEDs) forthree days in January andFebruary 1996 inMelbourne. At 37o,Melbourne is at a similarlatitude to Auckland.

February 1 was virtuallycloudless. The variationof UVB throughout theday shows the classicbell-shaped curve, withhigh levels of UVB atsolar noon.

5 Australian Radiation Laboratory –UVR Data Net October 1995;3.

6 McKenzie et al. Increasedsummertime UV observed in NewZealand in response to ozoneloss. Science 285, 1709–11,1999.

7 Armstrong BK. The human healthconsequences of ozone depletion– An overview. AustralianMeteorological Magazine 1997;46.


February 5 had heavycloud resulting in the UVBlevels remaininglow all day.

January 27 was largelycloud–free until a frontmoved through in theearly afternoon. UVBlevels then dropped toalmost zero.

On days with scatteredcloud the effect on theUVB levels fluctuatedfrom very low to high.

Conversions between UV Index and Burn Time4

Approximate conversions are given in the followingtable, although it is important to note the concept ofburn time is not well defined.*

UV Index Burn Time (minutes) Risk Description

0 - No danger (dark)1 144 Minimal2 72 Minimal3 48 Low4 36 Low5 29 Moderate6 24 Moderate7 21 High8 18 High9 16 High10 14 Very High11 13 Very High12 12 Extreme13 11 Extreme14 10 Extreme

* Burn time is the approximate timeit would take for fair, untanned skinto experience detectablereddening when exposed to thesun.

2 Sun facts

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what is the UV Index?

8 Diffey BL. Ultraviolet radiation inmedicine. Medical physicshandbooks 11. Bristol: AdamHilger Ltd, 1992.

UVR reflectance of ground surfaces9

surface reflectance (%)

snow, old – new 50 – 88

sea surf, white foam 25 – 30

sand, wet – dry 7.1 – 18.0

concrete footpath 8.2 – 12.0

open ocean 8.0

boat deck, wood – fibreglass 6.6 – 9.1

asphalt roadway 4.1 – 8.9new (black) – old (grey)

soil 4.0 – 6.0

open water 3.3

lawn grass, summer – winter 2.0 – 5.0


altitude and surrounding environmentOther factors which affect solar UVR levels are altitudeand the surrounding environment.

UVR levels increase by approximately five percent withevery 300 metres of altitude.4,8 Hence, locations athigher altitudes such as the ski fields (approx 2000 m)can have significantly higher UVB levels than those atsea level.

Environments which contain highly reflective surfacessuch as snow and sand have increased risk of highindirect UVR levels. At high altitude the presence ofsnow may be a more important factor than the altitudeitself, since fresh snow is highly reflective.

9 Sliney DH. Physical factors incataractogenesis: ambientultraviolet radiation andtemperature. Investigativeophthalmology and visualscience 1986;27:5.

daily and seasonal variation insolar UV Index

The UV Index is ameasure of how intensethe UV is at any time. It isan international standardrecommended by theWorld HealthOrganisation and theWorld MeteorologicalOrganisation. The higherthe index, the moreintense the UV. An indexof 10 or more should beconsidered to be ‘veryhigh’. The highest indexfor the New Zealandsummer is usually about12. For the technicallyminded, the UV Index isthe intensity ofsunburning radiation inWatts per square metre,but multiplied by 40 togive a more manageablenumber.

Many media outlets nowpublish or broadcast UV

Index readings inconjunction with weatherforecasts from Novemberto March.

Examples of the UV Indexhave been calculated forclear skies as functions oftime of day and time ofyear for sites in NewZealand in the north andin the south. The figuresshow that the dominantfactor is the sun’s angle,causing variations of afactor of 10 betweenwinter and summer sothat the UV Index is rarelyabove one or two in thewinter. Day to dayvariations of about 10percent are due to dailyfluctuations in ozone.Therefore, one wouldexpect a similar patternfrom year to year at eachsite.

atmospheric dust and air pollutionAir pollutants and other particles in the atmosphere,such as dust, can also reduce UVB radiation at theearth’s surface. However, these factors are usuallyless important than those described above.

2 Sun facts

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UVR penetrates human tissue to a depth of 0.1–1millimetre. The organs affected are the skin and theeyes.

UVR exposure contributes to a number of effects onthe skin including:• sunburn (erythema)

• skin ageing (solar elastosis)

• skin cancer.

There are three main types of skin cancer: melanoma,squamous cell carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma.All are caused by sun exposure.

Although the least common of the UVR-related skincancers, melanoma is the most dangerous. In 1996, itwas the cause of nearly 200 deaths in New Zealand.10

Melanoma of the skin usually starts in the pigmentcells (melanocytes) of the epidermis. The epidermis isthe outer layer of the skin and consists of four or fivecell layers. A melanoma tends to spread out within theepidermis before moving into the deeper layers of theskin.

While a melanoma is still only in the epidermis, it canbe completely cured by surgery. Once a melanomahas spread into the dermis (the inner layer of the skinwhich lies beneath the epidermis) it is known as aninvasive melanoma. From here, cancer cells maybreak away and spread through blood and lymphvessels to other parts of the body.

Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and squamous cellcarcinoma (SCC) are referred to as non-melanocyticskin cancers (NMSC) and occur in the basal andsquamous cells respectively. Basal cells form at thebase of the epidermis and gradually move upwardstowards the surface of the skin to replace dying cells.During their upward journey they become flattenedand are then referred to as squamous cells. BCCsaccount for 70 to 80 percent of skin cancers whileSCCs account for 15 to 20 percent.

While BCCs rarely kill, the risk of death from SCCs isgreater. In 1996, there were 60 deaths in New Zealandfrom NMSCs,10 most likely a result of SCCs. Despitethe low risk of death from BCCs they, if left untreated,can spread to surrounding skin and erode underlyingtissue causing extensive damage and disfigurement.

Eye damage can also occur as a result of acute orprolonged UVR exposure. This damage includes:• painful eye inflammation, eg snow blindness

• a growth over the cornea (pterygium)

• cloudiness of the lens (cataract)

• cancer on the surface of the eye.

A number of these conditions can lead to blindness.11

10 New Zealand Health InformationService. Mortality anddemographic data 1997.Wellington: MInistry of Health,2000.

11 Roy CR, Gies HP and Elliott G.Solar ultraviolet radiation: Personalexposure and protection. Journalof Occupational Health and Safety1988;4:2.

Health effects of exposure to solar UVR


2 Sun facts

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note

Earth–sun relationships

While containing basic information on the earth–sunrelationships, this chapter is particularly relevant forthose undertaking the ‘projection’ method of theShade Audit. See the Shade Audit section inChapter 5.

12 Oakman H. Tropical andsubtropical gardening. Milton: TheJacaranda Press, 1981.

13 Ballinger JA, Prasad DK, RudderD. Energy efficient Australianhousing. Canberra: AustralianGovernment Printing Service,1992.

Sun angles and their effects on shadow

The main objective of shade planning is to provideshade at the right place, at the right time of the day, atthe right time of the year. Unfortunately, the location ofshade structures and trees often produces a shadowpattern entirely different from that anticipated.12

Accurately predicting where a tree or structure willcast its shadow depends on an understanding of thesun’s path. Such an understanding is fundamental toeffective shade planning.

It is essential to know three things about a site in orderto accurately assess the effect of the sun’s path.These are:• latitude

• longitude

• the direction of true north.

If these are known, it is possible to use sun charts orcommercially available computer programmes to findthe position of the sun for any time of day throughoutthe year.13

To accurately predict the behaviour of shadows castby solid objects it is essential to know the solarazimuth angle and the solar altitude angle.

solar azimuth angle: direction of shadowThe azimuth determines the direction in which theshadow will fall on the ground.

Solar azimuth is the angle, in a horizontal plane,between true north and the direction of the sun,measured clockwise from true north. It can have anyvalue from 0° to 360°. The azimuth at solar noon inthe southern hemisphere is always 0°.

solar altitude angle: length of shadowThe solar altitude angle determines the length of theshadow cast by a solid object on the ground.

Solar altitude is the angle between the sun and thehorizon at a given latitude. It varies according to thetime of the day and according to season.


solar azimuth and altitude angles in Auckland

2 Sun facts

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Annual path

14 Koenigsberger OH and IngersolTG. Manual of tropical housingand building – Part 1 Climaticdesign. New York: Longman Inc,1974.

earth–sun relationshipat winter and summersolstice

In the southernhemisphere, the sun isfurthest south in summerand more directlyoverhead. In winter it istowards the north, andthus lower in the sky. This

sun’s daily path

There are three basicshade patterns every day:

morning – when theshadow will fall in awesterly direction awayfrom the object castingthe shadow


midday – when theshadow will be closebeneath the object

afternoon – when theshadow will fall in aneasterly direction awayfrom the object.

earth–sun relationshipmeans that the area ofthe earth’s surfacereceiving the maximumsolar intensity movesbetween the Tropic ofCapricorn (latitude 23.5°S)and the Tropic of Cancer(latitude 23.5°N).

Because the earth’s axis is tilted to the plane of itssolar orbit, the north–south angle of the sun(measured by the azimuth) moves according to theseason. This is the main cause of seasonal changes.

As the sun is continuously moving across the sky, theshadows cast by the sun are always moving. Theyslowly shift from sunrise to sunset in response to thealtitude and azimuth of the sun as it passes from eastto west.

This basic pattern applies every day of the year,although the areas affected by shadow vary accordingto the time of the year. The sun’s path changesthroughout the year but always follows the samesequence year after year.14

Daily path

2 Sun facts

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1 solar altitude angle andUVR intensity

The lower the solaraltitude angle, the lower theintensity of radiation fallingon an area.

Lower angle = greater areagreater area = less intensityof radiation.

2 distance and UVRintensity

The lower the solaraltitude angle, the longerthe path of radiationthrough the atmosphere.Less radiation, includingUVR, reaches the earth’ssurface as more radiationis absorbed by ozone,vapours and dustparticles in theatmosphere.


3 solar altitude angleand daylight

The lower the solaraltitude angle, the shorterthe daylight period.

The earth–sun relationship affects the amount of solarradiation (including UVR) received at a particular pointon the earth’s surface in the following three ways.

2 Sun facts

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note

Equinox and solstice

solar altitude angles for Auckalnd and Christchurchon the equinox and solstice days at solar noon

The equinox and solstice are particularly relevant tothe shade planner as they are the dates at which theshadows cast by shade-creating barriers or objects,eg a tree, wall or building, should be typically plotted.This will help to ensure that the shade project resultsin shade at the right place, at the right time of day, atthe right time of year. Fortunately, the solar altitudeangles at equinox and solstice can be easilycalculated.

The solar altitude angle at solar noon on the equinoxdays for any given location is equal to thecomplementary angle of the latitude of the location(that is, 90° minus latitude).15

On the winter solstice, the solar altitude angle at solarnoon is equal to the altitude angle at the equinoxminus 23.5°.

On the summer solstice, the solar altitude angle atsolar noon is equal to the altitude angle at the equinoxplus 23.5°.

15 Phillips RO. Sunshine and shadein Australia. CommonwealthScientific and Industrial Researchfor Australia, 1992.

Four particular days of the year are important formarking the sequence of the sun’s path:• the equinox days – 21 March and 23 September,

when day and night are of equal length, each being12 hours

• the winter and summer solstice – 21 June and 22December. The winter solstice is when the shortestday (that is, the shortest daylight period) occurs.Conversely the summer solstice is the longest dayof the year.

In the southern hemisphere, from 21 March until 23September, the sun rises to the north of east. Similarlyit sets to the north of west. From 23 September until21 March the sun rises to the south of east and setsto the south of west.


The use of solar altitude angles for plotting shade isparticularly relevant to the ‘projection’ method of theShade Audit. See the Shade Audit section inChapter 5.

solar altitude angles at solar noon

latitude equinox winter solstice summer solstice

Auckland 37° 90° – 37° = 53° 53° – 23.5° = 29.5° 53°+ 23.5° = 76.5°

Christchurch 43.5° 90° – 43.5° = 46.5° 46.5° – 23.5° = 23° 46.5°+ 23.5° = 70°

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note

horizontal shadow angle

A vertical shading devicesuch as a wall, fence,screen or line of trees ischaracterised by ahorizontal shadow angle.

Shadow angles

vertical shadow angle

A horizontal shadingdevice such as a canopy,awning or otherprojection ischaracterised by avertical shadow angle.

This is measured on avertical plane perpendicularto the edge of the area to beshaded. The shade designercan determine the verticalshadow angle using ashadow angle protractor orby calculation.

Assessing the complex design issues presented byhorizontal and vertical shadow angles is a specialisedtask and should be undertaken by shade designprofessionals such as architects. See Appendix B for alist of relevant professional associations.

The horizontal shadowangle is the differencebetween the solar azimuthangle and the angle atwhich the wall is oriented.


The shade designer must be able to anticipate theshadow that will be cast on the ground by a shade-producing barrier such as a structure or tree. Asdiscussed, calculation of the solar altitude andazimuth angles will allow this to be determined. Thiswill be sufficient for many outdoor situations. Forexample, the shade pattern cast by trees or afreestanding shade structure in a park can beunderstood by using solar azimuth and altitude anglesonly.

In some situations a more detailed knowledge of theshade that will be cast by a structure is required. Forexample, when designing a building for a temperateclimate in New Zealand, it may be desirable to excludethe sun in summer but admit it in winter. In situationssuch as this, it is necessary to determine accuratelysun and shade patterns relative to the windows orother openings by using horizontal and verticalshadow angles. However, a general understanding ofthe concepts involved may be useful for the lay shadeplanner.

The shade-producing performance of physical barriersto the sun’s direct rays is specified by two angles:• the horizontal shadow angle

• the vertical shadow angle.

Together, these angles will allow the shade designer toaccurately predict the area on which shade will fall onany day of the year; and the pattern of that shade atany time of the day.

22

23

3 Protecting against solar UVR

environmental strategies for protectingagainst solar UVR

Maximum protection from solar UVR can be achievedthrough a combination of personal and environmentalstrategies.

The most effective personal protection strategy isto minimise sun exposure between 11am to 4pmdaylight saving time during summer. When people areoutdoors it is important that they protect themselvesfrom the sun by wearing protective clothing, sunhats,sunscreen and sunglasses, as well as using availableshade.

Environmental strategies seek to support personalprotection strategies by creating outdoor spaces thatprovide protection from both direct and indirect UVR.Examples of environmental strategies include:• placing UVR protective barriers above, and to

the side of, the designated area

• reducing reflection of UVR from nearby surfacesinto the designated area

• increasing the size of the shaded area to allowpeople to use the centre of the area rather thanits edges.

Environmental strategies for controlling solar UVR


24

1 Oakman H. Tropical andsubtropical gardening. Milton:The Jacaranda Press, 1981.

Control of direct UVR

Environmental strategies

summer protective shade

The high UVR levelsexperienced throughoutNew Zealand in summermean that the provision ofshade during thesemonths should be apriority. Summer shadeprovision should minimiseUVR levels, as well asreduce heat and light.

winter protective shade

UVR levels are lowbetween May and July, sothe main consideration isallowing for transmissionof sufficient heat andlight. As shade structuresare likely to be used year

However, the use of natural shade also hasadvantages. These include the cooling effect of treesand the enhancement of the aesthetic qualities of asite. In many situations a combination of built andnatural components will be most appropriate.

quality of shade created byUVR protective barriersThe quality of shade created by a barrier is determinedby the characteristics of its constituent materials and,in the case of built shade, its design.

Good quality shade:

• provides at least 94 percent protection (at least UPF15) from direct UVR

• creates an environment that is comfortable to use inboth summer and winter.

The aim is to create anenvironment which isshaded and cool. Thismay be achieved bytree planting, or by theuse of materials thatsignificantly exclude heatand light, as well as UVR.

The most common method of controlling direct UVRis to place a barrier so that it intercepts the sun’s rays,thus creating shade. Such barriers can include bothbuilt items and natural barriers such as trees and othervegetation. For the barrier to provide effectiveprotection during the required period, it should:• be of sufficient size

• be located in the right place.

Effective barriers to UVR must allow for daily andseasonal sun movement. Too often, shade canopiesare erected or trees are planted on the assumptionthat they will provide the required shade, when theactual shadow pattern is quite different.1

A decision on whether to use built or natural barriersto UVR will be strongly influenced by the specificshade needs and other site considerations. As builtshade lends itself to greater design possibilities, thisapproach is often the most adaptable to the particularneeds of a site.

round, the aim is tocreate an environmentthat provides winterwarmth, as well ascoolness and protectionfrom UVR in the summer.


25

Control of indirect UVR


2 Sliney DH and Wolborsht ML.Safety with lasers and otheroptical sources. New York:Plenum Press, 1980.

noteBuilt shade, natural shadeand combined shadesystems are discussedin detail in Chapter 4,Providing shade.

Reflectance of UVR should not be confused with thereflectance of light. While the amount of visible lightreflected from a surface is influenced by colour, thereflectance of UVR is independent of colour.Therefore, a material that is good at reflecting visiblelight may not reflect much UVR. For example, the UVRreflectance of paint is low and is independent ofcolour.2 Generally, the selection of surface materialsto minimise reflected UVR should take into account:• surface density – hard surfaces such as paving will

reflect higher levels of UVR than softer surfacessuch as grass or soil

• surface finish – smooth surfaces such as metalsheeting and smooth trowelled concrete reflecthigher levels of UVR than coarse or varied surfacessuch as timber cladding, roof tiles or brick paving.

scattered UVRProtection from scattered UVR is achieved byreducing exposure to the sky. Generally, a sitereceives as much scattered UVR from the sky, asdirect UVR.3 If a person sitting in shade is able to seea lot of blue sky, scattered UVR is able to reach them.

In many situations, the contribution of scattered UVRto the total UVR reaching a site will exceed that of thereflected UVR reaching the site. For example, thiswould occur when boating on open water becausereflectance from open water is low.

3 Gies PH, Roy CR,Toomey S andMcLennan A. Protection againstsolar UV radiation. Sun ProtectionSeminar Papers. AustralianCancer Society, 1997.

The control of indirect UVR is an importantconsideration in any shade project.

Indirect UVR is reflected off surface materials orscattered by clouds or atmospheric particles.Therefore it can come from any direction. Because ofthis, it is difficult to provide shade which completelyexcludes UVR. Nevertheless, control of indirect UVRwill be more effective if the behaviour and sources ofboth reflected and scattered UVR are understood.

reflected UVRIn most instances, reflected UVR will comprise onlya small component of the total UVR present at aparticular site. The notable exceptions to this generalrule-of-thumb are locations characterised by thepresence of snow or sand. Snow can reflect in excessof 80 percent of the UVR it receives, and sand up to18 percent. However, the reflectance of most naturaland artificial surfaces is usually less than 10 percent.Refer to the table on page 15 for the reflectivity ofdifferent ground surfaces.

The reflectance of a surface varies as the solar altitudeangle, ie the height of the sun, changes. Most groundsurfaces do not uniformly reflect UVR in all directions,but depend on the direction of incoming radiation.Accordingly, it is generally the case that higher levelsof reflected UVR are experienced early and late in theday, while the highest levels of direct UVR areexperienced at solar noon.


26

combining strategies to control indirectUVR

Design strategies for the control of indirect UVR

ensure shade structures are of an adequate size

The larger the shaded area, the greater theopportunity to avoid indirect and direct UVR. This isbecause UVR levels will be greater towards the edgesof the shaded area.

use barriers for side as well as overhead protection

Vertical screening with plants and trellises or a systemof opaque louvres can provide a barrier to indirectUVR, while admitting ventilation and breezes.

choose materials that reduce reflectivity

Soft surfaces and those with uneven finishes willreflect lower levels of UVR than other surfaces. Forexample, vegetation absorbs and scatters UVR, whichdecreases its intensity. Plant ground covers or grassin preference to the use of concrete paving.

Existing reflective surfaces can be altered to reduceindirect UVR. In a playground, concrete or bitumensurfaces can be treated to reduce reflectivity. Blockthe amount of direct UVR hitting the ground surfaceby overhead shading. Use coloured rubber matting(soft fall matting) or synthetic turf to reduce reflectedUVR.


There are a number of design strategies that can beused to reduce an area’s exposure to indirect UVR(as well as direct UVR).

extend overhead barriers past actual use areas

A simple rule-of-thumb is to make sure there is atleast a one metre overhang past the actual area ofuse. Laterally extending devices such as roller blindawnings can be useful for extending overhangs onexisting structures.

take account of external sources of reflected UVRfrom existing buildings and adjoining properties

For example, if the property next door has a large,reflective wall facing your site, design a shade systemthat blocks the reflected UVR. Possible solutions maybe to provide vertical screening using opaque louvresor a trellis. Avoid shade systems that reflect UVR ontoother areas or adjoining properties.

using an extended overhang to reduce indirect UVR


27

note

When climatic elements are understood, it is possibleto design outdoor environments that provideincreased levels of comfort by modifying the existingconditions. For example:• if it is hot and humid, provide shading to exclude the

sun and allow cross-ventilation to capture thebreeze for cooling

• if it is cold and windy, provide wind breaks toexclude the breeze, and select UV protectivematerials that exclude UVR whilst transmitting lightand heat (eg polycarbonate, glass).

Shade offers the physical sensation of a change oftemperature. Sheltered from the direct heat of thesun’s rays, shady areas are perceived as cooler. Directsunshine usually feels hotter, so shade is sought outon a summer’s day to escape the heat as much as toescape exposure to UVR.

On cooler days in the months around the equinoxes,people prefer to be warmed by the sun and will tendto avoid shady spots, even though risk of UVRexposure is still present. For these times of year, it isnecessary to create warm outdoor environmentswhich also offer protection against UVR.

During the cooler months (May through August) whenUVR levels are low, the main consideration is toprovide outdoor spaces that are warm, light andprotected from winds.

Effective shade systemsaddress human comfortfactors as well as control ofUVR.

It is important to become familiar with the climaticelements of a location in order to design UVRprotective shade that is comfortable for human use atthe right time of the day and at the right time of theyear. If a shelter does not address human comfort, itwill not be an effective control against over exposureto UVR, because it will not be attractive for use.

The four elements of a climate which have adominant influence on human comfort are:• air temperature

• humidity, or water content of the air

• air movement (breeze)

• heat radiated from the sun and from thesurroundings.

Each influences in some way the heat exchangeprocesses between the human body and itsenvironment. All must be considered together ifthe effects on people are to be predicted.

For example, when the weather is cold the effect ofhumidity is barely noticeable, but when it is hot, highhumidity becomes less tolerable. Air movement atour body surface causes evaporation of perspirationand has a cooling effect. At higher humidities suchevaporation is prevented or at least reduced. Winddoes not change the air temperature but it makes usfeel cooler. To some extent it can compensate for theeffect of high humidity.

Designing shade for climate and comfort

Shade planning for specific climate zones



28

Climate zones of New Zealand4

New Zealand climate zones


4 Burgess, S.M. NationalInstitute of Water andAtmospheric ResearchLtd. Information suppliedto the Cancer Society.References available onrequest.

New Zealand has a wide range of regional and local(micro) climates. The lie of the mountainous regions ofboth islands (especially the Southern Alps), combinedwith a prevailing westerly airflow has a major effect onour climate. High rainfall is common in and west of theSouth Island mountain ranges, while much drier(almost semi-arid) conditions often prevail in the eastof the South Island.

Sunshine hours are relatively high in areas shelteredfrom the west, such as Marlborough, Nelson, Bay ofPlenty, Gisborne, Hawke’s Bay, and inland areas ofboth south Canterbury and Otago. Areas exposed toprevailing air-streams, such as Fiordland, and theSouthland and Otago coasts, tend to be cloudier.

New Zealand’s climate is complex but, for thepurposes of this publication, ten broad climate zoneshave been identified.

Climate zone Regions/areas included

1) Northern New Zealand Northland, Auckland,Coromandel, Bay ofPlenty

2) Eastern North Island Gisborne, Hawke’s Bay,Wairarapa

3) Central North Island Waikato, King Country,Taupo/Rotorua

4) Southwest North Island Taranaki, Wanganui,Manawatu, Wellington

5) Northern South Island Marborough, Nelson,Golden Bay

6) Western South Island Buller, Westland,Fiordland

7) Eastern South Island Kaikoura Coast, northernand coastal Canterbury

8) Inland South Island Inland Canterbury,Central Otago

9) Southern New Zealand Southland, coastal Otago,Stewart Island

10) Mountainous/alpine areas

WesternSouthIsland

Eastern SouthIsland

InlandSouthIsland

Southern NewZealand

EasternNorth Island

Northern New Zealand

CentralNorthIsland

South/westNorth Island

Northern South Island

The boundaries between these zones can, at best, bedescribed as rough lines, as one climate regimemerges into another. Influences such as valleys,nearby hills, aspect, urbanisation, the presence oflakes and coastal weather patterns all affect localclimates.

Climate characteristicsMajor characteristics for each climate zone arepresented in the following sections. Specialconditions, which should be taken into account duringthe design of shade, are noted. Strategies to deal withthese conditions are recommended.


29


1. Northern New Zealand 2. Eastern North Island

Northern New Zealandincludes the Northland,Auckland, Coromandel andBay of Plenty regions.

This is a sub-tropical climatezone that is less vulnerable tooutbreaks of cold air than therest of the country. However,storms of tropical origin canoccur in summer and early autumn, with high windsand heavy rainfall from the east or northeast.Localised lightning and thunderstorms can occur.• warm and humid in summer. Typical summer

temperatures 22o C to 26o C but seldom exceed30oC

• winters are mild but can be unsettled with higherrainfall. Typical winter temperatures 12o C to 17oC*

• annual sunshine hours average 2000 in many areas.The summer UVI is often extreme. Autumn andspring UVI values can also be high

• southwesterlies prevail for much of the year. Seabreezes often occur on warm summer days.

design considerations• shade should be accessible from September

through April

• access to winter sun is recommended

• cooling is recommended in the hottest part of theyear

• allow access to cooling sea breezes in summer

• protection against cool southwesterly windsrequired in winter

• structures should be designed to withstand strongwinds

• use of natural shade is recommended as vegetationin this climate zone grows well.

Eastern North Island includesthe Gisborne, Hawke’s Bayand Wairarapa regions.

The North Island high countryto the west shelters most ofthis zone, which has a drysunny climate. Temperaturesin summer are often high andmay be accompanied bystrong dry (foehn) winds from the northwest. Passingcold fronts can cause large temperature changes,especially if the fronts are followed by cold southerlies.Rainfall can be heavy from the east. Warm, dry andsettled weather predominates during summer. Frostsmay occur in winter.• typical summer air temperatures 20o C to 28o C,

occasionally above 30o C. Extreme temperatures(39o C) have been recorded

• winter is milder in the north, and cooler in the south.Typical winter temperatures range from 10o C to16o C

• annual sunshine hours average 2200 in Gisborneand central Hawke’s Bay, through to 1800 to 2000hours in southern Hawke’s Bay and Wairarapa. Themidday summer UVI is often very high. Autumn andspring UVI values can be high

• westerly winds prevail. Sea breezes often occur incoastal areas on warm summer days.


through April

• access to winter sun is recommended, especially inthe southern areas

• cooling is required in the hottest part of the year

• allow access to cooling sea breezes in summer

• protection against cool southerly and westerly windsrequired in winter


* Temperatures refer to typicaldaytime temperatures throughout.


30


3. Central North Island 4. Southwest North Island

Central North island includesthe Waikato, King Country,Tongariro and Rotoruaregions. Note that thevolcanic mountainous areasare covered in Section 10.

Most of this climate zoneexperiences less wind thanmany other parts of NewZealand because the area is sheltered by the NorthIsland high country to the south and east. The inlandlocation means temperatures vary widely. Warm dryand settled weather predominates during summer.Frost occurs in clear, calm conditions in winter.• typical summer daytime maximum air temperatures

range from 21o C to 26o C but rarely exceed 30o C

• winters are cool, especially towards the North Islandcentral plateau. This is normally the most unsettledtime of the year. Typical winter daytime maximum airtemperatures range from 10o C to 14o C

• annual hours of bright sunshine average 2000 to2100 hours in many areas. However, the westernhill country is much cloudier, with less than 1800hours. The midday summer solar ultra violet index(UVI) is often very high. Autumn and spring UVIvalues can be high

• southwesterlies prevail. Lake breezes often occur inTaupo and Rotorua on warm summer days .


through April

• access to winter sun is a necessity


• allow access to cooling lake breezes in Taupo andRotorua in summer

• use of natural shade is recommended as vegetationin most of this climate zone grows well.

Southwest North Islandincludes Taranaki, Wanganui,Manawatu, and Wellington.

This zone is exposed todisturbed weather systemsfrom the Tasman Sea and isoften quite windy but withfew climatic extremes.Northwesterly airflows prevail

and sea breezes may occur along the coast duringsummer. Summer and early autumn are the most settledseasons and frost occurs inland during clear, calmconditions in winter.• summers are warm. Typical summer daytime

maximum air temperatures range from 19o C to24o C but seldom exceed 30o C

• winters are relatively mild in the north, but are cooler inthe south. This is normally the most unsettled time ofthe year. Typical winter daytime maximum airtemperatures range from 10o C to 14o C

• annual hours of bright sunshine average about 2000 inmany areas. However, inland Manawatu andHorowhenua are much cloudier, some areas havingless than 1800 hours of sunshine. The middaysummer solar ultra violet index (UVI) is often very high.Early autumn and late spring UVI values can be high.

design considerations• shade should be accessible from September through

April

• access to winter sun is a necessity, particularly insouthern areas

• cooling is recommended in the hottest part of the year

• consider allowing access to cooling sea breezes insummer

• protection against cool northwesterly and coldsoutherly winds required in winter


• use of natural shade is recommended as vegetation inmany parts of this climate zone grows well.


31


5. Northern South Island 6. Western South Island

Western South Islandincludes the Buller, Westland,and Fiordland regions.

Weather systems from theTasman Sea and the lie ofthe massive Southern Alps tothe east have a major impacton this climate zone.Although mean annual rainfall

is very high, dry spells do occur, especially in latesummer, and during winter. Heavy rainfall occurs fromthe northwest.• summers are mild with temperatures moderated by

the sea. Typical summer temperatures 17oC to22oC. Maximum temperatures seldom exceed25oC

• winter days often start with frost, but are usuallymilder in the north. Typical winter temperatures10oC to 14oC

• annual sunshine hours average 1800 to 1900 hours.The summer UVI is often very high. Early autumnand late spring UVI values can be high

• north-northeast winds prevail along the coast in thenorthern half of the region, while coastalsouthwesterlies prevail in the south. Sea breezescan occur on warm summer days.


through March


• protection against cool winds required in winter



Northern South Islandincludes the Marlborough,Nelson and Golden Bayregions. Note thatmountainous regions arecovered in Section 10.

Shelter provided by highcountry to the west, southand east means this climatezone is the sunniest region of New Zealand. Nelsonhas less wind than many other urban centres. Warmdry and settled weather predominates duringsummer. Winter days often start with frost, but areusually mild overall.• Nelson temperatures are often moderated by sea

breezes. High temperatures are frequent inMarlborough, sometimes with strong dry foehnwinds from the northwest. Typical summertemperatures 20o C to 26o C, but occasionally riseabove 30o C in Marlborough, where extremetemperatures (42o C) have been recorded

• late winter and early spring is normally the mostunsettled time of the year. Typical wintertemperatures 10o C to 15o C

• annual sunshine hours average at least 2300hours. The summer UVI is often very high. Earlyautumn and late spring UVI values can be high

• northeast winds prevail in Nelson, whilesouthwesterlies prevail about Marlborough.


through April

• access to winter sun is recommended

• cooling is recommended in the hottest part of theyear, particularly in Marlborough

• allow access to cooling sea breezes in summer inthe Nelson area

• use of natural shade is recommended asvegetation in this climate zone grows well.


32

7. Eastern South Island 8. Inland South Island

Eastern South Island includesthe Kaikoura coast andCanterbury (except inlandareas). Note thatmountainous areas arecovered in Section 10.

The lie of massive SouthernAlps to the west has a majoreffect on this climate zone.Summers are warm, with the highest temperaturesoccurring when hot dry foehn north westerlies blowover the alps and plains. Abrupt temperaturechanges can occur when cold fronts pass over theregion, followed by cold southerlies orsouthwesterlies. Winters are cold with frequent frost.Mean annual rainfall is low, and long dry spells canoccur, especially in summer. Summer temperaturesare often moderated by a cool northeasterly seabreeze. Winters are cold, with frequent frostyconditions.• typical summer temperatures 18o C to 26o C, but

may rise to more than 30o C (often with dry gustynorthwesterly conditions). Temperatures seldomexceed 34o C. The highest temperature recordedis 42o C

• typical winter temperatures range from 7o C to14o C

• annual sunshine hours average 2000 hours in thenorth, and 1800 to 1900 hours in the south. Thesummer UVI is often very high. Early autumn andlate spring UVI values can be high

• northeasterlies prevail about the coast.Southwesterlies are more frequent during winter.

design considerations• shade should be accessible from September to

March



• allow access to northeasterly sea breezes insummer

• the need for passive winter heating is an importantconsideration

• protection against cool south and southwesterlywinds required in winter


• use of natural shade is recommended in areaswhere vegetation grows well.

Inland South Island includesinland areas of Canterbury,such as the McKenzie Basin,along with Southern Lakesand Central Otago. Note thatmountainous zones arecovered in Section 10.

This climate zone is greatlydependent on the lie ofmassive Southern Alps to the west but many areasare also sheltered by high country to the south andeast. Summer afternoons are very warm, with thehighest temperatures occurring when hot dry foehnnorthwesterlies blow over the alps. Abrupttemperature changes can occur when the north-westerlies are followed by cold southerlies orsouthwesterlies. Winters are very cold with severefrosts and occasional snowfall which can lie for severaldays. Mean annual rainfall is low, and long dry spellscan occur, especially in summer.• typical summer temperatures 18o C to 26o C,

occasionally rising above 30o C

• typical winter temperatures 3o C to 11o C

• annual sunshine hours average 1900 hours overmost of the region but the McKenzie Basin has atleast 2200 hours. The summer UVI is often veryhigh. Early autumn and late spring UVI values canalso be high

• wind flow is very dependent on the localtopography. The strongest winds are often from thenorthwest.

design considerations• shade should be accessible from September to

March


• protection against cool winds required in winter



• in areas affected by snowfall, roofs of shadestructures should be pitched to prevent snow build-up

• control of indirect UVR may be an importantconsideration given the high reflectivity of snow

• use should be made of natural vegetation in areaswhere it grows well.


33

9. Southern New Zealand 10. Mountainous/alpine regions

Southern New Zealandincludes Southland and theOtago coast.

This climate zone ischaracterised by cool coastalbreezes and a lack of shelterfrom unsettled weather thatmoves over the sea from thesouth and southwest.Sunshine hours are among the lowest in NewZealand and are often affected by low coastal cloudor by high cloud in foehn wind conditions. However,high temperatures are not uncommon when there arehot northwesterly conditions in summer. Suddentemperature changes can occur when north-westerlies are followed by cold southerlies orsouthwesterlies. Winters are cold with occasionalsnowfalls and frequent frost.• typical summer daytime maximum air temperatures

range from 16o C to 23o C, occasionally risingabove 30o C

• typical winter daytime maximum air temperaturesrange from 8o C to 12o C

• annual hours of bright sunshine average less than1600 hours. However, the midday summer solarultra violet index (UVI) is often very high. Earlyautumn and late spring UVI values are normallymoderate

• southwesterlies prevail for much of the time aboutSouthland. Northeasterlies are more frequent fromDunedin north.

Design Considerations• shade should be accessible from October to

February



• protection against cool southwesterly windsrequired in winter


• in areas affected by snowfall, roofs of shadestructures should be pitched to prevent snowbuild-up

• control of indirect UVR may be an importantconsideration given the high reflectivity of snow

• use should be made of natural vegetation.

This zone includes all areas 800 metres or more abovemean sea level, ie all major ski fields, as well as highcountry/alpine passes, and much of the North Islandcentral plateau.

Mountainous climates vary widely across NewZealand and may be subject to heavy snowfall, highwind, and low temperatures. Periods of rain usuallyoccur in moist northerly quarter airflows, whileshowery conditions are more likely with southerlyquarter airflow. Anticyclones often bring settledweather during summer, and winter conditions may beclear but very cold, with severe frost. The winterthrough spring period is often more unsettled than thesummer through autumn period• semi-permanent snow and ice fields exist at about

2200–300 metres in the central North Island, and1800–900 metres in the Southern Alps. Thesedescend to about 1400–500 metres in the NorthIsland, and 1000–100 metres in the Southern Alpsduring winter

• there are few measurements of annual hours ofbright sunshine in these areas. The midday summersolar ultra violet index (UVI) can be extreme. Wintervalues although low, are augmented by the reflectiveeffect of snowfall.

design considerations• shade should be accessible from November to

February


• protection against cool winds required throughoutthe year



• roofs of shade structures should be pitched toprevent snow build-up

• control of indirect UVR is an important considerationgiven the high reflectivity of snow.


34

Designing for comfort: general principles

A brief discussion of the issues and strategies follows.

in many locations the penetration of the sun’s warmthand light during winter will be necessary for thermalcomfort.• provide shade which excludes UVR but admits the

sun’s warmth and light. Translucent polycarbonatesheeting is ideal for this purpose (see Appendix C)

• adjustable devices may suit year-round use

• deciduous trees and other plants will allow warmthand light to penetrate when they lose their foliage.Alternative UVR protection may be needed foroutdoor spaces during these periods

• provide alternative external spaces for use indifferent seasons. Where space is available, thismay be an easier and more economical solution

• locate planned summer shade structures so as tonot increase winter shade

• planting can be used to form north-facingcourtyards or outdoor enclosures for socialgatherings or outdoor activities. Plant shelter beltsor wind screens to the south, southwest and west,leaving open sunny lawns to the north, adjacent tocovered outdoor paving that is warmed by the lowwinter sun. optimum location of

shade structures

Location B provides goodsummer shade withoutcreating additional wintershade. Location A willincrease winter shade.

In designing comfortable shaded outdoor areas thatwill be attractive for users, it may be necessary toadapt or modify the microclimate (local climaticconditions) of a site. Different strategies can beincorporated during the design stage of a shadeproject to counteract the negative effects of themicroclimate (yet within the broad context of theprevailing climatic conditions).



35

passive solar cooling andheating principles

in all locations cooling is recommended during thesummer months.• design the space to capture any prevailing breezes

• provide shade to the openings of shade structuresduring summer

• projecting eaves attached to buildings will cool theindoor and outdoor spaces during the summermonths. Eaves will also reduce direct UVR andindirect UVR, which could otherwise reflect andscatter off wall surfaces.

shading of walls and paved areas can significantlyincrease summer comfort levels• when exposed to direct sun, walls and paved

surfaces gain heat, which is ‘stored’ and re-radiated, increasing and maintaining the surroundingtemperature. In summer, this can result inoverheated, unpleasant outdoor spaces. By shadingwalls and paved areas, the heating of these surfacescan be significantly reduced and comfort levelsenhanced

• glare caused by the reflection of bright sunlight fromhard surfaces such as walls and paving can beunpleasant and increase the perception of heat.Shading of such surfaces reduces glare and resultsin more comfortable outdoor spaces.


• introduce passive solar heating principles whileexcluding UVR. This can be done by using darkcoloured external materials to absorb heat, such assome paving materials. However, ensure shading topaving in summer to limit indirect UVR and preventthe radiation of heat to shaded areas.


36

winter wind barrier

ways of encouragingcross-ventilation

5 Szokolay SV. Climate, comfort andenergy – Design of houses forQueensland climates. Brisbane:The Architectural Science Unit,The University of Queensland,1991.


in many locations, structures must be able towithstand strong winds.• gabled or hipped roof forms of pitch 30 produce the

best chances for equal pressure spread over thebuilding to avoid eddying and roof lift-off. Tie-downand bracing should be designed in accordance withNZS4203, 1992; Code of Practice for generalstructural design and design loadings for buildings

• trees located in proximity to a structure cansignificantly reduce wind loading on the structure

• select materials that are well suited to exposedlocations with high winds (eg metal roof sheeting)rather than those inherently more fragile (eg lowtensile shade cloth sails).

cross-ventillation will provide relief from excessivehumidity and prevent overheating of spaces.• where possible, orient openings towards the

direction from which cooling breezes come.However, if the requirements of a particular activitydo not allow for the ideal orientation, take measuresto channel the wind and change its direction

• air flow through the whole structure is due to apressure difference between the windward and theleeward sides. Wing walls, baffles, or dense groupsof bushes positioned on opposite sides of astructure will have the effect of inducing airflow.5

the exclusion of wind in the cooler part of the yearshould be considered.• observe the direction of any unwanted cold winter

winds and provide suitable windbreaks. These maytake the form of built attachments (such as screens)or dense tree and shrub ‘shelter belts’ adjacent tothe area requiring protection

37

4 Providing shade

There are numerous types of shade systems,incorporating natural or built components, or acombination of these. The following sections describethe major factors and considerations for each of theseapproaches.

Built shade is designed and constructed ofmanufactured components, unlike natural shadesolutions that use trees, large shrubs, vines andground covers to block direct UVR and absorb indirectUVR.

A comprehensive shade strategy will most likelyincorporate both built and natural shade solutions.

Personal shadePersonal shade includes the beach cabanaor umbrella. While cabanas generally offer goodprotection, umbrellas offer limited protection fromindirect UVR, due to their small size and opendesign. In addition, some products use shadefabrics that do not provide adequate protection fromdirect UVR.

Nevertheless, the worth of such structures shouldnot be discounted as a means of personal UVRprotection, provided other personal protectivemeasures are also taken.

4 Providing shade

38

Natural shade

The use of natural shade can be one of the mosteffective and aesthetically appealing ways of providingshade. Vegetation offers seasonal variations inperfume, colour and sounds. Many species producecolourful flowers or have attractive foliage or bark,some make good habitats for wildlife and manyspecies can be used to screen unwanted views,give wind protection and provide privacy.1 Othermaterials cannot accomplish these things as well asvegetation can.

The use of vegetation for shade also has a numberof environmental benefits including:• less need to use non-renewable resources

(used in many building materials)

• energy saved in comparison with built shadesystems, which often have high embodied energy(this is the sum of all energy used to produce amaterial, product or structure including extractionand processing of raw materials, manufacturing,assembly and transportation)

• fewer disposal problems as plants generallyact as nutrients during decomposition

• absorption of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,thereby potentially counter-balancing the‘greenhouse effect’.

1 Parsons, P et al. The shady sideof solar protection. MedicalJournal of Australia 6 April 1998;168.

Natural shade

further reading• Cave, Yvonne and Valda Paddison. The gardeners’

encyclopaedia of New Zealand native plants.Auckland: Random House, 1999.

• Palmer, Stanley J. Palmer’s Manual of Trees, Shrubsand Climbers. Queensland: Lancewood Publishing,1994.

• Yates NZ Ltd. Yates Garden Guide.New Zealand: Yates New Zealand Ltd, 1994.

The effectiveness of natural shade depends on thedensity of the foliage. Foliage and timber will blockdirect UVR, but gaps in the canopy will allow UVR topenetrate. The size of the canopy (of a tree or groupof trees) is also an important consideration. The largerthe canopy diameter, the greater the opportunity forprotection from scattered or reflected UVR. The heightof the branches from the ground can also influencethe effectiveness of natural shade, with low branchesproviding better protection.1

It should be noted that introducing complete, or evenpartial shading by vegetation may affect the viabilityof existing under-storey vegetation. The landscape ofshaded areas, as a result, may need to be treateddifferently to that of non-shaded areas.

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Natural shade

noteMost local councils now have positive treeplanting policies and special tree preservation ordersin place. They also may donate free native trees forplanting in public places.

Landscape planning and design

without planting

Vegetation (including trees, shrubs, vines and groundcovers) should be considered an essential part ofshade planning and site design, as it possesses manyqualities which enhance outdoor spaces. In addition,people intuitively associate trees with shade whenseeking relief from the heat of the sun. It thereforemakes sense to place a high priority on the strategicuse of trees and planting to provide shaded areas.

In providing natural shade, there are a number oflandscape planning and design issues that should beconsidered. The main issues are discussed on pages40 and 41.

with planting

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Natural shade

note

the surrounding environmentPlanting should be consistent with, and sympatheticto, the scale and character of the surroundingenvironment. Considerations include existingvegetation, townscape character, the cultural heritagevalue of existing planting, buildings/smaller built itemsand their settings as well as the landscape identity ofthe locality.

In some situations exotic species may be the mostappropriate selection, for example, in urban areassuch as parks and sports grounds. However, whereparks and open public areas adjoin a naturalwaterway, nature reserve or rural countryside, theappropriate local native species should be used.

local conditionsLocal conditions eg soil climate and salinity, willinfluence the species of plants that will be suitable fora given location. Advice on local conditions shouldtherefore always be sought before selecting plantspecies for a site. This information can be obtainedfrom regional councils and local nurseries.

planting patterns and locationIt is important to consider site usage patterns whenselecting and positioning planting so that shade isprovided at the desired time of year. For example, if avenue is used mainly in summer, locate shade trees orvines to provide good summer shade. If a venue is inuse year round, deciduous species are moreappropriate than evergreens, which may obstruct thetransmission of light and warmth in winter.

If you wish to create continuous shade along apathway, plant trees close enough together to createa visual and physical avenue effect at maturity. If youwish to create shade for areas where peoplecongregate, plant trees in groups with spacing thatallows their canopies to overlap at maturity. Analternative approach would be to use a trellis coveredwith a fast growing, dense foliage climber.

long-term effects on the builtsurrounding environmentThe long-term effects of the planting on thesurrounding built environment should be taken intoaccount. For example, keep large trees away fromoverhead power lines and underground services,particularly drainage lines. Similarly, the root systemsof trees can cause the uplifting of nearby footpaths.The placement of root barriers between the roots andthe path is one way of preventing this.

See Chapter 3, Protecting againstsolar UVR, for a discussion of the10 broad climate zones of NewZealand.

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note

Natural shade

noteLandcare Research at Lincolm Universityprovides information on toxic plants.There is a small charge. This informationis also available on the Landcarewebsite: www.mwpress.co.nz

See Chapter 2, Sun facts,for information on the UVRreflectance of differentground surfaces.

the use of New Zealand nativeplantingThe choice of a New Zealand native treeor an exotic (introduced) species should beguided by a number of criteria including:• shade needs

• the climate and microclimate

• the physical conditions of the site, eg soil type

• the aspect

• the landscape character of the setting.

Deciduous trees have the advantage of allowingsun through in winter but drop leaves in autumn.One of the benefits of using New Zealand nativeplant species is that they will also provide ahabitat for local wildlife, thus enhancing thebiodiversity of an area.

special considerations in relation to siteusersIf children predominantly use a site for example, it isimportant to avoid plants that have high toxicityratings, spiky branches, or that drop fruits or seeds.Trees that are small to medium in size should beselected. Avoid species that are more likely to droptheir branches than others. Shrubs that branch clearof the ground can provide play areas under theirfoliage.

designing ground surfaces to controlindirect UVRAs ground surfaces can be a major contributor toindirect UVR at a site, the selection of surfacematerials with low UVR reflectance is an importantconsideration.

Grass is commonly used as a ground surface.However, some of the potential problems associatedwith this surface are the significant amounts of waterrequired; the need for considerable maintenance(particularly for grass lawns); and problemsassociated with fertiliser run-off into waterways. Itshould be noted that water usage for this purposecould be reduced by planting species of trees whichwill partially shade the grass. Native ground covers,trailing plants or low shrubs can be used to coverlarge areas which are not required for walking orsitting; or under trees where grass will not grow.

In areas where water is limited and costly, or supplyis not assured (or where grass and planting is difficultto maintain) fine loose stone such as decomposedgravel or graded local stone can be used. Thisapproach will still allow for water penetration to theroots of nearby shade trees. In addition, a well-draining compacted surface such as this will notform mud in wet weather, or blow around as dustduring dry weather.

watering and maintenanceIt is important to ensure that ongoing maintenance willbe available to maintain the effectiveness of thenatural shade system or ground cover. Consider ifthere is an adequate water supply and the possibilityof using greywater recycling systems for irrigation.

At the planting stage, it may be worth selectingspecies that have good water retention properties.Many New Zealand native species have thischaracteristic. Again, further advice can be obtainedfrom regional councils as well as local nurseries.Native plants will also often require less maintenancethan highly manicured lawns and gardens.

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Built shade

Permanent systems

Built shade comprises all shade systems that areconstructed, as distinct from natural shade. Oneadvantage of using built shade systems, especiallypermanent systems, is that they can often be usedfor a number of purposes besides providing shade.For example, a shade structure could be used tocollect rainwater for irrigation; or a structure couldsupport photovoltaic cells, (either as a mountedarray or as a laminated roofing material) for thegeneration of electricity.

Built shade systems can be either stand-alonestructures, or systems which are incorporated intoexisting buildings and other facilities. They can becategorised as follows:• permanent systems

• demountable systems

• adjustable systems.

Permanent systems are considered to be those whichlast for at least 10 years. Their structure commonlycomprises a roof with associated supporting structureand sometimes side protection, to reduce the effectsof indirect UVR.

It is very important that permanent roofing systemsare durable as they need to withstand the harshest ofconditions, eg exposure to sun, rain and wind uplift.From an environmental and economic point of view,regular maintenance of these systems is essential toensure their long life span, thus reducing the need forreplacement of materials.

The component parts of a permanent system shouldeither be cheap and easy to replace, or they shouldhave a life span equivalent to that of the main partsof the structure. There is no point having a metal roofwith a useful life of 60 years that needs to be replacedafter 10 years, because the supporting structure orfixings did not last.

Permanent systems are likely to gain more favourableconsideration from funding bodies that provide capitalworks subsidies.

Built shade

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43

Demountable systems

Built shade

Adjustable systems

Demountable systems are likely to be a more practicaland cost-effective alternative to permanent structureswhere:• shade needs are infrequent

• temporary shade is required at varying locations

• a permanent structure is incompatible with therange of activities that take place at a site.

Some demountable systems can be adapted for usein a variety of situations such as above tiered seatingas well as over large flat surface areas. Some can beplaced on a variety of ground surface conditions suchas sand, grass and pavement.

Demountable systems may be designed in modularforms that can be extended or contracted dependingon the circumstances. This may consist of alightweight framework and fabric infills which provideoverhead cover, as well as walls where they arerequired. Alternatively, they may comprise tent-likeforms, such as large marquees or lightweight tensionmembrane structures.

The demountable system should be easy to erect anddismantle. Complex assemblies are time-consumingand increase the risk of incorrect installation. Forexample, tension membrane structures are quick toerect because the canopy is in one piece. Structuresusing conventional materials usually take longer toerect because there are more components andfixings.

Demountable systems need to be strong enoughto withstand the wear resulting from frequenttransportation, assembly and dismantling. Theavailability of suitable storage facilities is essentialto maintain the product in good condition. Theirtemporary nature means that they are less likely tobe subject to vandalism.

Adjustable systems range from very simple devices tothose which use sophisticated technology. They offera high degree of flexibility, allowing protection levels tobe modified according to the time of day or season,and to satisfy a variety of user needs. They can beeither permanent or demountable.

Adjustable shade systems should be easy andconvenient to operate. For example, if operation istime-consuming, difficult or requires specialistattention, use of a device may be discouraged.Systems should also be easy to operate in stormswhen prompt dismantling of the structure may benecessary.

Components such as pulleys and cables should becorrosion resistant; use of stainless steel isrecommended where possible.

Adjustable shade systems are usually attached to apermanent structure and fall broadly into the followingtwo types:

• retractable devices such as canvas awnings

• louvred devices.

retractable devicesThese can cover large areas and can, in some cases,offer rain as well as UVR protection. The mostcommon of these is of the fabric ‘roll-out’ type.One simple form is the fabric awning, cantilevered orsupported by a pergola-like frame. Fabric awnings canalso be supported on folding or telescopic arms,which allow adjustments to achieve the requiredvertical shadow angle. These devices are available inmanually operated or motorised form.

Where fabric canopies are tensioned on extension, itis important that they are as taut as possible. This isbecause movement and flapping of the canopy willreduce the life span of the device. The canopy shouldbe able to be tightened and adjusted as the fabricstretches over time.

It is also important to ensure that the canopy can beadequately stored when retracted. Folding back into awell-ventilated box will extend the life span of thedevice and prevent accidental damage.

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44

There are positive and negative environmental impactsassociated with retractable devices.The negative impacts include those resulting fromthe manufacture and disposal of plastic and othersynthetic materials commonly used in canopy devices.On the other hand, only a small volume of material,and therefore less embodied energy (see Glossary), isrequired to produce the canopies.

Built shade

examples of retractabledevices

Diagrams A, B and Care examples of linearsystems that consist ofa folding canopy that issupported or suspendedfrom tensioned wires ora solid frame.

Diagram D is an exampleof vertical shading thatcan be used to blockreflected and scatteredUVR.

Diagram E illustratesa type of retractableawning that is thought tohave been used on alarge scale to shadeseating areas ofamphitheatres in Romantimes.

Diagram F demonstrateshow adjustable awningscan be used to extendoverhangs on existingbuildings.

Diagram G is an exampleof a canopy that retractsin one piece; retractioncan be achieved by asimple system of pulleysand rope or wire.

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45

louvred devicesA range of manually adjusted louvre roof systems arecommercially available. These systems offer a highdegree of control and flexibility for shading of outdoorareas. They can be adjusted to totally exclude thesun’s rays or to create partial shade. Most louvredesigns have the added advantage of providingprotection against rain.

The louvre blades are usually an aerofoil design,fabricated in pre-painted steel or aluminium. Othermaterials can also be used for the louvre blades. Forexample, corrugated polycarbonate sheet could beused in situations where UVR protection andventilation are required, without excluding warmth andlight. Louvres of expanded metal mesh could be usedwhere waterproofing is not a priority.

If the louvres are placed vertically, the louvre wall canbe an effective wind deflector, or wind gatherer, inaddition to providing protection against direct andindirect UVR.

Also available in the marketplace are louvred roofswhich open and close automatically in response tosensors triggered by wind, rain and solar radiation.

louvred walls and roofs

Built shade

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46

Components of built shade

This relationship between the shading element andsupporting structure is significant in determiningthe functional performance of built shade. Short-spanstructural systems necessarily result in a high numberof supporting columns. While in some situations thismay not present a problem, locations such as schoolplaygrounds require shaded areas substantially free ofcolumns. The design brief should define therequirements of the area to be shaded, and thedesigner should ensure that span characteristics ofthe supporting structure comply with the requirementsof the brief.

The final cost of built shade is also significantlyaffected by the relationship between the shadingelement and supporting structure. Selecting a cheapmaterial for the shading element will not be cost-effective if an extensive and costly structure is requiredto support the selected material. In order to achievethe most cost-effective outcome, the designer mustselect materials and structural systems that togetherprovide the optimum solution for the brief.

In planning built shade, the required life of the shadestructure should be determined and designed for.The post-life use of the materials, ie how they maybe re-used, recycled or disposed, should also beconsidered and designed for.

For all built structures, large or small, it is essential toseek professional structural advice and certificationfrom a qualified structural engineer. This certification isrequired for building applications and will ensurestructural integrity and safety.

noteSee page 78 for moreinformation on thedesign brief.

Built shade consists of:

• the supporting structure, which is required tomaintain the shading element in position

• the primary shading element, ie the material thatcomprises the canopy or roof.

The properties of the shading element, such as massand span, will strongly influence the design of therequired supporting structure. For example:• relatively lightweight materials such as metal or

translucent roof sheeting, which are capable ofspanning up to 1.2 metres, will require lesssupporting structure than a roof of terracottatiles, which are significantly heavier and requiresupporting battens about every 300mm

• a project that uses structural fabric or shade clothas the primary shading element will require lesssupporting structure than metal roof sheeting, asfabrics are lighter and span greater distances whenin tension

• solid fabrics such as canvas or reinforced PVC donot allow wind to pass through in the same manneras open-weave shade cloth, and therefore requiresupporting structures that can resist a much higherlevel of wind loading.

Built shade

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47

structure diagram suitable typical notesmaterial span

beams steel up to 30m span is dependent ontimber up to 15m the type of materialconcrete 7–20m used and the design

of the beam

girders steel up to 20mtimber up to 18m

(non-laminated)

trusses steel 8–15m span is dependent ontimber design of truss

portal frames steel up to 80m an integrated frame,timber up to 50m form can be designedconcrete 20–40m to suit need

space frames steel dependent ontype of systemused

arch structure steel, timber large spans ofup to 90m

tension steel dependent on three main types:membrane type of system 1 cable – cables tensionstructure membrane

2 tent – membranestretched oversupports andanchored to ground

3 air – tensioned by airpressure in/undermembrane

tension stay steel roof of structure is partlystructure suspended by same

structure

Built shade

structural systems for long spans 3

3 Elder A. A handbook ofbuilding enclosure. London:The Architectural Press, 1974.

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48

primary shading elementThere are five main categories of materials whichcan be used for the primary shading element.

standard building materials

These include:• metal or tile roofing

• timber

• concrete

• masonry

• other conventional building materials.

Significant advantages over other materials are theirassured long life, non-combustibility (except fortimber), waterproofing and resistance to vandalism.Given their long life, it is often possible to sourcethese materials second hand, which reduces theneed for the manufacture of new materials.

However, standard building materials arecharacterised by straight line geometry and, unlesscreatively and carefully designed, can lack aestheticappeal.5 They also require a substantial supportingstructure.

rigid translucent materials

These include:

• treated glass

• polycarbonate

• acrylic

• fibreglass sheeting.

These materials block direct UVR while allowing thetransmission of heat and diffuse light. They are mostsuitable for structures intended for winter UVRprotection. Being waterproof, they also offer rainprotection and can be used to collect water.

It should be noted, however, that many rigidtranslucent materials, especially the plastic-derivedones, carry a number of environmental costs.

It is therefore recommended that rigid translucentmaterials only be used where some other

supporting structureThe supporting structure required to maintain theshading element in position consists of two elements:• the footings

• the support system.

The function of the footings is to convey the loadson a structure to the ground. In addition to the loadresulting from the weight of the structure, wind cancause significant uplift forces on lightweight structures.For this reason, footings need to be strong enough tohold the structure in place.

There are different types of footings to suit different siteconditions. The type chosen is dependent on thesuperstructure, soil conditions and loading conditions,eg wind.4 The existence of underground services mayinfluence the type of footing used and its positioning.

The support system, ie columns and beams, holds theroof canopy in place. When selecting a support systema number of factors should be considered including:• foundation conditions

• span to be covered

• nature and magnitude of loads on the structure, egwind and weight of building materials

• aesthetics (also in regard to possible future alterations)

• proposed erection method as well asflexibility in use

• fabrication costs

• environmental considerations such as:

– its embodied energy

– the lifespan of the structure compared to thatof fixtures and canopy materials

– suitability of support structure for additionaluses eg water collection/ photovoltaic array

– the possibility of re-using the materials at the end ofthe structure’s life (especially for long-life materials),and the ability for material to bedisassembled or recycled to minimise waste.

Built shade

4 Stroud Foster J. Mitchell’sadvanced building construction –The structure. London: BTBatsford Ltd, 1963.

5 Davis BT. Shade roof systems foropen deck car parks, playgroundsand similar areas. Paperpresented to MembraneStructures Association ofAustralasia Conference; Auckland,New Zealand, July 1–2 1993.

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49

6 New South Wales Cancer Council.Review of Shade Materials(unpublished).

Built shade

environmental benefit can be achieved, for example,where their use may offset or reduce the need forartificial lighting or heating.

Rigid translucent materials are typically supported atrelatively close centres (approximately one metre) onmetal or timber framing. Relatively high maintenance isrequired, both for cleaning and inspections of gasketsand fixings. If correctly installed, sealed andmaintained, their life span is medium- to long-term.

structural fabrics

Examples of structural fabrics include canvas or PVCcoated polyester. Being tightly woven, they excludemost UVR. Structural fabrics can be easily demountedand used elsewhere, need less support structure thando permanent fixed systems and require far lessmaterial for the shading element itself. Some structuralfabrics, however, are non-recyclable and so willcontribute to landfill at the end of their life.

Like translucent sheets, structural fabrics arecombustible. They require regular maintenance,including cleaning, to retain light transmittance.

knitted or woven fabrics

Knitted or woven fabrics, such as shade cloth, actas a physical barrier to direct UVR, with littletransmittance through the yarn, but 100 percenttransmittance through openings in the fabric structure.Different colours and fabric densities provide differentlevels of protection. For example,a two-tone cloth may have different ratings for eachcolour. If the material is tightly stretched duringinstallation, the holes in the fabric may expand andallow more UVR to penetrate.

Shade cloths are generally rated in terms of a ‘coverfactor’ that indicates the amount of light blocked.While the correlation between the blockage of lightand UVR is high, it is not an accurate measure of UVRprotection. However, many manufacturers/suppliershave had their shade cloth rated for UVRtransmission. These ratings may vary from less than50 percent to more than 90 percent.6

As the life span of shade cloths is usually short(due primarily to their susceptibility to weathering),they are often used as an interim measure whilenatural shade is growing. Life span can be extendedby designing to allow for progressive tightening tooffset stretching.

From an environmental perspective, these materialsare generally lightweight so, like structural fabrics, theyrequire less support structure than do permanent fixedsystems. However, as it is generally not economicallyviable to recycle most of these materials (especiallythose that utilise a number of different materials types,eg PVC coated yarn), their disposal will usuallycontribute to landfill.

Some important points to note about shade clothinclude:• it may be characterised by poor durability if used

in a location subject to windy conditions

• while a relatively inexpensive shade option, careneeds to be taken to ensure that the fabric selectedprovides at least 94 percent protection from directUVR

• it is often rated as providing ‘up to’ a certain level ofprotection, eg up to 95 percent protection. It isnecessary to ascertain the actual protection offeredas a minimum, not as a maximum.

other materials

Although shingles, shakes, thatch, brush and latticeare now less commonly used than conventionalmaterials, they have the potential to be used creativelyin modern settings. They can provide very effectivebarriers to direct UVR, are biodegradable and canoften be locally sourced, sometimes from the siteitself.

With proper design, installation and maintenance, thelife span of a structure made from these materials canbe greatly increased. However, they are often morelabour intensive to install and maintain.

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UPF % UVR % UVR Protection categoryrange absorbed transmitted described in the

Australian/NewZealand standard

15 – 24 93.3 – 95.8 6.7 – 4.2 Good

25 – 39 95.9 – 97.4 4.1 – 2.6 Very good protection

40 – 50+ 97.5> <2.5 Excellent protection

7 AS/ NZS 4399:1996 Sunprotective clothing – Evaluationand classification. StandardsAustralia and Standards NewZealand.

UPFs explainedThe ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) is a scaledeveloped by the Australian Radiation Laboratory (ARL)to rate the UVR protection provided by materials. Theterm UPF was chosen to distinguish it from the SPFscheme for sunscreens, though the protectivecategories are directly comparable. A material’s UPFrating is based on the percentage of UVR transmittedthrough the material.

In 1996, Standards Australia and Standards NewZealand jointly published a standard for sun protectiveclothing (AS/NZS 4399:1996).7 The standarddescribes the testing methods and labellingrequirements for UPF-rated clothing. Although thestandard applies only to personal clothing, the ARL hasstated that for non-clothing items such as tents,awnings and umbrellas, it would be reasonable toattach a label stating the UPF rating of the fabric, aslong as it is clear that the rating applies to the fabriconly. The ARL states that this may involve a disclaimerto the effect that the UPF rating only applies to thematerial used in the construction of the item and not tothe item as a whole.8

The following table is based on the UPF ClassificationSystem as it is presented in AS/NZS 4399:1996. Thetable relates UPF to the percentage of UVR transmittedand absorbed by materials.

Selecting shade materials

Built shade

noteAppendix C containsdetailed information onthe qualities of differentshade materials.

8 Gies PH. Letter to Australianradiation laboratory clients.October 1996.

When selecting materials for the primary shadingelement, the following issues need to be considered:• suitability for proposed design

• ultraviolet protection factor (UPF)

• desired level of light transmission

• desired level of solar heat gain

• waterproofing qualities

• environmental consequences

• wind resistance and structural implications

• ease of replacement

• maintenance requirements

• life span of UVR protective qualities

• particular properties

• relative cost

• compliance with the New Zealand Building Code, egstructures must be structurally durable and alsoensure users are not exposed to undue risk fromfire.

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an example of a tensionmembrane structure

• care should be taken to ensure that the curvature ofthe TMS is suitable for minimising indirect UVR

• regular forms of TMSs may lead to excessive noiselevels. Complex or irregular forms, or the use of softground surfaces underneath the structure, may helpto avoid this

• because TMSs require minimal supportingstructures and are lightweight, fewer materials areneeded, which is an environmental benefit.However, these materials often have negativeenvironmental impacts associated with their use ofnon-renewable resources, manufacture anddisposal.

For small areas, off-the-shelf TMSs may producegood results, provided that the item is of good qualityand that care is taken with orientation.

The design and construction of TMSs is a specialistarea. A list of specialist design firms can be obtainedfrom the Lightweight Structures Association ofAustralasia (see page 155).

noteSee Appendix B for contactdetails for the LightweightStructures Association ofAustralasia.

Tension membrane structures (TMSs) are increasinglybeing used in shade projects. Despite this, they areoften the type of structure with which people are leastfamiliar.

Comprising reinforced structural fabrics which aresupported at the perimeters with edge cables,TMSs require minimal structural supports. TMSs area cost-effective option where shade is required forlarge areas which need to be column-free.

The structural efficiency of a TMS is directly related tothe degree of curvature in the fabric. The fabric resistswind-load exerted upon it by a combination of tensionand curvature. The tension is usually carried by edgecables which can develop and withstand largetensions.

There are a number of issues relating to TMSs thatshould be noted:

• due to the large tensions, it is often difficult to attachTMSs to existing buildings, especially those withtimber frames or non-reinforced brickwork orblockwork

• if using a complex curved TMS, considerationneeds to be given to the shade created to ensurethat it is appropriate to the need. For example, thecommonly used hypar is a double-curved surfacewhich is formed by twisting a square shape, so thatit has two high corners diagonally opposite eachother, and two correspondingly low corners.However, the upward sweep of the surface meansthat, unless the structure is meticulously oriented,little protection is achieved from direct and indirectUVR

Built shade

Tension membrane structures

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9 Alexander-Gabrielson M.Swimming pools – A guide to theirplanning, design and operation.Illinois: Human Kinetics PublishersInc, 1987.

10 Brisbane City Council, Departmentof Recreation and Health. Tenderdocuments for supply and deliveryof shade structures (unpublished).1993.

Off-the-shelf structures

• ensure canopy material provides at least 94 percentprotection against direct UVR transmission. Ask tosee test results of the material’s UVR transmissionlevels

• check that the level of protection claimed for theproduct is guaranteed for its lifetime

• ensure the structure does not contribute to hazardoussituations, eg placement of guy ropes may result intrip hazards

• ensure the structure is certified by a qualifiedstructural engineer

• inspect examples of previous work done by thesupplier. If possible, talk to previous clients about howthe product has performed over time

• if the contract is for supply and installation, ensurethat the price quoted includes engineering certificationof the installed structure including footings.

Vandalism and other damageVandalism can be a major problem, but there are stepsshade planners can take to prevent damage to shadestructures:• select hard to damage materials eg corrugated metal

roofing

• keep covers high – at least 2.5 metres at low points

• covers over playground equipment need to be higherthan any adult standing on the top platform of theequipment

• keep poles one metre away from fences, walls, roofs,trees, and other structures that can be climbed

• separate sails from buildings by cable attachments atleast one metre long

• do not place tables and chairs directly under theedges of structures

• try to fade shelters into the natural environment –avoid bold colours and stripes. Sail designs seem toattract the most vandalism

• shelters should be difficult to take down and /or steal

• keep cloth covers away from barbeques to avoidcinders causing holes.

Off-the-shelf structures are those that arepre-manufactured for assembly on any site. Whilesome purchase contracts provide for supply only,others provide for supply and installation. In theappropriate situation, off-the-shelf structures canprovide a readily available, cost-effective method ofshade provision.

Prospective buyers of off-the-shelf structuresshould determine the shade needs of the site priorto approaching suppliers. Unless a Shade Audit hasbeen conducted, it is impossible to determine if anoff-the-shelf structure will meet the requirements ofthe design brief.

It should be remembered that shade suppliers willnot necessarily offer independent advice and maynot offer advice beyond their own product range.Given that these products are pre-designed, it mayalso be difficult to find a product that suits all therequirements of the particular site.

If the decision is made to purchase an off-the-shelfstructure the following issues should beconsidered: 9, 10

• ensure the structure meets the requirements of thedesign brief:

– will the structure provide the type of shaderequired at the right time of day, at the right time ofyear

– does it allow for the type of activity taking placenear or under it, eg are columns too close to playequipment

– does it provide an adequate amount of shade forthe number of potential users

– will it affect lighting levels during night-time use

– does it enhance the attractiveness of thesurrounding environment

– have potential sources of damage beenconsidered, eg vandalism, storms, strong winds

Built shade

noteThe method forconducting a ShadeAudit can be found onpage 61.

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a vine-covered pergola

combining structure andvegetation to meet short-and long-term shadeneeds

Systems combining both natural and built shadewill potentially exhibit the advantages of both. Thisapproach may be particularly appropriate for settingssuch as picnic areas, school playgrounds andspectator zones at playing fields.

Natural and built elements can be combined toprovide effective shade in several ways:• vegetation can be used to improve the comfort

levels afforded by shade structures. For examplein summer, plants can be used to channel breezesthrough a structure. In winter, they can be used toprovide windbreaks.

• short-life built structures can be used to provideUVR protection until vegetation planted for shadepurposes matures. The structure should have a lifeof six to 10 years to allow for a reasonable degree ofmaturity of shade trees.

• structures can be used to support shade-producingvegetation. For example, a vine-covered overheadpergola or a lattice screen, interwoven with climbingplants, can be particularly appropriate duringsummer.

Combinations of natural and built shade

Combinations of natural and built shade

note

There are three main stages in a shade project:Stage 1: Planning

Stage 2: Design

Stage 3: Construction.

This chapter suggests the steps and principles thatshould be considered during each of these stages.Some organisations will have existing procedures forinitiatives such as a shade project. If your organisationdoes not have such procedures in place, the stepsand principles outlined in this chapter will be a usefulguide. Six case studies have also been included todemonstrate the practice of implementing a shadeproject.

5 The shade project

The information containedin this chapter is applicableto both new developmentsand the redevelopment ofexisting facilities.

55

5 The shade project

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Effective planning is essential for the success of ashade project. The following points can be used as aguide during the planning process.

establish a project team

A project team should consist of representativesof key stakeholders such as property owners andmanagers, site users and other interested parties.By establishing a project team you will help toensure that these stakeholders are involvedthroughout the project. A project team will alsoprovide the opportunity to draw upon the expertiseof its members.

As conflicts can sometimes occur amongstakeholders, it is useful to clearly specify howthe team should operate, including the roles andresponsibilities of members. Conflicts should notnecessarily be resolved in favour of the most influentialstakeholder or the cheapest solution.

consult with other interested parties

In most situations consultation beyond that whichoccurs within the project team will be necessary.This is because it may not always be practicable todirectly involve all interested parties in the team. Itis particularly important that the views and opinions ofthe people who use the site are considered. This inputcan be obtained as part of the Shade Audit.

conduct a Shade Inventory

For organisations with a number of sites undertheir control or a large site comprising a number ofprecincts, eg hospitals or universities, the ShadeInventory provides the means for prioritising theprovision of shade.

conduct a Shade Audit

The Shade Audit will determine the adequacy ofexisting shade and whether there is a need for moreshade. An accurate assessment of need undertakenearly in the project will help to achieve shade that is:• appropriately located

• of appropriate size

• cost-effective.

The method for conducting a Shade Audit follows inthis chapter. An example of a completed Shade Auditcan be found in Appendix E, p177.

prepare a design brief

The information obtained from the Shade Audit will formthe basis of the design brief. The purpose of the designbrief is to document the shade needs of the site so thatan appropriate solution can be designed. The brief willdescribe particular requirements of the project, such asthe consideration of prevailing climatic conditions andthe potential for vandalism.

More detailed information on what information toinclude in a design brief can be found on page 78.

noteFor information onconducting a ShadeInventory seeAppendix D.

noteThe method for conductinga Shade Audit follows inthis chapter on page 61.

Planning

Planning

Steps to effective planning

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explore potential sources of funding

There are a number of potential sources of funding forshade projects.• Lottery Grants Board New Zealand

The Lottery Grants Board may provide funding forshade projects on sites that are accessible to thegeneral public for more than 30 hours a week.Secondary schools which run adult educationclasses may qualify but primary schools would haveto show their playground facilities are accessible tothe public

• local councils

Many councils will provide free trees for planting inpublic places. Councils in some parts of NewZealand have also contributed funding to shadeprojects. For more information contact your localcouncil’s community funding officer

• community services organisations, community trustsand pub charities

Within the community there are a range ofcommunity service organisations that will oftenprovide assistance to worthwhile projects, especiallywhere children are to be the beneficiaries. Tryorganisations such as Lions, Rotary, and communitytrusts to find you if your project fits into their fundingcriteria. Approach local pubs that donate profitsfrom gaming machines to community developments

• Government sources

Government assistance and funding programmestend to be subject to regular change but thesebodies may provide support for projects that fallwithin their area of responsibility. Approach localhospitals, public health units, or other governmentagencies which promote public health

Schools can apply to the Ministry of EducationFinancial Assistance Scheme, which may provide 50to 70 percent of the funding needed for a range ofprojects, including shade structures. Fundingdecisions depend on the priorities within a schooldistrict

• business sponsorship

Local businesses or national corporations may beinterested in being associated with shade projects atoutdoor venues. Commercial benefits flow back tothe sponsor through advertising and signage,publicity via media coverage of events andacknowledgment in local editorials for associationwith UVR protection. There may be tax benefits forsponsoring organisations if support is given in theform of a donation

• Fund View

Fund View is a database of funders throughout thecountry. You enter in details about your organisationand project and the database will come up with alist of potential funders and their criteria. Fund Viewcan be accessed through most public libraries andthrough the Department of Internal Affairs in centralWellington and their regional offices.

Planning

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Design

note

The design stage will provide solutions to the shadeneeds as identified in the design brief. Listed beloware some key issues to consider during this stage.

consult your local council

Determine what development controls apply to yoursite, eg heritage restrictions.

think about the type of shade systemthat may be appropriate for your site

Shade systems can be built, natural or a combinationof these. In many situations the shade solution willinclude a combination of natural and built elements.Built systems can be either purpose-builtor off-the-shelf. Information on the selection andpurchase of off-the-shelf structures can be found inChapter 4, Providing shade.

It is rare that a single solution, eg constructing ashade structure, will provide enough shade to protectagainst direct and indirect UVR. Usually a series ofactions will be required to provide adequate shade ina range of situations at a given site.

consider whether it is necessary to obtainprofessional assistance from an architect and/orlandscape architect

If you expect that your shade solution will require morethan an off-the-shelf structure, it is likely that theexpertise of an architect and possibly a landscapearchitect will be required.

The advantage of obtaining such assistance is that theshade solution is more likely to be designed accordingto the specific needs of your site. In addition, detaileddesign plans and documentation will be required bymost external funding organisations and if localcouncil development approval is required.

If an architect has been engaged to manage thedesign and documentation of the project, it is likelythat the process of obtaining local council approvalswill be facilitated, as architects are familiar with thisprocess. Appendix B contains a list of relevantprofessional associations.

consider the range of shade optionsand their likely costs

At the design stage it is necessary to compare thecosts of alternative solutions and to assess whetherthese are within your budget.

It is important to keep in mind the long-term costsof alternative solutions. The selection of a particularshade option based only on initial costs may not becost-effective in the long term. Structures thatdeteriorate quickly or are susceptible to vandalismwill contribute to high ongoing maintenance costs.A more substantial structure may provide additionalbenefits such as rain protection, despite its higherinitial cost.

discuss the shade options with relevant stakeholders

The input of stakeholders early in the design stagemay help to ensure that all are satisfied with the endresult. You may choose to encourage wider input bypublicly displaying sketch plans of the options.Remember to involve the architect in discussions withstakeholders.

If approval needs to be obtained from within yourorganisation or from the owners or managers of yoursite, it is particularly important that they have theopportunity to comment on proposed shade optionsat an early stage of the project.

See Appendix C for acomparison of shadematerials, including theirrelative costs and durability.

Design

Key design issues

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determine the preferred shade option

Once feedback from stakeholders has been obtained,you will be able to determine the preferred shadeoption. The architect will then be able to finalisedrawings and documentation.

Some shade options, eg tension membranestructures, require specialist engineering input.In these situations, the architect will involve otherprofessionals.

submit the plans to your local council for approval

In most cases a building consent and projectinformation memorandum must be obtained from thelocal council before a shade project can commence.Some small buildings, such as simple structures ofless than 10m2, may not need a building consent andcouncils have the discretion to waive the requirementfor a consent when they have seen plans for theproposed structure. However, the work must complywith the building code1 even if a consent is notrequired.

The Building Code2 does not prescribe constructionmethods or materials but is designed to ensure anystructure will meet the required performances. Thecode states minimum performance levels such as:• protecting the health, safety and amenity of people

• protecting other property from damage

• enabling efficient use of energy.

Design

A resource consent may also be needed forconstruction of a shade structure in somecircumstances. A project information memorandumissued with the consent will advise of any suchrequirements.

The Building Regulations 1992 require that consentsfor work with an estimated value of less than$500,000 be processed within 10 working days.However, the clock is stopped on the consent processif Council has to ask the project planners for moredetails.

A building consent lapses if no work has commencedwithin six calendar months after issue or if reasonableprogress has not been made within 12 calendarmonths after work has started.

At the end of the work territorial authorities issue acode compliance certificate that signifies they aresatisfied the completed building work complies withthe requirements of the building code.

You can access technical and legal information aboutbuilding and building regulations at the BuildingIndustry Authority website: www.bia.co.nz

1 First Schedule to the BuildingRegulations, 1992.

2 The Building Act, BuildingApprovals (pamphlet). BuildingIndustry Authority.

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The approach taken during the construction stagewill be determined by the degree of complexity ofthe shade design and whether the proposed structureis to be purpose-built or selected from a range of pre-manufactured shade products. If the designincorporates a complicated structure, it may be cost-effective to enter into a ‘design and constructcontract’ with a specialist firm. If a less complexstructure or pre-manufactured product is proposed,a standard construction or purchase contract with abuilder, manufacturer or supplier will be sufficient.

There are a number of steps that need to be notedduring this stage:• read and understand any contract documents

• develop a checklist system for site visits

• maintain appropriate records

• obtain the builder’s construction programme

• obtain the builder’s anticipated schedule forprogress payment claims

• obtain the builder’s insurance certificates

• obtain the manufacturers’ guarantees on materials.

The construction phase should be monitored by thearchitect or a member of the project team.

noteThe completion of the construction stage should notbe considered to be the end of the shade project. Assite usage patterns often change, ongoing monitoringof the adequacy of shade at the site is essential.

Construction

Construction

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noteOwners/managers of large or multiple sites, eguniversities or local councils, should conduct a ShadeInventory prior to conducting a Shade Audit. A ShadeInventory provides a procedure for ranking multiple sites(or areas within a site) in order of their need for UVRprotective shade. More information on the ShadeInventory can be found in Appendix D.

note

The Shade Audit

The purpose of conducting a Shade Audit is toprovide a strategic plan for the provision of sufficientUVR protective shade at a site. This is achieved by:• establishing the usage patterns at the site

• assessing the quantity and useability of existingshade

• assessing the need for additional shade

• providing recommendations for how to createadditional shade (if required) without compromisingwinter conditions at the site and/or how to modifysite usage patterns so that the best use is made ofexisting shade

• incorporating these recommendations into futuredevelopment plans for the site and setting atimeframe for their implementation.

It is recommended thatreaders familiarisethemselves with the rest ofthis publication prior tocommencing a ShadeAudit.

How to conduct a Shade Audit

The Shade Audit comprises four main stages:Stage 1: Interviews

Stage 2: Site fieldwork

Stage 3: Assessment

Stage 4: Recommendations.

It is recommended that a project team be formed tohelp undertake the Shade Audit procedure. Skills thatwould be helpful to include in the Audit team are:

• the ability to plot measurements to scale

• knowledge of horticulture

• if using the ‘projection method’ (see page 62), anunderstanding of sun angles and the ability to plotshade from a theoretical base.

People who have some of these skills includetradespeople, eg a builder or plumber, architects,surveyors, engineers, draftspeople, farmers,horticulturalists, nursery attendants, landscapearchitects and gardeners.

The Shade Audit should be presented in the form ofa written report, documenting the findings fromStages 1, 2 and 3 as well as recommending optionsfor additional shade provision at the site. An example ofa completed Shade Audit can be found in Appendix E.

The Shade Audit

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The Shade Audit

How to measure shade

One of the critical tasks of the Shade Audit(Stage 2: Site fieldwork) is determining the typicalexisting shade patterns at a site. However, as thesepatterns are subject to seasonal variations, it isessential that this task be conducted for the criticalprotection time as well as for a typical winter day.

The critical protection time for a site is the time of dayand year when protection from solar UVR will be mostimportant at that site. Factors that should beconsidered when determining the critical protectiontime include the site usage patterns (especially timesof heaviest usage) as well the levels of UVR.

Information on site usage patterns will be obtainedduring Stage 1: Interviews. It is important that thecritical protection time is determined prior tocommencing Stage 2: Site fieldwork.

An assessment of existing shade can be made byplotting or ‘measuring’ a site’s shade patterns atthe critical protection time, which for sites in usethroughout the year or mainly in summer, is on thesummer solstice, ie 22 December, or thereabouts.An assessment of shade at the same time of day onthe winter solstice, ie 21 June, or thereabouts, shouldalso be made so that new shade initiatives can beplanned to minimise negative effects on winterconditions at the site. In some situations there mayneed to be a variation from the solstice dates as:• the critical protection time for the site may not

coincide with the period surrounding the 22December, eg the critical protection time for aschool may be at lunchtime in November becausethe students are on holidays for most of December;the critical protection time at a sports ground usedonly for first grade rugby league may be earlyafternoon in winter

• it may not be convenient to ‘measure’ the shade ata site during the weeks surrounding 22 December ifthe observation method is being used.

There are two methods for assessing shade:

• the observation method: where shade is markedon the ground at the site and measured on twooccasions (the critical protection time and at thesame time on a typical winter day)

• the projection method: which involves the useof sun angles and charts to plot where shade willtheoretically fall on two occasions (the criticalprotection time and at the same time on a typicalwinter day).

The lay shade planner may prefer to use theobservation method, as specialist knowledge of shadeprojection techniques is required for the projectionmethod. When using the observation method, shadeplanners must be able to allow for at least a six monthperiod to lapse so that the shade patterns can beassessed at both the critical protection time and inwinter.

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notenote

Important background information can be obtainedby conducting interviews with site managers,employees and users. The advantage of interviewingrepresentatives from each of these groups is that arange of opinions and observations can be collectedfor consideration in Stage 3: Assessment.

To assist with this stage of the Audit, samplequestions for site managers, employees and usershave been included on pages 64 to 66 for use inface-to-face or self-completion interview situations.The questions need to be modified to suit theparticular issues for different sites or deleted ifirrelevant. The information in Chapter 6, Site SpecificConsiderations, will be a useful starting point for thedevelopment of tailor-made questions for differentsites. So that the areas of a site can be referred towith minimal confusion during the interviews, it issuggested that a site plan (roughly drawn if an existingplan is not available) be used for reference.

So that information obtained from the interviewsis as valid and reliable as possible, it is important thatthe people selected for interviewing are representativeof their group and that enough interviews per group areconducted. As a general rule of thumb, the larger thegroup or more diverse the group, the more interviewsthat need to be conducted.

It is also important to confirm the informationobtained from the interviews during Stage 2: SiteFieldwork, as the perceptions of the interviewees mayvary, as can the accuracy of their responses.

Information obtained during the interviews will include:• the availability of a site plan or survey including the

location of services, eg pipes and undergroundcables, and other relevant site data

• site usage patterns, ie the main outdoor activitiesundertaken at the site, where they occur and whenthey occur

• the time of year the site is most in use

• the number of people using the site and their agebreakdown

• opinions on the adequacy of existing shade at thesite and the need for more shade

• long-term development plans for the site, ie building,landscaping, shade provision

• required performance characteristics of new shadestructures, eg rain protection

• other considerations, eg vandalism, areas thatcannot be accessed by users.

The Shade Audit

Stage 1: Interviews

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Sample questions for site managementeg a school principalThe following questions are indicative of thequestions that should be asked of site managementrepresentatives. They need to be modified to suitthe particular issues for different sites or deleted ifirrelevant. The information in Chapter 6, Site SpecificConsiderations, will be a useful starting point for thedevelopment of tailor-made questions for themanagers of different sites.• what are the main outdoor activities undertaken at

the site? (Try to be as specific as possible, egschool assemblies, children eating and playing atrecess and lunch, educational activities etc)

• where do they occur? (Again, try to be as specific as possible, eg school assemblies take place atpoint X, etc. It may be helpful to mark wheredifferent activities occur on a plan of the site)

• what time/s of day do the activities occur

• what areas of the site aren’t available for useeg out-of-bounds areas

• generally speaking, what time/s of year is the sitemost in use

• approximately, how many people use the site on:

a) an average weekend day

b) an average week day• what is the approximate age distribution of the users

of the site

a) babies/toddlers (0–2 yrs) _______ %

b) children (3–11 yrs) ____________ %

c) adolescents (12–18 yrs) ________ %

d) adults (19–59 years) ___________ %

e) adults (60+ years) _____________ %

• in your opinion, how adequate is existing shade atthe site, particularly during summer? (For large orcomplex sites, it may be helpful to divide the siteinto zones and then consider the adequacy of shadefor each zone)

• could site usage and/or management practices bemodified to optimise the use of existing shade? Ifyes, how could they be modified? eg allow accessto out-of-bound areas, reschedule outdooractivities, move children’s lunch area

• do you think there is a need for more shade at thissite (or any part of it)? If ‘yes’, what kind ofadditional shade should be provided and whereshould it be located

• do you think rain protection is needed at the site?If ‘yes’, how do you think this should be addressed

• is vandalism an issue that needs to be considered

• are there any barriers to the provision of shade atthis site? If ‘yes’, what are they

• how do you think the site users would feel about theprovision of more shade

• what are the long-term plans for the site:

a) new building works

b) landscaping works

• are there any specific plans for the provision ofincreased shade at the site? If ‘yes’, what is plannedfor the site

• can you make available:

a) a site plan

b) a survey plan

c) services layout

d) other site data that may assist?

The Shade Audit

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Sample questions for site employeeseg a school teacherThe following questions are indicative of thequestions that should be asked of site employeerepresentatives. They need to be modified to suitthe particular issues for different sites or deleted ifirrelevant. The information in Chapter 6, Site SpecificConsiderations, will be a useful starting point for thedevelopment of tailor-made questions for employeesfrom different sites.• what are the main outdoor activities undertaken at

the site? (Try to be as specific as possible, egschool assemblies, children eating and playing atrecess and lunch, educational activities, etc)

• where do they occur? (Again, try to be as specificas possible eg school assemblies take place atpoint X, etc. It may be helpful to mark wheredifferent activities occur on a plan of the site)

• what time/s of day do the activities occur

• what areas of the site aren’t available for use,eg out-of-bounds areas

• generally speaking, what time/s of year is the sitemost in use

• approximately, how many people use the site on:

a) an average weekend day

b) an average week day

• what is the approximate age distribution of the usersof the site

a) babies/toddlers (0–2 yrs) _______ %

b) children (3–11 yrs) ____________ %

c) adolescents (12–18 yrs) ________ %

d) adults (19–59 years) ___________ %

e) adults (60+ years) _____________ %

• in your opinion, how adequate is existing shade atthe site, particularly during summer? (For large orcomplex sites, it may be helpful to divide the siteinto zones and then consider the adequacy of shadefor each zone)

• could site usage and/or management practices bemodified to optimise the use of existing shade?If yes, how could they be modified, eg allow accessto out-of-bounds areas, reschedule outdooractivities, move children’s lunch area

• do you think there is a need for more shade at thissite (or any part of it)? If ‘yes’, what kind ofadditional shade should be provided and whereshould it be located

• do you think rain protection is needed at the siteIf ‘yes’, how do you think this should be addressed

• is vandalism an issue that needs to be considered

• do you think there are any barriers to the provision ofshade at this site? If ‘yes’, what are they

• how do you think the site users would feel about theprovision of more shade?

The Shade Audit

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Sample questions for site userseg school children/studentsThe following questions are indicative of thequestions that should be asked of site userrepresentatives. They need to be modified to suitthe particular issues for different sites or deleted ifirrelevant. The information in Chapter 6, Site SpecificConsiderations, will be a useful starting point for thedevelopment of tailor-made questions for the usersof different sites. Questions will need to be rephrasedaccording to the age of the interviewees.• which of the following age categories do you

fit into:

a) 5–11 years

b) 12–18 years

c) 19–59 years

d) 60+ years• do you make use of the available shade when you

are at this place:

a) all of the time

b) most of the time

c) some of the time

d) occasionally

e) never

• are there areas of the site that cannot be usedIf ‘yes’, what do you understand is the reason

• in your opinion, how adequate is existing shade atthis place, particularly during summer

• do you think there is a need for more shade at thisplace (or any part of it)? If ‘yes’, what kind ofadditional shade should be provided and whereshould it be located

• are there any shaded areas at this place that youprefer not to use? If ‘yes’, why

• do you think rain protection is needed at this place?If ‘yes’, how do you think this should be addressed?

This stage of the Audit involves the collection of sitedata, as well as the confirmation of informationobtained during the interviews. As both observationand detailed measurement need to be made, it isrecommended that two site visits be conducted:• the first, at a time of typical site use so that

observations of usage patterns can be made andthe critical protection time confirmed (This stepcould coincide with Stage 1: Interviews.)

• the second, at a time when users will not beinconvenienced so that measurements can bemade.

If the observation method is being followed, additionalsite visits may need to be conducted so that shadepatterns are measured at both the critical protectiontime and at the same time of day during winter.

The main tasks for the site fieldwork are outlined onpages 67 to 75. Most tasks need to be completedregardless of which shade measurement method isbeing followed. This is indicated by a 4 appearingunder both headings for the particular task. Some ofthe tasks, however, are relevant for only one of theshade measurement methods, ie either theobservation method or 66 projection method. Wherethis is the case, a 4 will appear under the heading towhich the task applies, and a 8 will appear under theheading to which the task does NOT apply.

The site fieldwork will require the use of a measuringtape and camera.

Stage 2: Site fieldwork

noteIt is crucial that any data and information collectedduring this stage of the Audit is accurate andcomplete. This is because it will be used as coreinformation in the Assessment stage of the Audit.

The Shade Audit

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Observation ProjectionMethod Method

Refer to the Glossary for an explanation of‘true north’ and ‘magnetic north’.

observing site usage patterns

1 Pay particular attention to the type andlocation of outdoor activities andwhere people tend to congregate.

2 Consider if people gather in a locationbecause it is the only place where theycan undertake a particular activity, or ifthe activity could be moved to ashaded area.

3 Make a note of whether people areusing the available shade.

preparing the site plan

1 Obtain a copy of an accurate, scaledsite plan (if available):

• confirm the accuracy of the site planby making some randommeasurements and checking that allbuildings appear on the plan

• if all the buildings do not appear on theplan, measure, locate and plot themeasurements to scale.

If a site plan is not available:

• firstly, draw a freehand plan ofthe site and record the overalldimensions of the land, as well asthe length and width of buildings andtheir distance from each other andfrom the site boundaries

• draw an accurate site plan by plottingthe measurements to scale.

2 Mark on the site plan the direction ofnorth, noting whether it is ‘magnetic’or ‘true’ north.

Tasks

The Shade Audit

4 4

Comments

The purpose of this task is to confirm theinformation gained from the interviews.

The observations should be made at atime of typical site use.

If there are any discrepancies betweenyour observations and the informationobtained during the interviews, considerwhether they should be discussed withsome of the interviewees.

The purpose of this task is to prepare thesite plan for the site investigation andshade measurement stages of the Audit.

If an accurate site plan is available, thetime- consuming task of comprehensivelymeasuring the site and drawing up a planto scale will be avoided.

4 4

4 4

4 4

4 4

See example sketch on page 70.

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investigating the site

1 During the site fieldwork, takephotographs of the following for yourrecords:

• the site and patterns of usage• trees (to assist identification)• existing shade structures

• problem areas, eg unshaded seats• shade opportunities.

2 Record the location of the followingitems on the site plan with a name ornumber:• buildings, eg assembly hall,

canteen or B1, B2, etc

• other built items, eg pools,play equipment etc

• existing shade structures, eg S1, S2.

3 Divide the outdoor areas betweenbuildings and other built items intozones, based on the site usagepatterns.

4 Record each zone on the site plan withnumbers, eg Z1, Z2 or names, egassembly area, lunch area, etc.

5 Record on the site plan any significantground level changes, ie in excess of600mm.

6 Record on the site plan any special siteconditions that may impact on thedesign of new shade structures, egemergency access points, topography.

7 Make a note of the ground surface/swithin each outdoor zone, eg concrete,grass. Pay particular attention toground surface changes within a zone.

The Shade Audit

A photographic record of the site willassist in Stage 3: Assessment as it mayhelp to reinforce data and promptmemory. Photographs can also be helpfulfor presentation purposes as they illustrateparticular aspects of a site.

See sample plans on pages 70 and 72.

Refer to Chapter 6 for information on thetypical usage patterns for different sites.

This task will help with the planning andlocation of new shade structures.

These tasks will assist with theassessment of the degree of reflectedUVR at a site. See sample on page 71.


Tasks

4 4

Comments

4 4

4 4

4 4

4 4

4 4

See sample plans on pages 70 and 72.

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8 Make a note of the buildings’ surfaces/finishes (wall and roof) as well as theirroof shapes. Pay particular attention towalls that may reflect high levels of UVR,due to their material/finish and thedirection they face, ie north or up to 45°either side of north.

9 Measure the heights of buildings at theeaves and ridges.

10 Measure the length, width and height ofexisting shade structures.

11 Record on the site plan, the location oftrees or groups of trees:

• for small or simple sites, it may bepossible to number each tree, eg T1,T2, etc

• for large or complex sites, it is easierto nominate areas of planting, eg P1,P2, etc, than to number individualtrees.

12 Note details of each tree or planted areaas follows:• the species, or within each planted

area, the predominant tree/shrubspecies

• estimated height (metres)• maturity, eg three years old• condition (particularly any problems)

• the density of the canopy (see page 74)• the estimated canopy diameter

(metres)• whether it is deciduous or evergreen.

Also, for planted areas, assess anyparticularly significant individual trees/shrubs within the group, eg a large treewith dense foliage and a wide spreadingcanopy, or any that are situated bythemselves.


Tasks

4 4

Comments

See sample on page 71.

You do NOT need to do this if you areusing the observation method.

You do NOT need to do this if you areusing the observation method.


8 4

8 4

4 4

This task will require some horticulturalknowledge. So that existing natural shadeis correctly documented, try to include aperson with such expertise in your ShadeAudit team, eg landscape gardener,nursery attendant.

4 4

The Shade Audit


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rough sketch of a school site showing dimensions,building numbers and outdoor zones

The Shade Audit

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71

sampleground surfaces/finishes

samplebuildings: wall and roof surfaces/finishes; roof shape

The Shade Audit

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rough sketch of a school site showing site details,trees, building numbers and outdoor zones

The Shade Audit

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sampletree identification, assessment and measurement

The Shade Audit

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74

canopy density guide

The canopy density guide will help you toassess the level of UVR protection providedby different trees.

View the tree canopy against sky andcompare with illustrated leaf/canopypatterns. Estimate which pattern of sky andleaves most closely approximates the

The Shade Audit

observed canopy.

heavy – over 90% UVR protection

Good protection from direct UVR. Protectionfrom indirect UVR will depend on canopysize and where a person is positioned underthe canopy. Suitable for long-stay use ifpersonal sun protection measures are alsoused.

medium – around 60% UVR protection

Filtered shade provides low levels ofprotection from direct and indirect UVR.Suitable for short-stay use only. Personalsun protection measures should also beused.

light – less than 30% UVR protection

Poor protection from direct and indirectUVR. Suitable for transit shade only.

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Measuring existing shade –‘observation’ method

1 Mark the shade patterns at the site onthe ground using chalk, rope or asimilar method (at the criticalprotection time as well as at the sametime of day during winter).

2 Measure the dimensions of the shadeoutline.

3 Plot the data to scale on the site plan.

Measuring existing shade –‘projection’ method

1 Project the shade patterns at the siteusing sun angles (at the criticalprotection time as well as at the sametime of day during winter).

2 Plot the data to scale on the site plan.

This task must be conducted twice, onceat the critical protection time and againduring winter (typically 21 June).

This task is necessarily technical as itinvolves the projection and drafting oftheoretical shade patterns and will requirea detailed knowledge of sun projectiontechniques.

Refer to pages 180 and 181 in AppendixE for an example of the completed task.

Tasks

4 8

Comments

4 8

4 8

8 4

8 4

The Shade Audit

Refer to pages 180 and 181 in AppendixE for an example of the completed task.


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note

By this stage of the Shade Audit, the shade patternsat the critical protection time and in winter will havebeen plotted to scale on the site plan. The next stageof the Audit involves an assessment of the quantityand useability of existing shade and the need foradditional shade.

There are a number of tasks that need to becompleted. They are as follows:

consider the likely impact of future tree growthon the amount of shade at the site

Will tree growth significantly alter the amount ordistribution of shade?

If it will, how long will it take before significant changesoccur? It may be necessary to consult a person withhorticultural expertise for information regarding treegrowth rates.

Consider the amount of existing shade at the criticalprotection time and compare this with the need forshade, taking into account the additional shade thatmay result from tree growth

Is the amount of shade adequate for the numberof people using the site?

How much additional shade is likely to be required toprovide an adequate amount of shade for the numberof people using the site?

Are there opportunities to better utilise or accessexisting shade?

Stage 3: Assessment

During Stage 3: Assessment it is important to drawupon the data collected during the interviews and sitefieldwork. The site specific issues andrecommendations in Chapter 6 should also beconsidered.

consider whether the location of existing shade isappropriate, given the usage patterns at the site

Are there areas of use where shade is inadequate?

Is adequate shade provided in areas ofnon-discretionary use, ie areas where people arecompelled to be? (In non-discretionary use areas, egnumbered seating in grandstands at sports grounds,most of the patrons should be able to access shade,particularly during summer.)

Are there adequate opportunities for people tofind shade in discretionary use areas, ie areas wherepeople choose to go? (In discretionary use areas, eggrassed spectator areas at sports grounds, at least 50percent of the patrons should be able to accessshade, particularly during summer.)

Are there priority areas for further shade provision,given site usage patterns?

Should/can existing shade be re-located to be morecompatible with site usage patterns?

if additional shade is required, consider where itshould be located, keeping in mind the site usagepatterns and winter shade patterns

Are there locations that will allow additional summershade to be achieved without creating excessiveshaded areas in winter?

Are these locations compatible with site usagepatterns?

consider the impact of indirect UVR on the site andpossible means of reducing its impact

Are some areas of the site likely to have high levels ofindirect UVR as a result of surface finishes, eg smoothpaving, reflective walls?

Can these surfaces be modified to reduce thelikelihood of indirect UVR?

Can other measures be adopted to minimisethe impact of indirect UVR?

The Shade Audit

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note

The recommendations stage of the Shade Auditinvolves documenting the potential strategies toachieve a site’s shade requirements. Specificrecommendations should be made regarding eachof the following:• the desired shade goal/s for the site, eg increase

shade over passive playground areas (wherechildren eat their lunch, where assemblies are held)

• the strategies for achieving the goal/s, including:

– revising site management practices, eg accessingshaded ‘out-of-bounds’ areas, reschedulingoutdoor activities

– optimising the use of existing shade, eg relocatingactivities or outdoor equipment to shaded areas,removing low branches from trees to allow access

– creating new shaded areas (include informationon the performance characteristics of theproposed shade, ie amount of additional shadethat is needed, where it should be located, thetime/s of day and year that the shade is required;also think about the range of shade options, bothnatural and built, that may be appropriate andtheir likely costs)

– minimising the effects of indirect UVR on the site(or areas within it), eg modifying surfaces byplanting ground covers or covering concrete withsynthetic turf, designing shade structures thatprotect from indirect UVR

Stage 4: Recommendations

Because of the effects of indirect UVR and climate, itis rare that the shade goal/s for a site can beachieved by a single action, eg the construction of ashade structure. More commonly, a series of actionswill be required to address the complex factorspresent at most sites.

• the desired timeframe for achieving the shade goal/sfor the site

• the project management options for achieving theshade goal/s, for example:

– organising a working bee with volunteers torelocate seating and lop low branches off trees

– engaging an architect to design a shade structurethat can be constructed by semi-skilled volunteerlabour

– engaging an architect to manage the design andconstruction stages of the shade project

– asking a project team member with an interestin landscaping to recommend a tree plantingstrategy

– inviting shade manufacturers to submit a proposalfor supply and installation of a shade structure

– implementing a staged shade project (to allow forfundraising).

A Shade Plan should be prepared (based on the siteplan), indicating where the above strategies will beimplemented. An example of a Shade Plan can befound on page 185 in Appendix E.

The recommendations and the Shade Plan should beincorporated into the design brief, a document that isprovided to professionals such as architects andshade manufacturers. A comprehensive design briefwill help to ensure that the shade solution/s for a site(off-the-shelf or custom made) will meet a site’s shaderequirements. More information on preparing a designbrief can be found on the following page.

The Shade Audit

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The purpose of the design brief is to set theparameters within which the designer or supplier mustwork.

You are aware of your needs, you know the specialaspects of your site and you may have skills withinyour group that could be used during the project.The Shade Audit will have provided you with a rangeof shade options for the site, and you should havedetermined which of these you prefer.

The design brief is intended to convey this informationto the person you have selected to assist you withdesigning the project. Information required for thedesign brief includes, but is not limited to, thefollowing points:

site informationProvide information regarding the site, preferably in theform of a site plan, showing:• location of proposed project

• location of underground services if known

• emergency or other access routes that must bemaintained

• any particular site constraints that may impact uponthe design, eg future projects, ground conditions.

The Shade Audit

A design brief for your shade project

performance characteristicsSet out your requirements with regard to theperformance of the shade:• area to be protected by shade

• critical protection time

• type of shade required, eg built or natural,permanent or demountable

• need for rain shelter

• nature of activities in the proximity of the project,eg children at play, vehicle movements

• special climatic conditions

• likely vandalism threat

• maintenance needs

• longevity.

financial and human resources• provide information about the budget for the project.

• advise if there are skills within your organisationor group that may be used in the design ordevelopment of the project. If skilled labour, egcarpenters or sail makers, is available, this is likely toinfluence the choice of construction method.Voluntary unskilled labour during construction willreduce the project cost.

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• Waikawa Bay Primary School (MarlboroughSounds)

This study demonstrates how primary schools canraise funds and erect simple shade structures. Ithighlights the need for effective planning to combatproblems such as vandalism.

• Balmain Public School

This study demonstrates the benefits of the ShadeAudit as a planning tool and a means of raisingfunds. It also exemplifies the wide-ranging strategiesthat can be adopted to provide more protectiveshade.

• Baradine Multipurpose Courts

The Baradine study demonstrates how fosteringsupport in the community can overcome apparentobstacles such as limited funding.

• Campion College (Gisborne)

This project shows how schools can erect low-costshade structures, using volunteers from the schoolcommunity.

• Springwood High School

This study demonstrates the benefits ofcollaborating with the community in a projectinitiated by the students.

• Western Suburbs Olympic Pool (Unanderra)

The Unanderra study shows how a shade projectcan achieve additional objectives to that of providingshade.

Shade project case studies


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Waikawa Bay Primary School

Waikawa Bay is a semi-rural primary school nearPicton. A major shade project was started aftersurveys of parents had highlighted the lack of shadeat the school as a major concern. Silk trees had beenplanted but these trees were not large enough toprovide enough shade for about 100 childrenattending Waikawa Bay.

Parents were involved in the shade project through thePTA and the Board of Trustees, although technicalaspects and construction were handled by the schoolproperty management company, School Support. Theschool decided to erect cloth shading to cover tieredseating up a five metre, 45o slope. A rectangularshade cloth runs parallel with the slope. Anothershade cloth covers a flat area.

The school had to apply for a building permit becauseof the size of the structure. Lowering the height of thesupporting metal poles was recommended becauseWaikawa Bay is exposed to strong southerly winds, aswell as lighter prevailing northerly winds. However,lowering the structure means teenagers are able toclimb on top of the cloth by climbing nearby trees anduse the edges of the structure as a climbing support.The school is in the process of capping the poles toraise the height of the shade structure.

The structure provides summer shade for assemblies,outdoor learning, lunchtime and for children who bringbooks out of an adjacent library. The cloth is takendown in the cooler winters. Waikawa Bay School saysthe structure meets most of its shade needs butbelieves schools need to design structures that have aminimal risk of vandalism.


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Balmain Public School

Balmain Public School is located in an inner citysuburb of Sydney. It has approximately 300 students.In 1992, the School Parents and Citizens’ (P&C) SolarProtection Committee began a comprehensive effortto increase the level of UVR protection available in theschool grounds.

A professionally conducted Shade Audit had shownthat only 15 percent of the playground area hadshade, of the total shade, only 61 percent was usableand out-of-bounds areas prevented the use of anumber of existing areas of shade.

The Audit resulted in the setting of three goals;reducing direct and indirect UVR at the site, makingbetter use of existing summer shade and creating anadditional 400 m2 of summer shade.

re-organisation of outdoor areasDiscussions with school staff resulted in studentsbeing able to use previously out-of-bounds areas. Alarge disused incinerator that had been situated undera shade tree was removed. Existing garden beds weremodified to permit access to shaded areas and toallow the planting of additional trees. The P&C paidthe local council for the erection of a protective fencein adjacent parkland to increase the shaded areaavailable to the students.

fundraisingPart-funding for the shade project was successfullysought from the then New South Wales Department ofSchool Education. A campaign to raise the balance ofthe required funding was launched in the localbusiness community. A sponsorship proposal wasdistributed throughout the community seeking aspecific amount from each of ten local businesses forthe erection of a shade/rain shelter to protect thechildren of Balmain School. Sponsors were offered:

• publicity in local newspapers and school newsletters

• promotion in the local community

• guest of honour status at the official opening of thenew shade facilities

• tax deductibility for the sponsor’s donation throughthe establishment of a building fund

• the opportunity to contribute to a reduction in theincidence of skin cancer in the Australiancommunity.

construction of a shade structureAfter obtaining quotes from a number of suppliers, acompany was commissioned to construct a structure.Construction costs were minimised by negotiatingwith the company to allow volunteers (parents) tocontribute unskilled labour.

This multi-faceted shade project has resulted in asignificant increase in protection from UVR for an at-risk population group.

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Baradine Multipurpose Courts


Campion College

Baradine is a small township in Western New SouthWales. In 1996, the Baradine Community HealthCentre became aware of the need for shade at thetown’s main community sporting facility, the BaradineMultipurpose Courts. The facility, often used for schoolsporting events, provided little shade for spectatorsand participants.

Staff at the Community Health Centre sought localcommunity involvement and support for a proposal toprovide adequate shade at the site. Extensiveconsultations were conducted with stakeholdersincluding those from the local municipal council,schools, sporting and health groups. Residents’opinions on the proposed shade project were soughtvia a survey printed in the weekly newspaper anddistributed through the local newsagent, chemist andschools. Respondents to the survey overwhelminglysupported the proposal.

After the consultation phase, an application for aSkin Cancer Prevention Grant was submitted to theWestern District Public Health Unit, and a grant of$1,000 secured.

Following another round of consultation withstakeholders, the type of structure to be erectedwas determined by the project’s building committee. Itwas apparent from the consultation that insufficienthuman and financial resources would be available forfuture repairs and maintenance. The committee optedfor a durable, low maintenance structure withframework, roof and sides constructed of galvanisediron.

Comfort is a major consideration in Baradine’s hot,dry climate so the northeast and southwest endsof the structure were left open to take advantage ofprevailing winds. Trees and other vegetation wereplanted around the structure to shield it against thesun’s rays and add to the cooling effect.

Community involvement in the project resulted insignificant cost savings. A local builder donated histime to design the structure, prepare costs andarrange purchase of all materials. Labour was donatedby the local Skillshare programme.

With community support, Baradine now has a costeffective shade structure that provides UVR protectionfor users of its sporting facility.

Campion College is a secondary school in Gisbornewhere summer temperatures can reach 37o andwinters are relatively warm and sunny. A request formore shade came through the Parent Teacher FriendsAssociation which had received feedback from pupilsand parents about the lack of shade, especially in thecanteen areas where pupils ate their lunch.

The College is build in an E shape with two quadswhich are enclosed on three sides. Each quad isabout half the size of a football field and grassed in themiddle. The canteen is in one of the quads but lack ofshade was hampering efforts to encourage the pupilsto eat their lunch in this area.

Funding for the project was raised by running pizzadays and sausage sizzles. The project cost $7,360,with the shelters costing $3,657. Costs were keptdown by using volunteers from the school communityto build the shade structure, under the supervision ofa parent who was a builder.

Two cloth shade structures measuring about sixmetres by seven metres were erected by parents,along with seating and raised gardens. Seating wasalso built along the south side of the building toprovide more shady seating for students. A buildingconsent was needed for the work.

The college reports the shade structure meets itsneeds of providing shade for the pupils. The new areaenhances the design of the college which has beenbuilt in a Pacific style for coolness. Classrooms are onthe second floor and overhang the quads, a designwhich also provides some shade during summer.

Deciduous trees planted before the shade project gotunderway are starting to provide substantial shade inother parts of the college. Campion College believesproviding shade is more effective than trying to forceteenagers to wear hats.

Mild Gisborne winters mean the cloth can stay inplace all year. One problem not identified at the outsetof the project is that the cloth is not waterproof so theshade area can not be used on warm wet days.

Vandalism has not been a major problem althoughCampion College reports one of the cloth shades hasbeen stolen. The cover is insured but in future thecovers may be padlocked onto the structure.

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Springwood High School

Springwood High School is a medium-size schoollocated in the lower Blue Mountains, west of Sydney.In early 1996, students at the school submitted arequest through their Students’ RepresentativeCouncil for more shade in the school grounds.

The school responded by developing links withorganisations it believed would be interested insupporting a shade project for the school. A jointworking party was formed that included teachers andstudent council representatives, along withrepresentatives from Springwood Hospital, theWentworth Centre for Health Promotion and the NewSouth Wales Cancer Council.

The goals of the working party were to:• plant trees in the school grounds

• erect a shade structure by the end of 1997

• raise students’ awareness of the need touse shade facilities

• incorporate skin cancer preventioninto school policies.

To achieve these goals a number of fundraisingactivities took place. A seeding grant of $1,000 wassuccessfully sought from the local Area Health Serviceand $3,000 was provided by the Wentworth Centrefor Health Promotion. The announcement of theseeding grant was used to generate publicity in thelocal media, which led to further community interest.

In addition to the seeding grant, $3,200 was raisedthrough activities such as a guessing competitionand an arts and crafts fair, which were organised bythe School’s P&C Association. The school itself alsoprovided $3,000.

Students, parents and other interested members ofthe community donated a significant amount of timeto the project. Members of the FaulconbridgeResidents’ Association who live in the vicinity of theschool, made a commitment to keep an eye on theproposed shade structure in an effort to preventpossible episodes of vandalism.

The contributions of all those involved came to fruitionin October 1997 with the completion of a shadestructure in the school grounds. As the provision ofnatural shade had been the other key component ofthe strategy, a total of fifty shade trees were alsoplanted.

The strong motivation and commitment of the workinggroup, students, teachers and the local communityresulted in a significant increase in the amount ofavailable shade at the school.


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The Western Suburbs Olympic Pool, administeredand operated by the Wollongong City Council, islocated at Unanderra in the Illawarra region of NewSouth Wales.

In 1995, the local swimming club proposed that solarheating be introduced to heat the pool water for morecomfortable swimming during autumn and winter.Around this time, local community health officersconducted a ‘Cool Pool’ sun protection awarenessraising programme as well as shade audits of councilpools. In addition, the council had been receiving anincreasing number of requests for shade from poolpatrons.

The potential to provide both solar heating and shadein the one project was quickly recognised by councilplanners, who put in place a comprehensive strategyto achieve both objectives. Given the nature of thesite, it was decided that built shade would be thepreferred option.

Western Suburbs Olympic Pool, Unanderra

Media publicity for the project generated significantcommunity support. This support was a major factorin raising $226,000 from the following sources:• a swimathon organised by the swimming club raised

$22,500. Students from local schools weresponsored to swim laps of the pool. A local buscompany donated its staff and buses to transportthe students to and from the pool

• a grant of $20,000 from the New South WalesDepartment of Sport and Recreation

• a bequest, also for an amount of $20,000,specifying that the funds be used for the benefit ofchildren attending the pool

• an allocation of $163,500 from WollongongCouncil’s capital works budget.

The resulting structure has fulfilled all expectations.Built of timber framing with a colourbond roof, itprovides a total of 825m2 of shade as well as holding800m2 of solar absorber panels. Its U-shape providesshade to three sides of the pool. According to staff,the shade provided by the structure is regularly usedby pool patrons.

This case study demonstrates how built shadesystems can be adapted to serve more than onepurpose. It also exemplifies the benefits of involvingand gaining the support of the wider community inlocal shade projects.


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6 Site specific considerations

The recommendations provided for each site in thischapter are necessarily ‘rules of thumb’ as shadeplanning is an emerging discipline and is subject toongoing study. Those involved in shade projectsshould adapt the recommendations with discretion,ensuring that particular characteristics of a specificsite are considered.

As each chapter of this publication contains vitalinformation for effective shade planning, it issuggested that Chapters 1 to 5 be read before thesite specific considerations.

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Early childhood services

Early childhood services typically include centre-based, mobile child care, family day care and home-based care services. While the focus of this sectionis on the centre-based service, many of the issuesdiscussed will be of interest to other service types.

Early childhood services can play a significant role inthe prevention of skin cancer. There are a number ofreasons for this:• part of the critical period for sustaining damaging

levels of solar UVR exposure occurs during earlychildhood

• children attend these services up to five days perweek throughout the year, often during the highUVR risk period of each day

• children frequently play outdoors while attendingthese services.

In addition, all services are required under Part 3 ofthe Education (Early Childhood Centres) Regulation1998 to have policies and procedures to ensure thehealth and safety of the children in their care.

While the provision of sufficient UVR protective shadeis an important element of an early childhood service’ssun protection strategy, it will not guarantee totalUVR protection. Shade should be one component of acomprehensive strategy which also includes personalprotection measures, ie wearing sun protectiveclothing, hats, sunscreen and sunglasses. Careshould also be taken to minimise the time spentoutdoors between 11am and 4pm during summer,when daily UVR levels are generally at their peak.

It should also be noted that in regard to the staffemployed in early childhood centres that the Healthand Safety in Employment Act 1992 requiresemployers to identify and control the risk faced byworkers required to work outdoors. An assessmentshould be made of the solar UV radiation to whichworkers are likely to be exposed and steps should betaken to try and minimise any risks. Workers shouldalso take responsibility to look after their own health.

noteIt is essential that anassessment of existingshade be made beforethe planning and design ofadditional shadecommences.

Chapter 5 contains astep by step approachto conducting a ShadeAudit, as well as advice onmanaging a shade project.


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an example of shade at an early childhood centre

mainbuilding

toddler playarea

active area

open area

cove

red

ver

and

ah

SAILS TO SHADESANDPIT

DECIDUOUS VINESON PERGOLA

VINES ONFENCES

SHADE TREE

FULLY ROOFED GAZEBOSEMI-ENCLOSED SIDES

covered verandah

SHADETREE

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planning and design issues

site usage patterns

It is important to take into accountthe usage patterns at the site,including the type of activities thatoccur and the time of day theyoccur. Within the outdoor space ata centre-based service there areusually a number of distinct playareas including:• an open area for gross motor

skills, eg running

• a quiet area for focused play,eg a sandpit

• a formal quiet area for containedplay, eg finger painting

• an active area for busy physicalplay, eg climbing

• a transition zone between indoorand outdoor areas, eg averandah.

If babies and toddlers are beingcatered for, there should be aseparate play area for them,within the outdoor space.1

While each of these areas hasits own shade requirements, thedesign approach should aim tocreate shade that complementsand reinforces the ordering ofdifferent play areas and movementpaths.2

climatic conditions

It is important to take into accountthe overall characteristics of theparticular climate zone in which theservice is situated, as well as anylocal conditions, eg strong wind.When these are understood it ispossible to use design strategiesto modify adverse conditions. Theeffects of local conditions,particularly salt (in relation tocorrosion) and wind, also need tobe considered in the selection anddesign of shade structures as wellas the selection of tree species.

seasonal considerations

Care needs to be taken to ensurethat new shade initiatives do notintensify winter conditions at thesite.

Summer shade provision shouldminimise UVR levels as well asreduce heat and light. Wintershade provision should allow fortransmission of sufficient levelsof heat and light. The use ofadjustable shade systems and/ordeciduous vegetation may providegreater flexibility.

1 New South Wales Department ofCommunity Services. Best practiceguidelines in early childhoodphysical environments. Sydney,1996, 91.

2 Queensland Health and Departmentof Architecture, University ofQueensland. Shade for youngchildren. Brisbane, 1997, 17.

Many of the followingconsiderations refer to conceptsdiscussed in more detail in otherparts of this publication. For thisreason it is recommended thatreaders familiarise themselves withthe content of Chapters 1 to 5 aswell as Appendix C, beforeconsidering the specific issues forearly childhood services.

service types

Shade planning and design foreach service type will be influencedby the number of children in careand the size of the outdoor playspace.

project team

Ideally, representatives frommanagement, teaching staff andparent groups as well as relevantprofessionals, eg architects,landscape architects, shouldbe involved. This will help to ensurethat the need for shade isconsidered within the context ofother issues and requirements.

existing shade

Plans should be made to optimisethe use of existing shade beforeadditional shade is considered,eg play equipment could bere-located to a shaded area, lowbranches could be removed fromtrees to allow children to playunderneath.

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indirect UVR

Indirect UVR is an important factorto consider when designing builtshade structures and selectingground surfaces for outdoor playspaces. Coarse and/or softsurfaces, eg brick pavers or grass,will reflect less UVR than hard and/or smooth surfaces, eg trowelledconcrete. Existing surfaces can bemodified if they reflect high levelsof UVR.

aesthetics

Shade design should aim to beaesthetically pleasing as well aspractical. Generally, an approachwhich combines both built andnatural shade is preferable.

Using a variety of forms of shadewill help to create a differentidentity for each area and a moreinteresting play space. Visuallyattractive components include:• coloured sails

• structures with textured sidesor spaces to view through

• structures that support floweringvines

• trees, shrubs and vines(deciduous and evergreen) withdifferent seeding, flowering andfruiting habits (ensure that theseare not potentially hazardous tochildren).

Using a variety of tree and shrubspecies will also help to create amore interesting and stimulatingenvironment for the children.

supervision

Children need to be readily viewedby staff at all times for both safetyreasons and teaching purposes.Examples of designs that mayhinder supervision include shadestructures with solid and/or opaquesides and low placement ofoverhead sails. Trees and shrubsalso have the potential to obstructsupervision if they areinappropriately located.

approval

Local councils will usually requiredevelopment approval for builtshade structures.

natural shade

Natural shade should be a majorelement of shade provision withinan outdoor play space. Trees withdense foliage and wide spreadingcanopies provide the bestprotection, although leaves cancreate ongoing maintenanceproblems for sandpits.

Species should be selected to suitlocal soil and climatic conditions aswell as the character of thesurrounding environment.Generally, they should be plantedon the north, northeastern andnorthwestern sides of the playspace. Root barriers and subsoildrainage will help to ensure thatadjacent paved areas are notdamaged by tree roots.

Dense shrubs also have thepotential to provide shade. Theyshould be planted around theperimeter of the site so they do notobstruct supervision. Pruningshrubs on the underside may allowfor shaded play nooks to becreated underneath.

Shrubs and trees selected for theplay space should be non-toxicand should not be dangerous inother ways. For example, avoidspecies that:• have seed pods or stone-fruit

(a potential choking hazard forchildren under five years of age)

• attract bees

• have thorns or spikes

• are known to cause adversehealth effects such as asthmaand skin irritation.

Also note that some species oftrees have a tendency to drop theirbranches.

If natural shade is the long-termfavoured option for areas within thesite, short-life built structures, iewith a lifespan of six to 10 years,can be used until trees planted forshade purposes mature.

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safety

It is important to ensure that shadestructures do not create safetyhazards. Support systems, egupright posts, should be clearlyvisible and ideally have roundededges and/or padding. Theyshould be placed so as tominimise intrusion into play andcirculation areas. Where possible,guy ropes should be avoided, asthey may be a trip hazard. Inaddition, vertical barriers at thesides of shade structures shouldbe designed to prevent childrenusing them for climbing.

scale

Scale is an important issue toconsider when designing shadefor early childhood environments.For example, what may seem acomfortably sized space for anadult may be overwhelming to asmall child.

This issue however, needs to bebalanced with the need for adultaccess to children’s play spaces.For this reason, a head clearanceheight of approximately two metresis recommended for shadestructures. If vertical barriers are tobe placed at the side of structures,they should allow for views throughat child height, rather than adultheight.

The useability of the floor spaceunderneath the structure is anotherissue that needs to be considered.It should be of a sufficient size andshape to allow children to gatheror play actively underneath.

demountable structures

Demountable shade structuresshould only be used to supplementmore permanent forms of shade.Some demountable structures,eg umbrellas, offer limitedprotection. Umbrellas also providelimited group space underneathand may be unstable during windyconditions.

off-the-shelf structures

In the appropriate situation,off-the-shelf structures can providea readily available, cost-effectiveshade solution. However, unless aShade Audit has been conducted,it is difficult to tell if they will meetthe site’s shade requirements. Ifthe decision is made to purchasean off-the-shelf structure, theissues outlined in Chapter 4 of thispublication should be considered.

rain protection

It may be desirable to incorporatebuilt structures into the design thatoffer both UVR and rain protection.

minimum regulation sizeplay spaces

In outdoor play spaces built tominimum regulation size, it is notalways possible to use the varietyof shade solutions suggested inthis publication. The placement ofa permanent or adjustable shadesystem over a major part of theplay space may be the only viablesolution.

existing services

The location of shade structuresand planting should take accountof existing services, eg drainage,power lines, gas, water.

an additional resource

The Queensland publication Shadefor young children is a usefuladditional resource. Full referencedetails can be found under furtherreading at the end of this section.See page 93.

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open area Partial shade is recommended, especially over grass which needssome sun for growth.

Natural shade is the most appropriate option.

Consider arranging planting in clusters so that groups of children canaccess shade.

Deciduous trees will allow for penetration of warmth and light to theplay space during winter.

quiet area Shade during October to March is recommended, particularly oversandpits.

A permanent shade system is the most appropriate option.

The need for winter warmth and light should be considered.

formal quiet area Shade during October to March is recommended.

Consider using a combination of built and natural shade.


recommendations and considerations

The recommendations below areminimum shade guidelines forcentre-based services across NewZealand during summer. It isacknowledged that it may not bepossible in the short term toimplement all these recommen-dations due to funding constraints.However, medium-term plansshould include improvements tosummer shade provision as apriority.

Specific recommendations forwinter shade have not been madedue to differences in the prevailingclimatic conditions across NewZealand during winter. However,the UV index is rarely above one ortwo in most parts of New Zealandin winter and risk levels are low.

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active area Shade during October to March is recommended, over fixed playequipment and areas where children play for extended periods of time,eg a digging patch.

Moveable equipment used for active play, eg climbing frames, shouldbe placed in the shade. Consider using a combination of built andnatural shade.


fixed play equipment Safety is a major consideration for shade provision over fixed playequipment.

Shade structures over fixed play equipment should not have footholdsor grip surfaces which would allow for climbing.

The roofline of the shade structure should extend at least 500 millimetresbeyond the edge of the deck of the play equipment, to prevent childaccess on to the roof.

The roof of the shade structure should allow for a minimum headclearance height of two metres above the deck of the play equipment.

Tree trunks and the upright posts of shade structures should be locateda minimum distance of two metres away from the most fully extendedpart of the play equipment, eg the side of a climbing platform or the endof an extended swing arc. This will ensure sufficient freefall zones.

Any shade structure in the play area should be designed with referenceto AS/NZS 4486.1:1997 (see further reading, page 93.)

transition zone Verandahs will provide permanent shade as well as rain protection.

The angle of the roof and the extent of overhang should be designed tomaximise shade for the major part of the day, especially during summer.

The width of the verandah should be a minimum of four metres to allowfor shaded play space underneath.

Roof materials should be selected to minimise heat build-up duringsummer. The roof should be insulated (with at least a ceiling cavity,and preferably with insulation material too) and airflow points shouldbe provided.

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transition zone continued Terraces, with a deciduous, vine-covered pergola or an adjustableshade system, will provide seasonal shade. Some canopies will alsoprovide rain protection.

Retractable or louvred shade canopies should be easily adjustable,ideally by one person at ground level.

A combination of fixed roof verandah and terrace spaces maybe desirable for some services.

Vertical pull-down blinds at the side of a verandah or terrace canprovide additional protection from UVR when the sun is low in the sky.

baby/toddler area Shade during October to March is recommended, with UV protectionrecommended throughout the year.

Consider using a combination of natural and built shade.


further reading• AS/NZS 4422:1996 Playground surfacing –

Specifications, requirements and test methods.Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand.

• AS/NZS 4486.1:1997 Playgrounds and playgroundequipment Part 1 – Development, installation,inspection, maintenance and operation.Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand.

• ECVC Working Party. Plan it! Guidelines forplanning, early childhood outdoor supervised playenvironments in NSW. Kidsafe, New South Wales,1996.

• NSW Department of Community Services.Design and planning – Checklist for a new child carecentre in New South Wales. Sydney, 1996.

• Queensland Health and Department of Architecture,Queensland University. Shade for young children.Brisbane, 1997.

• Walsh P. Early childhood playgrounds – Planning anoutside learning environment. Alberts Park: RobertAndersen and Associates, 1988.


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Schools

note

Schools can play a significant role in the preventionof skin cancer. There are a number of reasons for this:• part of the critical period for sustaining damaging

levels of solar UVR exposure occurs during theschool years

• students are at school up to five days per week,throughout most of the year and during the highUVR risk period of each day

• students often spend a significant amount of timeoutdoors while at school.

In addition, schools have a duty of care to provide asafe environment for students.

It is essential that anassessment of existingshade be made beforethe planning and design ofadditional shadecommences.

While the provision of sufficient UVR protective shadeis an important element of a school’s sun protectionstrategy, it will not guarantee total UVR protection.Shade should be one component of a comprehensivestrategy that also includes encouraging the useof personal protection measures, ie wearing sunprotective clothing, hats, sunscreen and sunglasses,as well as implementing sun awareness education.Outdoor activities should be rescheduled (wherepossible) outside the hours of 11am to 4pm daylightsaving time, when daily UVR levels are generally attheir peak.

It should also be noted that in regard to school staff,that the Health and Safety in Employment Act 1992requires employers to identify and control the riskfaced by workers required to work outdoors. Anassessment should be made of the solar UV radiationto which workers are likely to be exposed and stepsshould be taken to try and minimise any risks.Workers should also take responsibility to look aftertheir own health.

Chapter 5 contains astep by step approachto conducting a ShadeAudit, as well advice onmanaging a shade project.

Schools

95


an example of shade at a school

canteen

sportscourts

openactivearea

classrooms

shadestructure

OUT-OF-BOUNDS

BUS STOP

QUIETPASSIVEAREA

PEDESTRIAN LINES

OPEN GRASSEDAREA– ‘ACTIVE’PLAY

hall

clas

sro

om

scl

assr

oo

ms

shadestructure

SPECTATOR ANDPLAYER SHADE

main road

SHADE TREE

Schools

96



Schools

Many of the followingconsiderations refer to conceptsdiscussed in more detail in otherparts of this publication. For thisreason it is recommended thatreaders familiarise themselveswith the content of Chapters 1 to 5as well as Appendix C, beforeconsidering the specific issues forschools.

project team

Ideally representatives fromschool executive, teaching staffand parent groups as well asrelevant professionals, egarchitects, landscape architects,should be involved. This will help toensure that the need for shade isconsidered within the context ofother issues, including long-termdevelopment plans for the site.

If the school grounds are usedby community groups on theweekends or during schoolholidays, it may be appropriate toliaise with them during the project,particularly if it will cause disruptionto the areas they use.

student participation

Students should be consulted andinvolved throughout the shadeproject, eg they could undertakecertain tasks in the Shade Audit.

existing shade

Plans should be made to optimisethe use of existing shade beforeadditional shade is considered.For example, fixed seating couldbe re-located to a shaded area,low branches could be removedfrom trees to allow access,playground use could be reviewedto permit access to shaded out-of-bounds areas.

site usage patterns

It is important to take into accountthe usage patterns at the site,particularly the times of day differentactivities occur. Students’ play andsocial patterns also need to beconsidered, eg primary schoolchildren are generally required toeat lunch in class groups whilesecondary students tend to gatherin small discrete clusters.

The outdoor areas of schoolsusually comprise:• active playground areas,

eg for ball games and free play

• passive playground areas,eg for eating lunch and socialising

• canteen areas

• bus stop areas.

These areas are connected bypedestrian links. While each areahas its own shade requirements,they should be considered withinthe context of the whole schoolsite.

Some schools also have specialistfacilities, for example swimmingpools, tennis courts, sports fields oragricultural areas.

active vs passive use

Sufficient shade should beprovided for students to undertakeactive outdoor activities such asfree play, physical educationclasses and sport, particularlyduring summer.

Sufficient shade should also beprovided for eating and socialising,lining up (especially after recessand lunch) and assemblies,particularly during summer. Theseactivities could be undertaken incovered outdoor learning areas,active playground areas or specificpassive-use areas.

climatic conditions

It is important to take into accountthe overall characteristics of theparticular climate zone in which theschool is situated, as well as anylocal conditions, eg strong wind.When these are understoodit is possible to use designstrategies to modify adverseconditions. The effects of localconditions, particularly salt (inrelation to corrosion) and wind,also need to be considered in theselection and design of shadestructures as well as the selectionof tree species.

97




Summer shade provision shouldminimise UVR levels as well asreduce heat and light. Wintershade provision should allow fortransmission of sufficient levels ofheat and light. The use ofadjustable shade systems and/ordeciduous vegetation may providegreater flexibility.

indirect UVR

Indirect UVR is an important factorto consider when designing builtshade structures and selectingground surfaces for playgroundareas. Coarse and/or softsurfaces, eg brick pavers or grass,will reflect less UVR than hard and/or smooth surfaces, eg trowelledconcrete. Existing surfaces can bemodified if they reflect high levelsof UVR.

aesthetics

Shade design should aim to beaesthetically pleasing as well aspractical. Generally, an approachwhich combines both natural andbuilt shade is preferable. Using avariety of tree and shrub specieswill also help to create a moreinteresting environment.

approval

Local councils will usually requiredevelopment approval for builtshade structures.

natural shade

Natural shade should be a majorelement of shade provision within aschool. Trees with dense foliageand wide spreading canopiesprovide the best protection.

Species should be selected to suitlocal soil and climatic conditions aswell as the character of thesurrounding environment. Rootbarriers and subsoil drainage willhelp to ensure that pavements arenot damaged by tree roots. Denseshrubs also have the potential toprovide shade.

Avoid shrubs and trees that:

• are toxic

• have seed pods or stone-fruit

• attract bees

• have spikes or thorns

• are known to cause adversehealth effects such as asthma orskin irritation.

Also note that some species oftrees have a tendency to drop theirbranches.

If natural shade is the long-termfavoured option for areas within thesite, short-life built structures, iewith a lifespan of six to ten years,can be used until trees planted forshade purposes mature.

Local nurseries and councils mayprovide trees at no cost or at adiscount.

safety

It is important to ensure that shadestructures do not create safetyhazards. Support systems, egupright posts, should be clearlyvisible and ideally have roundededges and/or padding. Theyshould be placed so as tominimise intrusion into play andcirculation areas. Where possibleguy ropes should be avoided, asthey may be a trip hazard. Inaddition, vertical barriers at thesides of shade structures shouldbe designed to prevent childrenusing them for climbing.

vandalism

Vandalism can be a major problembut there are steps shade plannerscan take to prevent damage toshade structures. See Built shade,page 52.

Schools

98


Schools


Demountable shade structuresshould only be used to supplementmore permanent forms of shade.Some demountable structures, egumbrellas, offer limited protection.Umbrellas also offer limited groupspace underneath and may beunstable during windy conditions.



rain protection

Schools often lack sufficient wetweather shelter. Built structuresthat offer both UVR and rainprotection can help overcome thisissue.

vandalism

As school grounds are oftenaccessible after hours, the risk ofvandalism is an issue that needs tobe considered. See page 52.

emergency access

Shade structures and/or plantingshould not restrict emergencyvehicle access to school buildingsand grounds.

existing services


events

Shade is an importantconsideration for sports andswimming days and other schoolevents, eg fetes. Demountablestructures may be useful on theseoccasions.


The New South Wales Departmentof Education and Trainingpublication Sun shade in schools isa useful additional resource. Fullreference details can be foundunder further reading at the end ofthis section. See page 101.

noteThe Cancer Society of NewZealand’s information sheetTree Planting for Schools is auseful extra resource

99


The recommendations below areminimum shade guidelines forschools across New Zealandduring summer. It is acknowledgedthat it may not be possible in theshort term to implement all theserecommendations due to fundingconstraints. However, medium-term plans should includeimprovements to summer shadeprovision as a priority.


active playground Partial shade is recommended for open playground areas, especiallyover grass which needs some sun for growth. Natural shade is the mostappropriate option.

Consider arranging planting in clusters so that groups of children canaccess shade. Deciduous trees will allow for penetration of warmth andlight to the playground during winter.

Shade throughout the summer is recommended over play equipmentand sandpits. Consider using a combination of built and natural shade.The need for winter warmth and light are issues.

passive playground Shade during October to March is recommended for areas of passiveplayground use, eg fixed seating assembly areas.

Moveable seats should be placed in the shade.



Schools

Specific recommendations forwinter shade have not been madedue to differences in the prevailingclimatic conditions across NewZealand during winter. However,the UV index is rarely more thanone or two and risk levels are low inwinter.

For some outdoor areas within aschool, the need for winter shadeis more pronounced. Where this isthe case, the phrase ‘shadethroughout the year’ is used in thefollowing text.

100


Schools

covered outdoor learning areas COLAs provide additional teaching space as well as wet weather space.

When planning a COLA for an existing school, consideration should begiven to constructing one of similar size to the standard core provision, iebetween 150m2 for 14 classes and 210m2 for 21 classes.1

An additional area of 18m2 or 24m2 respectively can be included ifincorporating the canteen covered area.2

For more detailed information on COLAs refer to the documentSun Shade in Schools listed under further reading at the end of thissection.

canteen areas Shade throughout the summer months is recommended for queuingareas.Built shade, eg a broad awning, is the most appropriate option.Rain protection is recommended.

pedestrian links Shade is recommended for thoroughfares linking buildings and facilitieswithin a school.


Rain protection is recommended, particularly where students aremoving from one building to another throughout the day.

school bus stops Shade is recommended for waiting areas at school bus stops, particularlyduring summer. Consider using natural shade, although where possiblebuilt structures that offer both UVR and rain protection should beprovided.

Although school bus stops will usually be part of the general streetscapeand therefore outside the school boundaries, it may be possible to shadethe area by planting trees immediately within the boundary.

Local councils and transport authorities could be lobbied to provide builtshelters.

1 New South Wales Department ofEducation and Training. Sun shadein schools. Sydney, 1998; 6.

2 New South Wales Department ofEducation and Training, Sun shade inschools. Sydney, 1998.

(COLAs)

101


sports fields and facilities Refer to the section on Sports grounds and facilitiesin this chapter.

swimming pools Refer to the section on Public swimming pools in this chapter.

general Experience over a range of schools indicates that a typical amountof shade to ensure adequate protection would be 2.5m2 per student.3

However, the adequacy of shade protection cannot be measured byarea alone. Shade quality, shade location and site usage patterns arealso critical factors.

further reading• New South Wales Department of Education and

Training. Protection from the sun – Guidelines toassist in implementing the Student Welfare Policy.Sydney, 1997.

• New South Wales Department of Education andTraining. Student Welfare: Protection from the sunMemorandum 97/152 (S.144). May 1997.

3 Greenwood J (Shade Consultantand Architect). Advice toNew South Wales Cancer Council(unpublished). 1998.

Schools

• Cancer Society of New Zealand. Sample Sun Smartpolicies for primary/secondary schools. Wellington,2000.

• New South Wales Department of Education andTraining. Sun shade in schools. Sydney, 1998.

102


Swimming pools

Swimming is a popular activity in New Zealand duringsummer. For many people the public swimming pooloffers a convenient and safe place for swimming.However, when pools are located outdoors, patrons’risk of excessive solar UVR exposure can be extreme.This is because:• public pools are commonly used in summer when

annual UVR levels are at their peak

• pool users typically wear minimal clothing

• there is often little shade

• there may be high levels of indirect UVR.

Thus the provision of sufficient UVR protectiveshade at these facilities is an issue that must beconsidered by pool owners and managers. Apartfrom contributing to the health and safety of theirpatrons, the increased comfort levels afforded by awell-designed shady environment are likely to increasecustomer satisfaction and even patronage.



It should be noted, however, that as shade can neverprovide total UVR protection, patrons should alsobe encouraged to adopt personal sun protectionmeasures, ie wearing sun protective clothing, hats,sunscreen and sunglasses. Signage reminding poolusers of these strategies, as well as the need to takeparticular care between 11am and 4pm, could beerected. Sun protection messages could also bebroadcast over the public address system.

It should also be noted in regard to pool staff,eg lifeguards or swimming teachers, that the Healthand Safety in Employment Act 1992 requiresemployers to identify and control the risk faced byworkers required to work outdoors. Under theregulations, employees must cooperate with themeasures that their employer puts in place to protectthem.

Swimming pools

103


Swimming pools

PERMANENTSHADE TOCIRCULATIONROUTES

wadingpool

covered way

reception

amenities

main pool

PORTABLESHADE FORCASUAL USERS

an example of shade at a swimming pool

SHADE TOMARSHALLINGAREA ANDOFFICIALS

SPECTATOR SHADE

RETRACTABLE SHADETO SHALLOW END

DENSE NATURALSHADE TO NORTH

PERMANENT SHADETO WADING POOL

104


Swimming pools


Many of the followingconsiderations refer to conceptsdiscussed in more detail in otherparts of this publication. For thisreason it is recommended thatreaders familiarise themselveswith the content of Chapters 1 to 5as well as Appendix C, beforeconsidering the specific issues forswimming pools.

existing shade

Plans should be made to optimisethe use of existing shade beforeadditional shade is considered,eg fixed seating could be relocatedto a shaded area.

site usage patterns

It is important to take into accountthe usage patterns at the site,particularly the time/s of day andyear it is most in use. Sufficientshade should be available atthe times of heaviest usage,particularly when UVR levels areat their peak. To achieve this itmay be necessary to supplementpermanent shade withdemountable structures.

Generally there are a number ofareas of different use within apublic swimming pool complexincluding:• spectator areas

• aquatic areas

• concourse

• refreshment areas.

While each area has its own shaderequirements, they should beconsidered within the context ofthe whole site.

carnivals

Providing shade is essential formajor events such as carnivalsand competitions. Demountablestructures can be used to provideadditional shade over spectatorareas, as well as the areas forcompetitors and officials. Poolmanagement could offer the useof such structures as part of poolhiring packages.

climatic conditions

It is important to take into accountthe overall characteristics of theparticular climate zone in which thepool is situated, as well as any localconditions, eg strong wind. Whenthese are understood it is possibleto use design strategies to modifyadverse conditions.

The effects of local conditions,particularly salt (in relation tocorrosion) and wind, also need tobe considered in the selection anddesign of shade structures as wellas the selection of tree species.

indirect UVR

Indirect UVR is an importantfactor to consider due to the highlevels of reflected UVR at publicswimming pool complexes. While itis difficult to eliminate indirect UVRin this situation, exposure can be

minimised. For example, shadestructures should be of a sufficientsize to ensure people can moveaway from the edges. The shadecanopy should extend at least onemetre past the actual area of useand vertical barriers should be builtinto the sides.

The potential for exposure toindirect UVR should also beconsidered when selecting groundsurfaces for the pool complex.Coarse and/or soft surfaces, egbrick pavers or grass, will reflectless UVR than hard and/or smoothsurfaces, eg trowelled concrete.Existing surfaces can be modified ifthey reflect high levels of UVR.

aesthetics

Shade design should aim to beaesthetically pleasing as well aspractical. An approach whichcombines both natural and builtshade is preferable.

approval

Local councils will requiredevelopment approval for builtshade structures.

105


natural shade

Natural shade should be asignificant element of shadeprovision for the perimeters ofareas adjacent to pools. Trees withdense foliage and wide spreadingcanopies provide the bestprotection.

Species should be selected to suitlocal soil and climatic conditions aswell as the character of thesurrounding environment. Rootbarriers and subsoil drainage willhelp to ensure that pavements arenot damaged by tree roots.

If natural shade is the long-termfavoured option for areas within thepool complex, short-life builtstructures, ie with a lifespan of sixto 10 years, can be used until treesplanted for shade purposesmature.

safety

It is important to ensure thatshade structures do not createsafety hazards. Support systems,eg upright posts, should be clearlyvisible and ideally have roundededges and/or padding. Theyshould be placed so as tominimise intrusion into circulationareas. Where possible guy ropesshould be avoided, as they may bea trip hazard.

sightlines

Shade structures should notobstruct lifeguards’, spectators’ orofficials’ views of the pool areas.

corrosion

The supporting systems of shadestructures should not be placed inor near the pool as structuralcorrosion may occur.



personal shade hire

Personal shade structures suchas umbrellas could be availablefor hire. The income from such ascheme could be used to provideadditional shade at the site.However, it should be noted thatbecause of indirect UVR umbrellasprovide limited protection.

existing services



The Queensland Health publicationShade for public pools is a usefuladditional resource. Full referencedetails can be found under furtherreading at the end of this section.See page 107.

Swimming pools

106


Swimming pools

The recommendations below are minimum shade guidelines for publicswimming pools across New Zealand during summer. It is acknowledgedthat it may not be possible in the short term to implement all theserecommendations due to funding constraints. However, medium-termplans should include improvements to summer shade provision as apriority.


spectator areas Shade is recommended over all seated spectator areas. Built shade isthe most appropriate option. Rain protection is recommended.

Shade is recommended for general spectator areas, where peoplerelax after a swim. A combination of natural and built shade is themost appropriate option. Sufficient shade should be available to allowmost people to access shade. Demountable structures can be used tosupplement permanent shade, particularly during summer.

aquatic areas Shade is recommended over toddler pools and the surroundingsupervising area. A permanent shade system is the most appropriateoption.

Where possible, shade should be provided over the areas of the poolwhere most people spend their time and where children’s swimminglessons are held. At most public pools, these are the shallow end andpool edges.1 Consider using a demountable structure or an adjustablesystem, so that shade can be removed during winter.

Demountable shade is recommended for marshalling and official areasduring carnivals and competitions.

1 Minnery J. A report on B.B.C.swimming pools (unpublishedreport). Brisbane: Q Search,Queensland Institute ofTechnology (now QueenslandUniversity of Technology), 1988.

107


concourse Consider extending shade canopies over pools or adjacent spectatorareas so that the concourse is also shaded.

Where possible, ground surfaces should reflect minimal levels ofUVR, heat and light.

refreshment areas Shade is recommended for queuing areas at kiosks. Built shade,eg a broad awning, is the most appropriate option. Awnings shouldbe of a sufficient size to cater for capacity crowds.

Shade is recommended over picnic tables and other areas whererefreshments are consumed.

Where possible, ground surfaces should reflect minimal levels ofUVR, heat and light.

further reading• Alexander-Gabrielson M. Swimming pools –

A guide to their planning, design and operation.Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers Inc, 1987.

• Queensland Health and Department of Architecture,Queensland University. Shade for public pools.Brisbane, 1996.

Swimming pools

108


Beaches

Beach users’ risk of excessive solar UVR exposure isextreme because:• beaches are commonly used in summer when

annual UVR levels are at their peak

• they typically wear minimal clothing

• they often spend extended periods of time at thebeach

• there is little shade on the beach itself and theremay not be sufficient shade at adjacent publicreserves

• there are high levels of indirect UVR.

While the provision of sufficient UVR protective shadewill contribute to a safer beach environment, it doesnot guarantee total protection from UVR. Beach users

should therefore be encouraged to adopt personalsun protection measures, ie wearing sun protectiveclothing, hats, sunscreen and sunglasses. Signagereminding people of these strategies, as well as theneed to take particular care between 11am and 4pmduring summer, could be erected.

It should also be noted in regard to beach staff, egbeach inspectors and lifeguards, that the Health andSafety in Employment Act 1992 requires employers toidentify and control risks faced by workers required towork outdoors. An assessment should be made of thesolar UV radiation to which workers are likely to beexposed and steps should be taken to try andminimise any risks. Workers should also takeresponsibility to look after their own health.



Beaches

109


Beaches

NATURALSHADE

clu

bh

ou

se

beach

amenities

SHADEAROUNDCLUBHOUSE

PERMANENTSHADE TOQUEUING ANDWAITING AREAS

LARGE SCALEPORTABLE SHADE FORPUBLIC ATREAR OF BEACH

PORTABLE SHADE FORLIFESAVERS

PORTABLE SHADEUMBRELLAS FOR PUBLIC

an example of shade at a beach

110


Beaches


modifying site usage

While it may not be feasible toprovide permanent shade on thebeach itself, permanent shadeshould be provided at adjacentpublic reserves. Beaches andadjacent reserves should be asintegrated as possible so thatpeople will be more inclined toretreat from unshaded sand areas.If reserves are slightly elevated,close to the sand, easily accessibleand offer shade, they will beextensively used.

The shade requirements fordifferent areas within a reserve willvary according to the type ofactivities that occur there. Forexample, in areas where peopleare sitting in one spot, eg picnictables, the need for permanentshade over a significant part of thearea is high. In areas where peopleare active and mobile, eg largegrassed areas, it is more difficult toposition shade so that it will beeffective. Occasional scatteredshade, however, should still beconsidered for these areas.

carnivals

Shade is an importantconsideration for large scaleevents such as surf life savingcarnivals. Demountable shadestructures can be used to provideshade over spectator areas, aswell as the areas for competitorsand officials.

indirect UVR

Indirect UVR is an important factordue to the high levels of reflectedUVR at beaches. While it is difficultto eliminate indirect UVR in thissituation, its effect on adjacentreserve areas can be reduced byplanting panels of vegetationbetween the beach and reserve.

Shade structures at reserves, aswell as on the sand, should also bedesigned to control indirect UVR.For example, they should be of asufficient size to ensure people canmove away from the edges. Theshade canopy should extend atleast one metre past the actualarea of use, and vertical barriersshould be built into the sides.

The potential for exposure toindirect UVR should also beconsidered when selecting groundsurfaces within reserve areas.Coarse and/or soft surfaces, egbrick pavers or grass, will reflectless UVR than hard and/or smoothsurfaces, eg trowelled concrete.Existing surfaces can be modified ifthey reflect high levels of UVR.

aesthetics

Shade design should aim to beaesthetically pleasing as well aspractical. Generally, an approachwhich combines built and naturalshade is preferable.

Many of the followingconsiderations refer to conceptsdiscussed in more detail in otherparts of this publication. For thisreason it is recommended thatreaders familiarise themselves withthe content of Chapters 1 to 5 aswell as Appendix C, beforeconsidering the specific issues forbeaches.

sand areas

Providing shade to the sand areasof beaches should be a majorconsideration. This can beachieved by cantilevering structuresover the sand from walkways orareas immediately adjacent to thebeach. Trees planted as near aspossible to the sand may alsoprovide shade. Lightweightstructures, such as tensionmembrane structures or overheadsails, can be erected directly overthe sand areas.These could be designed to allowremoval during winter months andcould provide financial benefits bycarrying sponsors’ messages.

111


Beaches

natural shade

Natural shade should be a majorelement of shade provision atpublic reserve areas adjacent tobeaches. Trees with dense foliageand wide spreading canopiesprovide the best protection.

Trees should be selected to suitlocal soil and climatic conditions aswell as the character of thesurrounding environment. Theyshould also be salt-resistant. Rootbarriers and subsoil drainage willhelp to ensure that adjacentpavements are not damaged bytree roots.

If natural shade is the long-termfavoured option for the reserve,short-life built structures, ie with alifespan of six to 10 years, can beused until trees planted for shadepurposes mature.

safety

It is important to ensure that shadestructures do not create safetyhazards. Support systems, egupright posts, should be clearlyvisible and ideally have roundededges. They should be placed soas to minimise intrusion intocirculation areas. Where possibleguy ropes should be avoided, asthey may be a trip hazard.

sightlines

Shade structures should notobstruct peoples’ views of thebeach area, particularly lifeguards’views.

corrosion and wind

Shade structures in coastal areaswill be subject to corrosion fromsalt as well as frequent high windconditions. These issues should beconsidered in the design ofsupporting structures and theselection of shade materials.


In the appropriate situation,off-the-shelf structures can providea readily available, cost-effectiveshade solution. However, unless aShade Audit has been conducted,it is difficult to tell if they will meetthe site’s shade requirements. If thedecision is made to purchase anoff-the-shelf structure, the issuesoutlined in Chapter 4 of thispublication should be considered.

personal shade hire

Personal shade structures such asumbrellas or sun domes could beavailable for hire. Surf clubs,neighbouring shops and/or localcouncils could provide this service.However, it should be noted thatbecause of indirect UVR, umbrellasprovide limited protection.

vandalism

As beaches and adjacent reservesare accessible at all hours ofthe day and night, the risk ofvandalism is an issue that needsto be considered. See page 52.

112


The recommendations below are minimum shade guidelines for beachesand adjacent reserves across New Zealand during summer.

It is acknowledged that it may not be possible in the short term toimplement all these recommendations due to funding constraints.However, medium-term plans should include improvements to summershade provision as a priority.

sand areas Consider providing shade to popular sand areas. Long-span lightweightdemountable systems are the most appropriate option.

Trees and overhanging built structures located as close as possible tothe edge of the beach will provide shade to sand areas, particularlyduring the afternoon.

Facilities for lifeguards should be fully shaded.

areas adjacent to beach Shade should be provided at adjacent reserves, particularly towards thebeach side. Refer to the section on Parks and Reserves in this chapter.

Shade is recommended for queuing areas at kiosks. Built shade,eg a broad awning, is the most appropriate option. Awnings should beof a sufficient size to cater for capacity crowds.

Shade is recommended over picnic tables and other areas whererefreshments are consumed, particularly during the middle period of theday. Where possible, ground surfaces surrounding these areas shouldreflect minimal levels of UVR, heat and light.


Beaches

114


Sports grounds and facilities


Sports grounds and facilities are traditionallycharacterised by wide open spaces with little or noshade. As a result, people participating in or viewingactivities at these venues often have little choice but toendure exposure to solar UVR for long periods of time.Thus the need for shade is generally high.

The provision of sufficient UVR protective shade atthese facilities is therefore an issue that needs to beconsidered by owners and managers. Apart fromcontributing to the health and safety of spectators,officials and players, the increased comfort levelsafforded by a well-designed shady environment arelikely to encourage patronage.



It should be noted, however, that as shade cannever provide total UVR protection, spectatorsand participants (where possible) should also beencouraged to adopt personal sun protectionmeasures, ie wearing sun protective clothing, hats,sunscreen and sunglasses. Signage reminding peopleof these strategies, as well as the need to takeparticular care between 11am and 4pm duringsummer, could be erected. Sun protection messagescould also be broadcast over the public addresssystem.

It should also be noted in regard to employees, eggroundspeople or sports officials, that the Health andSafety in Employment Act 1992 requires employers toidentify and control the risks faced by workersrequired to work outdoors. An assessment should bemade of the solar UV radiation to which workers arelikely to be exposed and steps should be taken to tryand minimise any risks. Workers should also takeresponsibility to look after their own health.

115


DENSE NATURALSHADE TO NORTHAND WEST

amenities

gra

nd

stan

d

field

kiosk

kiosk

amenities

COVEREDGRANDSTANDWITH BACK TONORTH AND WEST

AVENUES OFSHADE TREESTO MAINCIRCULATIONROUTES MAXIMISE ‘SOFT’

LANDSCAPING

SHADE TO QUEUINGAND EATING AREAS

PERMANENT SHADETO SPECTATOR AREAS

an example of shade at a sporting field


SHADE TOQUEUINGAREAS

116




Many of the followingconsiderations refer to conceptsdiscussed in more detail in otherparts of this publication. For thisreason it is recommended thatreaders familiarise themselveswith the content of Chapters 1 to 5as well as Appendix C, beforeconsidering the specific issues forsports grounds and facilities.

existing shade

Plans should be made to optimisethe use of existing shade beforeadditional shade is considered,eg fixed seating could be relocatedto a shaded area.

site usage patterns

It is important to take into accountthe usage patterns at the grounds/facility, particularly the time/s of dayand year it is most in use. Sufficientshade should be available at thetimes of heaviest usage, particularlywhen UVR levels are at their peak.

For example, if games areusually played in the afternoonduring summer, shade should beavailable at this time of day. Toachieve this it may be necessary tosupplement permanent shade withdemountable structures.

Generally there are a number ofareas of different use within asports ground/facility including:• spectator areas

• playing/competition areas

• refreshment areas

• entrance zones and pedestrianlinks.

While each area has its own shaderequirements, they should beconsidered within the context ofthe whole site. Regardless of thescale of the facility, it is essentialthat shade is provided for players,officials and spectators.

major events

Providing shade is very importantfor major events, eg cricketmatches, where people are often atthe sports ground/facility all day.Demountable structures can beused to provide additional shadeover spectator areas, as well as thesideline areas for participants andofficials. Site management couldoffer the use of such structures aspart of ground/facility hiringpackages.

climatic conditions

It is important to take into accountthe overall characteristics of theparticular climate zone in which thesports ground/facility is situated, aswell as any local conditions, egstrong wind. When these areunderstood it is possible to usedesign strategies to modify adverseconditions.




Summer shade provision shouldminimise UVR levels as well asreduce heat and light. Winter shadeprovision should allow for trans-mission of sufficient levels of heatand light.

indirect UVR

Indirect UVR is an important factorto consider when designing builtshade structures and selectingsurfaces for the sports grounds/facilities. Coarse and/or softsurfaces, eg brick pavers or grass,will reflect less UVR than hard and/or smooth surfaces, eg trowelledconcrete. Existing surfaces can bemodified if they reflect high levels ofUVR.

aesthetics


117


approval


natural shade

Natural shade should be a majorelement of shade provision forareas within sports grounds/facilities. Trees with dense foliageand wide spreading canopiesprovide the best protection.


If natural shade is the long-termfavoured option for areas within thegrounds/facility, short-life builtstructures, ie with a lifespan of sixto 10 years, can be used until treesplanted for shade purposesmature.

safety

It is important to ensure thatshade structures do not createsafety hazards. Support systems,eg upright posts, should be clearlyvisible and ideally have roundededges and/or padding. Theyshould be placed so as tominimise intrusion into play andcirculation areas. Where possibleguy ropes should be avoided, asthey may be a trip hazard.

sightlines

Shade structures should notobstruct spectators’ or officials’views of the sports field/competition area.




Demountable shade structuresshould only be used to supplementmore permanent forms of shadeor when it is likely to be severalseasons before a shade projectcan be completed. Somedemountable structures, egumbrellas, offer limited protection.Umbrellas also provide limitedgroup space underneath and maybe unstable during windyconditions.

rain protection

It may be desirable to provide bothUVR and rain protection over areasfor spectators, players and officials.

vandalism

As sporting grounds/facilitiesare often accessible at all hoursof the day and night, the risk ofvandalism is an issue that needsto be considered. See page 52.

existing services

The location of shade structuresand planting should take account ofexisting structures, eg drainage,power lines, gas, water.


The Queensland Health publicationShade for sports fields is a usefuladditional resource. Full referencedetails can be found under furtherreading at the end of this section.See page 119.


118



The recommendations below areminimum shade guidelines forsports grounds and facilitiesacross New Zealand duringsummer. It is acknowledged that itmay not be possible in the shortterm to implement all theserecommendations due to fundingconstraints. However, medium-term plans should includeimprovements to summer shadeprovision as a priority.

Specific recommendations forwinter shade have not been madedue to differences in the prevailingclimatic conditions across NewZealand during winter. However, theUV index is rarely above one or twoin winter and risk levels are low.

spectator areas Shade is recommended over all seated spectator areas. Built shadeis the most appropriate option. Rain protection is recommended.

Shade is recommended for general spectator areas, particularly thepreferred viewing area/s, as this is where people will tend tocongregate. A combination of natural and built shade is the mostappropriate option. Sufficient shade should be available to allow at least50 percent of the spectators to sit in the shade. Demountablestructures can be used to supplement permanent shade.

Shade should be provided at different parts of the ground/facility assupporters of opposing teams usually prefer to congregate in distinctareas.

Shade should be provided close enough to the action. However,structures should not be located so as to create a hazard for players orto obscure views of the playing field/competition area.

playing fields/ Players’ off-field areas, eg baseball dugouts, should be shaded and ifpossible, protected from the rain. Warm-up areas should also beshaded.

The area/s where officials are located, eg scoring boxes and umpires’chairs, should be shaded and if possible protected from the rain. Insome circumstances personal devices, eg an adjustable umbrella, maybe the only viable option.


competition areas

119


playing fields/competition areas Where possible, the on-field areas should be shaded. For example,a tennis court could be covered with a large, clear span structure; eachend of a bowling green could be covered with a retractable shadecanopy.

The safety of players and officials is an important consideration.Ensure that there is suitable clearance between the edge of the playingfield and the support system of the shade structure.

refreshment areas Shade is recommended for queuing areas at kiosks. Built shade,eg a broad awning, is the most appropriate option. Awnings shouldbe of a sufficient size to cater for capacity crowds. Rain protection mayalso be a consideration when selecting awning materials.

Shade is recommended over picnic tables and BBQ areas, particularlyduring the middle period of the day.

Where possible, ground surfaces should reflect minimal levels of UVR,heat and light.

entrance zones and Consider planting avenues of trees to provide shade over pedestrianlinks between the entrance, main spectator areas and other activityzones.

Shaded seating could be provided at rendezvous points both insideand outside the grounds.


continued


further reading• Queensland Health and Department of Architecture,

University of Queensland. Shade for sports fields.Brisbane, 1995.

pedestrian links

120


Parks and reserves

Parks and reserves

Parks and reserves are used throughout the yearby people of all ages, with heaviest usage oftencoinciding with the middle period of the day, whenUVR levels are generally at their peak. Thus the needfor shade at these venues is generally high.

It should also be noted in regard to employees,eg gardeners, that the Health and Safety inEmployment Act 1992 requires employees to identifyand control the risks by workers required to workoutside. An assessment should be made of the risksto which workers are likely to be exposed and stepsshould be taken to identify and control any risks.Workers should also take responsibility to look aftertheir own health.

It should be noted, however, that as shade can neverprovide total UVR protection, the public should alsobe encouraged to adopt personal sun protectionmeasures, ie wearing sun protective clothing, hats,sunscreen and sunglasses. Signage reminding parkusers of these strategies, as well as the need to takeparticular care between 11am and 4pm duringsummer, could be erected.

noteIt is essential that anassessment of existingshade be made beforethe planning and designof additional shadecommences.


121


MAXIMISE SOFTGROUND SURFACESTO REDUCEREFLECTION

amenities

play equipment

picnic area

NATURALSHADE TOVIEWINGAREA

PERMANENTBUILT SHADEOVER PLAYEQUIPMENT

SHADE TO PICNICAREAS

AVENUES OF SHADETREES TO MAINCIRCULATION ROUTES

BUILT SHADE TOPICNIC TABLES INOPEN AREAS

an example of shade at a park

Parks and reserves

122


Parks and reserves

Many of the followingconsiderations refer to conceptsdiscussed in more detail in otherparts of this publication. For thisreason it is recommended thatreaders familiarise themselveswith the content of Chapters 1 to 5as well as Appendix C, beforeconsidering the specific issues forparks and reserves.

existing shade

Plans should be made to optimisethe use of existing shade beforeadditional shade is considered,eg fixed seating could berelocated to a shaded area, lowbranches could be removed fromtrees to allow access.

climatic conditions

It is important to take into accountthe overall characteristics of theparticular climate zone in which thepark/reserve is situated, aswell as any local conditions, egstrong wind. When these areunderstood it is possible to usedesign strategies to modify adverseconditions.



site usage patterns

It is important to take into accountthe usage patterns at the site,including the type of activitiesthat occur, where they occur andwhen they occur. Sufficient shadeshould be available at the times ofheaviest usage, particularly whenUVR levels are at their peak.

Generally there are a number ofareas of different use within a park/reserve including:• open areas

• playgrounds

• picnic and BBQ areas

• playing fields.

While each area has its own shaderequirements, they should beconsidered within the context ofthe whole site.


The shade requirements fordifferent areas within a park/reservewill vary according to the type ofactivities that occur there. Forexample, in areas where people aresitting in one spot, or where play isconfined to a relatively small area,such as a playground, the need forpermanent shade over a significantpart of the area is high.

In areas where people are activeand mobile, eg large grassedareas, it is more difficult to positionshade so that it will be effective.Occasional scattered shade,however, should still be consideredfor these areas, so that park usershave the opportunity to accessshade.

indirect UVR

Indirect UVR is an important factorto consider when designing builtshade structures and selectingground surfaces for areas within apark/reserve. Coarse and/or softsurfaces, eg brick pavers or grass,will reflect less UVR than hard and/or smooth surfaces, eg trowelledconcrete. Existing surfaces can bemodified if they reflect high levels ofUVR.

aesthetics

Shade design should aim to beaesthetically pleasing as well aspractical. Generally, an approachwhich combines built and naturalshade is preferable.

People commonly visit parksand reserves to enjoy the greatoutdoors. They will be less inclinedto sit in the shade or even visit thepark if structures are unattractive,poorly designed or unsympatheticto the surrounding environment.

safety

It is important to ensure that shadestructures do not create safetyhazards. Support systems, egupright posts, should be clearlyvisible and ideally have roundededges and/or padding. They shouldbe placed so as to minimiseintrusion into circulation andchildren’s play areas. Wherepossible guy ropes should beavoided, as they may be a triphazard.

123


approval


natural shade

Natural shade is a major elementof shade provision at parks/reserves. Trees with dense foliageand wide spreading canopiesprovide the best protection.

Species should be selected to suitlocal soil and climatic conditions aswell as the surroundingenvironment. Root barriers andsubsoil drainage will help to ensurethat pavements are not damagedby tree roots.

If natural shade is the long-termfavoured option, short-life builtstructures, ie with a lifespan of sixto 10 years, can be used until treesplanted for shade purposesmature.



rain protection

It may be desirable to incorporatebuilt structures that offer both UVRand rain protection into the design.

vandalism

As parks and reserves are oftenaccessible at all hours of the dayand night, the risk of vandalism isan issue that needs to beconsidered. See page 52.

existing services


further reading

For more information, see furtherreading, page 125.

Parks and reserves

124


Parks and reserves


open areas Partial shade is recommended for open areas, especially over grasswhich needs some sun for growth. Natural shade is the mostappropriate option.

Consider arranging planting in clusters so that groups of people canaccess shade.

Fixed seating should be placed in the shade.

playground Partial shade is recommended for open areas, especially over grasswhich needs some sun for growth. Natural shade is the mostappropriate option.

Shade throughout the summer is recommended over children’s playequipment. Generally, a permanent shade system is the mostappropriate option. The need for winter warmth and light should beconsidered.

Seating should be placed in the shade and positioned to allowsupervising adults a clear view of children at play.

The recommendations below areminimum shade guidelines forparks and reserves across NewZealand during summer. It isacknowledged that it may not bepossible in the short term toimplement all theserecommendations due to fundingconstraints. However, medium-term plans should includeimprovements to summer shadeprovision as a priority.

Specific recommendations forwinter shade have not been madedue to differences in the prevailingclimatic conditions across NewZealand during winter. However,the UV index is rarely above one ortwo in winter and risk levels arelow.

125


fixed play equipment Safety is a major consideration for shade provision over fixed playequipment.

Shade structures over fixed play equipment should not have footholdsor grip surfaces which would allow for climbing.

The roofline of the shade structure should extend at least 500millimetres beyond the edge of the deck of the play equipment, toprevent child access on to the roof.

The roof of the shade structure should allow for a minimum headclearance height of two metres above the deck of the play equipment.

Tree trunks and the upright posts of shade structures should be locateda minimum distance of two metres away from the most fully extendedpart of the play equipment, eg the side of a climbing platform or theend of an extended swing arc. This will ensure sufficient freefall zones.

Any shade structure in the play area should be designed with referenceto AS/NZS 4486.1:1997. See further reading below.

picnic and BBQ areas Shade is recommended over picnic tables and BBQ areas, particularlyduring the middle period of the day when UVR levels are generally attheir peak.


Fire safety is an issue that needs to be considered in relation to BBQareas, particularly when selecting materials for shade canopies andwhen planting trees.

playing fields Refer to the section on Sports grounds and facilities in this chapter.

further reading:• AS/NZS 4422:1996 Playground surfacing – Specifications,

requirements and test methods. Standards Australia and StandardsNew Zealand.

• AS/NZS 4486.1:1997 Playgrounds and playground equipment Part 1 –Development, installation, inspection, maintenance and operation.Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand.

Parks and reserves

126


General streetscape

General streetscape

The general streetscape includes footpaths andpedestrian thoroughfares, public transport pointssuch as bus stops and taxi ranks and local shoppingcentres. These facilities are in daily use throughout theyear.

The provision of sufficient UVR protective shade atthese facilities is therefore vital in the developmentof a safe public environment. The increased comfortlevels afforded by a well-designed shady environmentare also likely to encourage patronage of localshopping facilities, as well as increase communitysatisfaction with these facilities.



It should be noted, however, that as shade can neverprovide total UVR protection, the public should alsobe encouraged to adopt personal sun protectionmeasures, ie wearing sun protective clothing, hats,sunscreen and sunglasses. Signage reminding peopleof these strategies, as well as the need to takeparticular care between 11am and 4pm duringsummer, could be erected.

It should also be noted in regard to employees,eg street cleaners, that The Health and Safety inEmployment Act 1992 requires employers to identifyand control risks faced by workers required to workoutdoors, An assessment should be made of the solarUV radiation to which workers are likely to be exposedand steps should be taken to try and minimise anyrisks. Workers should also take responsibility to lookafter their own health.

127


NATURAL SUMMERSHADE OVERFOOTPATH

taxi stand

roadwayfootpath

cafe

shops

shops

carpark

CONSTRUCT AWNINGSOVER SHOP FRONTS

COVERED WAY TOCARPARK

RETRACTABLESHADE OVEROUTDOOR EATINGAREAS

RETRACTABLECANOPIES

PERMANENT BUILTSHADE OVERWAITING AREAS

PERMANENT BUILTSHADE OVERWAITING AREAS

an example of shade on a general street

General streetscape

128


General streetscape

Many of the followingconsiderations refer to conceptsdiscussed in more detail in otherparts of this publication. For thisreason it is recommended thatreaders familiarise themselveswith the content of Chapters 1 to 5as well as Appendix C, beforeconsidering the specific issues forthe general streetscape.

existing shade

Plans should be made to optimisethe use of existing shade beforeadditional shade is considered,eg fixed seating could berelocated to a shaded area, lowbranches could be removed fromtrees to allow access.

site usage patterns

It is important to take into accountthe usage patterns of streetscapeareas, including the type ofactivities that occur, where theyoccur and when they occur.Sufficient shade should be availableat the times of heaviest usage,particularly when UVR levels are attheir peak.



Some locations within theclassification ‘streetscape’ haveusage patterns that involveprolonged exposure to UVR, egareas where people congregateand linger in one spot, such as acourtyard in an outdoor shoppingmall or waiting areas at bus stopsand taxi ranks. The need for shadeover a significant part of theseareas is high and should beconsidered a priority.

In areas where people are activeand moving, eg footpaths, it ismore difficult to position shade sothat it will be effective. Occasionalscattered shade, however, shouldstill be considered for these areas,so that people have the opportunityto access shade.

climatic conditions

It is important to take into accountthe overall characteristics of theparticular climate zone in which thestreetscape areas are situated, aswell as any local conditions,eg strong wind. When these areunderstood it is possible to usedesign strategies to modify adverseconditions.




Summer shade provision shouldminimise UVR levels as well asreduce heat and light. Winter shadeprovision should allow fortransmission of sufficient levelsof heat and light. The use ofadjustable shade systems and/ordeciduous vegetation may providegreater flexibility.

indirect UVR

Indirect UVR is an important factorto consider when designing builtshade structures and selectingground surfaces for streetscapeareas. Coarse and/or soft surfaces,eg brick pavers or grass, will reflectless UVR than hard and/or smoothsurfaces, eg trowelled concrete.Existing surfaces can be modified ifthey reflect high levels of UVR.

129


aesthetics

Shade design should aim to beaesthetically pleasing as well aspractical. An approach thatcombines natural shade withwell-designed, high quality shadestructures will help to createaesthetically appealing streetscapeareas (particularly local shoppingcentres) that will encouragepatronage. One with unattractive,poorly designed structures thatexclude natural shade may havethe reverse effect.

approval


natural shade

Natural shade should be a majorelement of shade provision forstreetscape areas. Trees withdense foliage and wide spreadingcanopies provide the bestprotection. A 2.4 metre headclearance from the ground to themature tree canopy isrecommended.

Species should be selected to suitlocal soil and climatic conditions aswell as the character of thesurrounding environment. Rootbarriers and subsoil drainage willhelp to ensure that footpaths arenot damaged by tree roots.

Councils should develop a streettree policy to ensure properselection, planting andmaintenance of street trees usedfor shade. The implementation ofsuch policies will also help toimprove the appearance of localstreets.

If natural shade is the long-termfavoured option for areas within thestreetscape, eg a shopping mall,short-life built structures, ie with alifespan of six to 10 years, can beused until trees planted for shadepurposes mature.

existing services


built shade safety

It is important to ensure that shadestructures do not create safetyhazards. Support systems, egupright posts, should be clearlyvisible and ideally have roundededges and/or padding. Theyshould be placed so as tominimise intrusion into play andcirculation areas. Where possibleguy ropes should be avoided, asthey may be a trip hazard.


In the appropriate situation, off-the-shelf structures can providea readily available, cost-effectiveshade solution. However, unless aShade Audit has been conducted,it is difficult to tell if they will meetthe site’s shade requirements. Ifthe decision is made to purchasean off-the-shelf structure, theissues outlined in Chapter 4 of thispublication should be considered.

rain protection

It may be desirable to providerain protection as well as UVRprotection over some streetscapeareas, eg bus stops.

vandalism

As streetscape areas areaccessible at all hours of the dayand night, the risk of vandalism isan issue that needs to beconsidered. See page 52.

General streetscape

130


General streetscape


footpaths Shade is recommended for footpaths with significant levels of regularpedestrian traffic (at least one side of the street). Shade trees planted atregular intervals are the most appropriate option for residential areas.

Shade is recommended for pedestrian thoroughfares linking areas suchas carparks to shopping centres and schools to transport points.Consider using shade trees, planted at regular intervals. Built shademay be appropriate in some locations.

public transport points Shade throughout the year is recommended for waiting areas at majorpublic transport points, eg at local shopping centres. As rain protectionis also desirable, built shade is the most appropriate option. Trees couldbe planted to supplement the shade for capacity crowd situations.

Shade should also be provided at minor public transport points,eg in residential streets. Consider using natural shade, although wherepossible built structures that offer both UVR and rain protection shouldbe provided.

The recommendations below areminimum shade guidelines forgeneral streetscape areas acrossNew Zealand during summer. It isacknowledged that it may notbe possible in the short termto implement all theserecommendations due to fundingconstraints. However, medium-term plans should includeimprovements to summer shadeprovision as a priority.

Specific recommendations for wintershade have not been made due todifferences in the prevailing climaticconditions across New Zealandduring winter. However, the UV indexis rarely above one or two duringwinter and risk levels are low.

131


local shopping centres General outdoor areas at local shopping centres require a mix of shadein summer and winter, as well as access to warmth and light in winter.Consider using natural shade as well as built shade for these areas.

Shade throughout the year is recommended over specified outdooreating areas. Refer to the section on Outdoor cafes, restaurants andbeer gardens in this chapter.

Shade is recommended over areas where people congregate andlinger, eg seating areas in shopping mall courtyards.

Business operators should be encouraged to build awnings off theirpremises. As well as contributing to a shaded walkway for shoppers,these may help to increase patronage, as people will be more inclinedto linger in cool, shaded areas outside shop windows.


General streetscape

132


Resorts, motels and hotels

These facilities are characterised by a mix of specificuse areas, eg swimming pools, beaches, outdoorsports facilities and outdoor restaurants/cafes as wellas surrounding gardens and pathways. Guests willoften spend significant amounts of time using thesefacilities, often during the middle period of the daywhen UVR levels are generally at their peak.

The provision of sufficient UVR protective shade atthese facilities is an issue that must be considered byowners and managers. Apart from contributing to thehealth and safety of their guests, the increasedcomfort levels afforded by a well-designed shadyenvironment are likely to increase customersatisfaction and even patronage.


It should be noted, however, that as shade can neverprovide total UVR protection, guests should alsobe encouraged to adopt personal sun protectionmeasures, ie wearing sun protective clothing, hats,sunscreen and sunglasses. Signage reminding guestsof these strategies, as well as the need to takeparticular care between 11am and 4pm duringsummer months, could be erected. Information couldalso be placed in the guests’ rooms, and sunscreencould be included in the mini bar.

It should also be noted in regard to employees, egpool attendants, tennis and golf professionals andgardeners, that The Health and Safety in EmploymentAct 1992 requires employers to identify and controlthe risks faced by workers required to work outdoors.An assessment should be made of the solar UVradiation to which workers are likely to be exposedand steps should be taken to try and minimise anyrisks. Workers should also take responsibility to lookafter their own health.



133


INDIVIDUAL SHADECABANAS

beach

tennis courts

pool

amenities

restaurant

bar

playarea

MINIMISE HARDGROUND SURFACES --USE GRASS, ETC

NATURAL SHADEOVER COURTS ANDPERMANENT SHADEFOR SPECTATORS

NATURAL ANDPERMANENTSHADE AROUNDPOOL

COVERED POOLAREAS

COVEREDOUTDOOREATING

PERMANENTSHADE OVERPLAY AREAS

VERANDAHSAND AWNINGSON PUBLICBUILDINGS

an example of shade at a resort


134




Many of the followingconsiderations refer to conceptsdiscussed in more detail in otherparts of this publication. For thisreason it is recommended thatreaders familiarise themselveswith the content of Chapters1 to 5 as well as Appendix C,before considering the specificissues for resorts.

existing shade

Plans should be made to optimisethe use of existing shade beforeadditional shade is considered,eg fixed seating could be relocatedto a shaded area, low branchescould be removed from trees toallow access.

site usage patterns

It is important to take into accountthe usage patterns at the site,including the type of activitiesthat occur, where they occur andwhen they occur. Sufficient shadeshould be available at the times ofheaviest usage, particularly whenUVR levels are at their peak.


Within a resort, hotel or motel, theshade requirements for differentareas will vary according to thetype of activities that occur there.For example, in areas wherepeople are sitting in one spot, egoutdoor eating areas, the need forpermanent shade over a significantpart of the area is high. In areaswhere people are active andmobile, eg large grassed areas, it ismore difficult to position shade sothat it will be effective.

Occasional scattered shade,however, should still be consideredfor these areas, so that guestshave the opportunity to accessshade.

climatic conditions

It is important to take into accountthe overall characteristics of theparticular climate zone in which theresort is situated, as well asany local conditions, eg strongwind. When these are understoodit is possible to use designstrategies to modify adverseconditions.




Summer shade provision shouldminimise UVR levels as well asreduce heat and light. Wintershade provision should allow fortransmission of sufficient levelsof heat and light. The use ofadjustable shade systems and/ordeciduous vegetation may providegreater flexibility.

indirect UVR

Indirect UVR is an important factorto consider when designing builtshade structures and selectingground surfaces for outdoor resortareas. Coarse and/or soft surfaces,eg brick pavers or grass, will reflectless UVR than hard and/or smoothsurfaces, eg trowelled concrete.Existing surfaces can be modified ifthey reflect high levels of UVR.

135


aesthetics

Shade design should aim to beaesthetically pleasing as well aspractical. An approach thatcombines natural shade withwell-designed, high qualityshade structures will help tocreate an aesthetically appealingenvironment that will increasecustomer satisfaction andencourage patronage. One withunattractive, poorly designedstructures or which excludesnatural shade may have thereverse effect.

approval


natural shade

Natural shade should be a majorelement of shade provision foroutdoor areas within a resort.Trees with dense foliage and widespreading canopies provide thebest protection.

Species should be selected to suitlocal soil and climatic conditions aswell as the character of thesurrounding environment. Theyshould also be salt-resistant if theresort is located on the coast. Rootbarriers and subsoil drainage willhelp to ensure that pavements arenot damaged by tree roots.

If natural shade is the long-termfavoured option for areas within aresort, short-life built structures, iewith a lifespan of six to 10 years,can be used until trees planted forshade purposes mature.

safety

It is important to ensure that shadestructures do not create safetyhazards. Support systems, egupright posts, should be clearlyvisible and ideally have roundededges and/or padding. Theyshould be placed so as tominimise intrusion into circulationand children’s play areas. Wherepossible guy ropes should beavoided, as they may be a triphazard.




Demountable shade structuresshould only be used to supplementmore permanent forms of shade.Some demountable shadestructures, eg a single umbrella,offer limited protection. Theplacement of umbrellas in groupsmay be a more effective way ofusing these items for shadepurposes.

rain protection

It may be advisable to providerain protection as well as UVRprotection over some outdoorareas within a resort or othertourist facility, eg restaurants/cafes.

existing services



136




swimming pools Shade throughout the year is recommended over toddlers’ pools andthe surrounding supervising area. A permanent shade system is themost appropriate option.

Where possible, shade should be provided over the areas of the poolwhere people most frequently spend their time while in the water.Consider using a demountable structure or an adjustable system, sothat shade can be removed during winter.

Shade is recommended for areas adjacent to the pool, where peoplerelax after a swim. A combination of natural and built shade is the mostappropriate option. Sufficient shade should be available to allow mostpeople to access shade. Demountable structures can be used tosupplement permanent shade, particularly during summer.

Pool lounges and other seats should be placed in the shade,particularly during the middle period of the day.

Where possible, reduce the amount of smooth and/or hard surfacesaround the pool by incorporating natural or synthetic grass.

beaches Refer to the section on Beaches in this chapter.

The recommendations below areminimum shade guidelines forresorts across New Zealand duringsummer. It is acknowledged thatit may not be possible in the shortterm to implement all theserecommendations due to fundingconstraints. However, medium-term plans should includeimprovements to summer shadeprovision as a priority.


137


outdoor dining areas Shade throughout summer is necessary over outdoor dining areas atresorts, hotels and motels. Refer to the section on Outdoor restaurants,cafes and beer gardens in this chapter.

sports facilities Shade is recommended for general spectator areas, particularly thepreferred viewing area/s as this is where people will tend to congregate.Consider using a combination of natural and built shade.

Where possible, on-court areas should be shaded, eg a tennis courtcould be covered with a large, clear span structure.

Grass or synthetic grass are preferred ground surfaces as they reflectlow levels of UVR.

picnic and BBQ areas Shade is recommended over picnic tables and BBQ areas, particularlyduring the middle period of the day.


Fire safety is an issue that needs to be considered in relation to BBQareas, particularly when selecting materials for shade canopies andwhen planting trees.

pathways Pathways should be designed to allow people to pass from one facilityto another with minimum sun exposure. Consider planting avenues oftrees to provide shade over pathways between facilities. Built shademay be appropriate in some locations.

Shaded seating could be provided at rendezvous points within theresort’s grounds.


playgrounds Refer to the section on Parks and reserves in this chapter.

child care facilities Refer to the section on Early childhood services in this chapter.


138


Outdoor restaurants,cafes and beer gardens

The mild climatic conditions experienced inNew Zealand in summer have resulted in outdoorrestaurants/cafes and beer gardens becomingincreasingly common and popular. These venues areoften at their busiest during lunchtime, when UVRlevels are generally at their daily peak. Furthermore,food and drinks can often be consumed over alengthy lunch, resulting in an increased risk ofexcessive solar UVR exposure for the patrons ofthese venues.

The provision of sufficient UVR protective shade atthese venues is an issue that must be considered byowners and managers. Apart from contributing to thehealth and safety of their customers, the increasedcomfort levels afforded by a well-designed shadyenvironment are likely to increase customersatisfaction and even patronage.

It should also be noted in regard to employees,eg waiters, that The Health and Safety in EmploymentAct 1992 requires employers to identify and controlthe risk faced by workers required to work outdoors.An assessment should be made of the solar UVradiation to which workers are likely to be exposedand steps should be taken to try and minimise anyrisks. Workers should also take responsibility to lookafter their own health.



139


Outdoor restaurants, cafes and beer gardens

PERMANENTSHADE OVERCIRCULATIONROUTES AND LINKTO BUILDING

restaurant

outdooreating

RETRACTABLESHADE OVERMOST OUTDOORAREAS

USE TEXTUREDPAVING TOREDUCE UVREFLECTION

PORTABLE SHADE

DENSE NATURALSHADE TO NORTH

an example of shade at an outdoor restaurant

140




Many of the followingconsiderations refer to conceptsdiscussed in more detail in otherparts of this publication. For thisreason it is recommended thatreaders familiarise themselveswith the content of Chapters 1 to 5as well as Appendix C, beforeconsidering the specific issues foroutdoor restaurants, cafes andbeer gardens.

climatic conditions

It is important to take into accountthe overall characteristics of theparticular climate zone in which theoutdoor restaurant/cafe or beergarden is situated, as well as anylocal conditions, eg strong wind.When these are understood it ispossible to use design strategiesto modify adverse conditions.




Summer shade provision shouldminimise UVR levels as well asreduce heat and light. Winter shadeprovision should allow fortransmission of sufficient levels orof heat and light. The use ofadjustable shade systems and/ordeciduous vegetation may providegreater flexibility.

indirect UVR

Indirect UVR is an important factorto consider when designing builtshade structures and selectingground surfaces for outdoorrestaurants/cafes and beergardens. Coarse and/or softsurfaces, eg brick pavers or grass,will reflect less UVR than hard and/or smooth surfaces, eg trowelledconcrete. Existing surfaces can bemodified if they reflect high levels ofUVR.

aesthetics

Shade design should aim to beaesthetically pleasing as well aspractical. An approach whichcombines natural shade withwell-designed, high qualitystructures will help to create anaesthetically appealing venue thatwill encourage patronage. One withunattractive, poorly designedstructures may have the reverseeffect.

natural shade

Trees with dense foliage and widespreading canopies provide thebest protection. Species shouldbe selected to suit local soil andclimatic conditions as well as thecharacter of the surroundingenvironment. Root barriers andsubsoil drainage will help to ensurethat pavements are not damagedby tree roots.

If natural shade is the long-termfavoured option, short-life builtstructures, ie with a lifespan ofsix to 10 years, can be used untiltrees planted for shade purposesmature.

safety

It is important to ensure that shadestructures do not create safetyhazards. Support systems, egupright posts, should be clearlyvisible and ideally have roundededges and/or padding. They shouldbe placed so as to minimiseintrusion into circulation areas.Where possible guy ropes shouldbe avoided, as they may be a triphazard.


Demountable shade structuresshould only be used to supplementmore permanent forms of shade.Some demountable shadestructures, eg a single umbrella,offer limited protection. Theplacement of umbrellas in groupsmay be a more effective way ofusing these items for shadepurposes.


In the appropriate situation,off-the-shelf structures can providea readily available, cost-effectiveshade solution. However, unless aShade Audit has been conducted,it is difficult to tell if they will meetthe site’s shade requirements. If thedecision is made to purchase anoff-the-shelf structure, the issuesoutlined in Chapter 4 should beconsidered.

rain protection

Built systems that offer rainprotection as well as UVRprotection will ensure that theoutdoor areas can be used duringwet weather.

existing services

The location of shade structuresand planting should take accountof existing services, eg drainage,power lines, gas and water.

141


The recommendations below areminimum guidelines for outdoorareas at restaurants/cafes andhotels. It is acknowledged that itmay not be possible in the shortterm to implement all theserecommendations due to fundingconstraints. However, medium-term plans should includeimprovements to summer shadeprovision as a priority.



Shade during summer is necessary over outdoor areas at restaurants,cafes and hotels.

During summer, it is recommended that at the absolute minimum,50 percent of customers should be able to choose to sit in the shade.Similarly in winter, customers should be able to sit in the shade if theywish.

Consider using a combination of natural and built shade,eg a trellis covered with a climbing vine, as it will enhance thevisual appeal of the space.

An adjustable built system and/or deciduous vegetation may bepreferential, as it will allow for heat and light penetration during thecooler months.

Built systems that offer rain protection should also be considered.

It may be necessary to supplement permanent shade withdemountable structures, particularly during summer.

Where possible, smooth and/or hard ground surfaces should beavoided. Coarse surfaces, eg brick pavers, will reflect less UVR.


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The home

Many homes have outdoor areas such as backyards,courtyards, decks, swimming pools, play areas andsandpits. The mild climatic conditions experienced inNew Zealand encourage the regular use of theseareas, often on a year-round basis.

The provision of sufficient UVR protective shade foroutdoor areas within the home will contribute to thehealth and safety of family members (particularlychildren) and visitors. Well-designed shade will alsoenhance the aesthetic qualities of the homeenvironment, resulting in outdoor spaces that areboth visually appealing and comfortable to use.



The home

It should be noted, however, that shade will notprovide total UVR protection. The use of personalprotection measures, ie sun protective clothing, hats,sunscreen and sunglasses is recommended. Careshould also be taken to stay out of the sun between11am and 4pm during summer, when daily UVR levelsare generally at their peak.

143


The home

PORTABLE SHADEFOR LOUNGING AREA

pool

garden

house

PROTECTIVESUMMER SHADEOVER OUTDOOREATING AREAS

MINIMISE HARDPAVING - USEDARK, TEXTUREDSURFACES WHEREREQUIRED

PERMANENT SHADEOVER PLAYEQUIPMENT

RETRACTABLESHADE OVERSHALLOW END OFPOOL

an example of shade at home

DENSE SHADETREES ON THENORTH

144


The home

Many of the followingconsiderations refer to conceptsdiscussed in more detail in otherparts of this publication. For thisreason it is recommended thatreaders familiarise themselveswith the content of Chapters 1 to 5as well as Appendix C, beforeconsidering the specific issues forthe home environment.

existing shade

Plans should be made to optimisethe use of existing shade beforeadditional shade is considered,eg outdoor seating or playequipment could be relocated to ashaded area, low branches couldbe removed from trees to allowaccess.

climatic conditions

It is important to take into accountthe overall characteristics of theparticular climate zone in which thehome is situated, as well as anylocal conditions, eg strong wind.When these are understood it ispossible to use design strategies tomodify adverse conditions.





Summer shade provision shouldminimise UVR levels as well asreduce heat and light. Winter shadeprovision should allow fortransmission of sufficient levels orof heat and light. The use ofadjustable shade systems and/ordeciduous vegetation may providegreater flexibility.

indirect UVR

Indirect UVR is an important factorto consider when designing builtshade structures and selectingground surfaces for outdoor areaswithin the home. Coarse and/orsoft surfaces, eg brick pavers orgrass, will reflect less UVR thanhard and/or smooth surfaces, egtrowelled concrete. Existingsurfaces can be modified if theyreflect high levels of UVR.

aesthetics


approval


natural shade

Natural shade should be a majorelement of shade provision foroutdoor areas around the home.Trees with dense foliage and widespreading canopies provide thebest protection.


If natural shade is the long-termfavoured option for outdoor areasaround the home, short-life builtstructures, ie with a lifespan of sixto 10 years, can be used until treesplanted for shade purposesmature.

145


built shade safety

It is important to ensure that shadestructures do not create safetyhazards. Support systems, egupright posts, should be clearlyvisible and ideally have roundededges. They should be placed soas to minimise intrusion intocirculation areas and children’splay areas. Where possible guyropes should be avoided, as theymay be a trip hazard.




Demountable shade structuresshould only be used to supplementmore permanent forms of shade.It should be noted that somedemountable shade structures,eg a single umbrella, offer limitedprotection because of indirectUVR.

rain protection

It may be desirable to provide rainprotection as well as UVRprotection over some outdoorareas around the home, eg decks.

existing services


thermal control

If properly designed, externalcomponents of a house, egverandahs, awnings, extendedeaves, can provide considerableshade outdoors, as well asadditional thermal control for insideareas of the house.

The home

146


The home

The recommendations below areminimum shade guidelines forhomes across New Zealand duringsummer. It is acknowledged thatit may not be possible in the shortterm to implement all theserecommendations. However,medium-term home improvementplans should include summershade provision as a priority.

general outdoor areas Partial shade is recommended for general outdoor areas, especiallyover grass which needs some sun for growth. Natural shade is themost appropriate option.

If sufficient shade is available at all times of the day, it will allow greaterflexibility for children’s play.

Planting on the northern, northeastern and northwestern aspects ofthe site is recommended.

outdoor eating areas, Shade is recommended over outdoor eating and similar areas.decks and patios eg decks and patios. Consider using a combination of natural

and built shade, eg a trellis covered with a climbing vine, asit will enhance the visual appeal of the space.

An adjustable built system and/or deciduous vegetation will allow forheat and light penetration during the cooler months.

sandpits and play equipment Shade throughout the summer months is recommended over sandpits,although built shade may be the most appropriate option. Pull-downscreens at the side of the structure will help protect against indirectUVR.

Partial shade is recommended for the area which contains fixed playequipment. Natural shade is the most appropriate option.

The ability to supervise children is an important issue. Inappropriatelylocated trees and shrubs and shade structures with solid and/oropaque sides may obstruct views of children playing.


Specific recommendations forwinter shade have not been madedue to differences in the prevailingclimatic conditions across NewZealand during winter. However,the UV index is rarely above one ortwo during winter and risk levelsare low.

147


pool areas Shade throughout the summer is recommended over the relaxationarea adjacent to the pool. Consider using built shade, as tree leavesmay create ongoing pool maintenance problems.

Pool lounges and other seats should be placed in the shade,particularly during the middle period of the day.

verandahs Verandahs will provide permanent shade as well as rain protection.

The angle of the roof and the extent of overhang should be designed tomaximise shade for the major part of the day, especially during summer.

The width of the verandah should allow sufficient space for activitiessuch as outdoor eating or children’s play to occur.

Vertical pull-down blinds at the side of a verandah can provideadditional protection from UVR when the sun is low in the sky.

further reading• Ballinger JA, Prasad DK, Rudder D. Energy efficient

Australian housing. Canberra: AustralianGovernment Printing Service, 1992.

• Commonwealth Department of Housing andRegional Development. AMCORD –A national resource document for residentialdevelopment. Canberra: Australian GovernmentPrinting Service, 1995.

The home

• New South Wales Department of Urban Affairs andPlanning. NSW model code – A model forperformance-based multi-unit housing codes.Sydney, 1997.

148


The workplace

Exposure to solar UVR represents a significantoccupational hazard for people who work outdoors.The Health and Safety in Employment Act 1992requires employers to identify and control the riskfaced by workers required to work outdoors. Anassessment should be made of the solar UV radiationto which workers are likely to be exposed and stepsshould be taken to try and minimise any risks.Workers should also take responsibility to look aftertheir own health.

The intensity of exposure to solar UV radiation will varywithin and between occupational groups so OSHrecommends a consultative approach to determinehow far the responsibilities of the employer extend. InGuidance notes for the protection of workers fromsolar ultraviolet radiation, OSH states that it is notreasonable to suggest that particular actions (theprovision of shade, protective clothing, sunscreen, ormonitoring) be mandatory for all employers of outdoorworkers. In some situations the employer’s obligationsmay not extend beyond hazard (exposure)assessment and the provision of information toemployees.

considerations

The order in which the various means for limitingexposure to solar UV radiation are set out in theguidelines (job organisation, shade and personalprotection) reflects the hierarchy required by theHealth and Safety in Employment Act.

general issues



The workplace

149


The workplace

exposure assessments For each group of employees, an assessment should be made of thesolar UV radiation to which they are likely to be exposed. This shouldinclude identification of the tasks with the time of day they are carriedout and the period involved. The greatest risk occurs during 11am and4pm during summer.

Other factors that may influence exposure to UV radiation should alsobe identified. These may include the shade provided by the workingenvironment, reflective surfaces such as water, snow or bright buildingsurfaces or any photosensitising substances associated with the work.

minimising exposure Employers should ensure the risk posed by exposure to solar radiationis minimised. In some instances this may be achieved by taking actionssuch as simply changing the time of day when a task is carried out.This is the preferred option, but where this is not practical, protectionshould be provided.

Where a job involves the use of large-scale, mechanical equipment,protective shade could be provided, for example:

• tractors, cranes, road-making equipment and the like should befitted with transparent anti-glare UVR protective material surroundingthe cabins

• trucks should be fitted with shade annexes to provide shaded workand rest areas

• boats should be fitted with shade canopies and awnings.

job organisation If a job involves both indoor and outdoor work, the potential forexcessive solar exposure may be reduced by working indoors between11 am and 4 pm during summer months.


150


The workplace

further reading

• OSH. Guidance notes for the protection of workersfrom solar ultraviolet radiation. Occupational Safetyand Health Service New Zealand, Wellington,1994.

• OSH. Learn the basic steps to make your workplacesafer. Occupational Safety and Health Service NewZealand, Wellington, 1999.

• OSH. What you need to know about temperature Inplaces of work. Occupational Safety and HealthService New Zealand, Wellington, 1997.

shade Wherever possible, use should be made of natural shade, such as thatprovided by buildings and trees. If there is no natural shade available,then it may be feasible to erect temporary shade in the form of acanopy or screen. Structures can range from an adjustable umbrella, toa simple awning, through to a demountable structure. Some structuresmay offer commercial benefits by permitting work to continue duringwet weather.

Glass is also partly effective in reducing the level of UV radiation.However, it is still possible to get sun-damaged skin while behind glassand additional personal protection may be needed.

Adequate shade should be provided over outdoor/lunch/teabreak areasand meeting places, especially at times when UVR levels are high, ieduring the middle part of the day.

personal protection Personal protection is an important component in any plan to controlexposure to solar radiation. An effective plan will usually involveprotective clothing, hat and a sunscreen.

training and education Training should be provided when an exposure assessment hasidentified a need for action to minimise workers exposure to solar UVradiation. Training should be ongoing and focused on those responsiblefor organising outdoor work, new employees and those who arereceiving prolonged exposure to solar UV radiation. Training shouldcover:

• awareness of the effects of solar UV radiation

• promotion of ways of minimise the risk

• the availability of information on the early detection of skin cancerby self checking.

151

Appendices

152

153

New Zealand and Australia have the highest rates of skin cancer in the world.Melanoma and other skin cancers, which are almost completely preventable,constitute a serious public health problem in New Zealand, for which publicauthorities should assume responsibility. The costs of not doing so areconsiderable. As well as the loss of life, pain and suffering caused by skin cancer,it is an expensive disease, costing the country around $30 million a year in directhealth expenditure.1

Public authorities in New Zealand lag behind their Australian counterparts inaddressing this important health problem. In New South Wales, the OccupationalHealth and Safety Act 1983 obliges employers to protect the health and safety ofemployees. According to the WorkCover Authority of New South Wales, thismeans employees who work outside must be protected against the effects ofexcessive solar UVR exposure through a range of measures including the provisionof shade.

There will inevitably be differing views as to the appropriate degree of interventionby the state, as opposed to the individual’s freedom of action. However, as in thereform of public policy on smoking, which brought about the SmokefreeEnvironments Act in 1990, it could be accepted that a serious public healthproblem demands an appropriate degree of intervention by Government (andtherefore public authorities).

It is generally accepted there is a need to provide a safe environment for children.In this respect, greater initiatives should be taken to provide shade in schools,public parks, sports grounds and swimming pools, where children spend a largepart of their time.

It is possible that public authorities may be found liable for not providing shade,and warnings about skin cancer. In addition to owing a general duty of care atcommon law, there may well be particular statutory duties that are incumbent oncouncils or other public authorities which could found liability. Breach of either ofthese could result in liability being visited on public authorities.

However, in the face of growing evidence about the risks of melanoma and skincancer from exposure to UVR, public authorities should be anxious to takeappropriate steps to prevent further damage, especially to children, by pursuingpolicies now for the provision of shade in outdoor spaces under their managementand control.

Responsibilities of public authorities*

* Information supplied by KPMG Legal.1 Cancer Society of New Zealand. The costs of skin cancer to New

Zealand. Cancer Update in Practice. Issue 2, 2000.

Appendix A

154

155

Professional and industry contacts

Appendix B

New Zealand Institute of ArchitectsP.O. Box 2516Aucklandph (09) 623 6080

New Zealand Institute of SurveyorsP.O. Box 831Wellingtonph (04) 471 1774

New Zealand Institute of LandscapeArchitectsP.O. Box 10-022Wellingtonph 0800 843 694

Institute of Professional EngineersP.O. Box 12-241Wellingtonph (04) 473 9444

Lightweight Structures Associationof Australasiac/o Murray HiggsStructureflex NZ101 Central Park DriveHendersonAucklandPh (09) 837 2350

Outdoor Fabric Products Association ofNew ZealandPO Box 22-124ChristchurchNew Zealandph (03) 338 5243

156

157

Appendix CQualities of shade materials

metal roof sheetingsteel, aluminium, zinc, copper

suitability Roofing and walling; steep or low pitches; curved and straightforms. Typically used for permanent fixed shade structures,although may be used as adjustable louvres. Most suited tosummer shading where cool shade is required.

UVR protection Excellent protection, UPF 50+.

waterproof Yes.

light transmission Opaque.

solar heat gain Thermal resistance if insulated. Lighter colours reflect heat.

structural implications Adequate ‘tie-down’ must be designed according to the windcode. Consult professional designer.

ease of replacement Material readily available; easily re-fitted.

maintenance requirements Subject to moisture or condensation conditions. Ensureall metallic particles are swept from roof on completion ofinstallation to prevent staining and corrosion.

life span Long life if well maintained. Fixings and flashing materialsshould have a lifetime similar to that of the roof coveringmaterial.

particular properties Strongest of roofing and walling materials available. Longlengths and range of ‘profiles’ available. Can be cut to length.Some profiles can be curved.

Available in sandwich panels for increased insulation. Is oftenfinished/coated to extend life span, eg galvanised,colourbond, stainless steel, or coated with plastics, eg PVC.

environmental considerations Long-life spans mean less environmental impact in termsof material replacement. However, they need considerablesupport structure. Made from non-renewable resources.All high embodied energy although to differing degrees,aluminium is extremely energy intensive. All producepollutants during manufacture (including coatings) but aregenerally contained. All are recyclable: steel and aluminiumare commonly recycled and often contain recycled content.The potential of steel, copper and aluminium to be re-used isvery good, especially if designed for disassembly. Steel andaluminium are good for collecting rainwater if properly sealed.The corrosion of copper and zinc may cause contamination ofnearby water and soil.

relative cost Economic for both small and large structures. Timber or steelframe required for support.

Appendix C

158

Qualities of shade materials

roof tilesconcrete, clay, slate, fibre cement

suitability Mainly roofing. Typically used for permanent fixed shadestructures. Most suited to summer shading where cool shadeis required.


waterproof Yes.


solar heat gain Better thermal performance if lined.

structural implications Requires substantial support structure. Must be fixed tomanufacturer’s specification.

ease of replacement Material readily available; easily fitted.

life span Long. Fixings and flashing materials should have a lifetimesimilar to that of the roof covering material.

environmental considerations All tiles have impacts during manufacture, are made ofnon-renewable resources, and require a comparatively largevolume of material. Using locally reclaimed tiles lessens theseimpacts. Slate has the lowest manufacturing impacts.However, it is usually imported, which increases its embodiedenergy; reclaimed slate is preferable. Clay has high embodiedenergy, however this may be offset by long-life use, as it ismore durable than concrete. Concrete tiles with slag insteadof cement are preferable.

relative cost Low, but support structure cost may be significant.

Appendix C

159


timber

suitability Pergolas, trellis, lattice, screens, vertical or horizontal louvres.Suitable for use in combination with natural shade elements.Generally used in fixed permanent structures.

UVR protection Solid sections provide excellent protection, UPF 50+. Othersituations depend on density of construction, eg lattice orcovering vegetation.

waterproof Depends on detailing and use.

light transmission Depends on detailing.

solar heat gain Does conduct heat, but this is lessened in open air situations.

structural implications Design for appropriate wind code.

ease of replacement Usually readily available; ease of re-fitting depends on type ofconstruction.

maintenance requirements Guard against termites. If using preserved or treated timbercare must be taken in handling. Painting or other protectivetreatment will extend life span.

life span Longevity will depend on: ongoing maintenance andservicing; types of treatments; grade of timber used; type oftimber, eg hardwoods/treated softwoods, as well as itsdetailing (how it is fixed).

particular properties Available in a wide range of sizes and strengths. Can be alsoin sheet form, eg plywood.

environmental considerations Timber is a renewable resource but only if forests aremanaged correctly. It generally has low embodied energy(depending on transport energy) but some wastage toproduce building materials. The main issue with timber andenvironmental impact is its sourcing – preference should begiven to sustainable managed forests or plantation resources.Timbers with the longest life span are hardwoods that areoften unsustainably harvested. Look to use recycled/reclaimed timbers. Treatments that extend life span for timberare often highly toxic, especially copper chrome arsenic(CCA). As ammoniacal copper quartenary (ACQ) has lessheavy metals than CCA, it is preferable; both treatmentsmean that timber cannot be burnt. Use of hardwoods canavoid this environmental problem. However, they are oftenfrom old growth forests. Life span can be extended beyondits initial use by keeping pieces in long lengths and designingfor disassembly. For plywood sheeting, ensure facing is asustainably grown local product and specify marine grade;other grades have higher volatile organic compounds in glues.

relative cost Depends on design lengths, proposed usage, etc. Readilyavailable, economical material.

Appendix C

160


concreteprecast or in-situ, concrete blocks, autoclaved aeratedconcrete, fibre cement sheet

suitability Walls, roofs, louvres, sunhoods. Suitable for permanent fixedstructures.


waterproof Yes.


solar heat gain Absorbs heat slowly and re-transmits as air temperature falls.

structural implications Requires substantial support and footings.

ease of replacement Materials readily available; re-fitting depends on form ofmaterial – large pre-cast units and cast in-situ forms, egsuspended reinforced concrete slabs, very difficult to replace;smaller pre-manufactured units, eg fibre cement sunhoodsor block walls, easily replaced.

maintenance requirements Low.

life span Long.

particular properties Flexible material in many forms. Slow heat absorption.

environmental considerations Uses a high volume of material with high embodied energy.Concrete (pre-cast, in situ or blocks) can be used as athermal mass. All finite resources – scarcity is becoming anissue in some localities. Production of the critical ingredient(cement) is major contributor to CO2 emissions (also nitrousoxides and sulphurous oxides emissions). Concreteaggregates may be supplemented with slag to reduce overallimpact. Large volumes of water required in manufacture/construction. Possibility for down-cycling.

relative cost Low, but support structures cost may be significant.

Appendix C

161


masonryclay bricks, rammed earth, mudbricks, straw bale

suitability Walls. Suitable for permanent fixed structures.


waterproof Yes.


solar heat gain Absorbs heat slowly and re-transmits as air temperature falls.

structural implications Requires substantial support and footings.

ease of replacement Materials readily available; re-fitting usually straightforward.

maintenance requirements Low.

life span Generally long; rammed earth and straw bales durable ifprotected by eaves.

particular properties Slow heat absorption. Straw bales have far less thermal massthan others.

environmental considerations Made from finite resources (although not scarce), thesematerials can also be used as an energy store (see Thermalmass in the Glossary). As walling, these materials use a highvolume of material. Locally sourced natural stone, mudbricks,straw bale, and rammed earth have extremely lowenvironmental impact. More traditional clay bricks haveimpacts in manufacturing of high embodied energy,contribution to acid rain, and the possible release of toxicgases. Re-used bricks or natural stone are thereforepreferable and often available. Use soft mortar with claybricks so that bricks can be re-used later.

relative cost Low, though substantial footings required.

Appendix C

162


expanded metal mesh

suitability Adjustable or fixed screens and wind deflectors. Openableroofs and walls.

UVR protection Forms an effective shield depending on the position of the slitopening.

waterproof No.

light transmission Moderate transmission of light.

solar heat gain Barrier to direct solar radiation while allowing ventilation.

structural implications Can span quite large openings. Must withstand lateral forces.No uplift forces.

ease of replacement Readily available.

maintenance requirements Should be galvanised to ensure low maintenance.

life span Very durable. Specify for appropriate life span, ie coatingsand hole size to minimise rust.

particular properties Depending on angle of mesh, will let air through.

environmental considerations Non-renewable. However, it could contain a percentage ofrecycled content. No waste material in production as it ismade from one continuous piece of metal. Requires lessstructural support than solid sheet metal and uses a lowvolume of material. Usually made from steel, also can bemade from aluminium (which requires more energy toproduce) and copper (which has some problems with nearbysoil and water contamination). Different finishes usuallyapplied pre-purchase: often galvanised, plastic coated, egPVC, or painted. Can be recycled and re-used, especially ifdesigned for disassembly.

relative cost Low.

Appendix C

163


perforated metal sheet

suitability Screens, awnings and sunhoods. Use for both permanentand adjustable systems.

UVR protection Varies as only solid sections provide barrier to UVR.

waterproof No.

light transmission Modulates light.

solar heat gain Cuts direct solar radiation and allows ventilation.

structural implications Must be strong enough to span required opening.

ease of replacement Readily available; easily replaced.

maintenance requirements Should be galvanised. Pre-painted sheets require lowmaintenance unless in a highly corrosive environment.

life span Very durable. Specify for appropriate life span, ie coatingsand hole size to minimise rust.

particular properties Holes will allow air through.

environmental considerations Non-renewable. However, it could contain a percentage ofrecycled content. Small amount of waste material inproduction. Requires less structural support than solid sheetmetal and uses a low volume of material. Usually made fromsteel, also can be made from aluminium (which requires moreenergy to produce) and copper (which has some problemswith nearby soil and water contamination). Different finishesusually applied pre-purchase: often galvanised, plasticcoated, eg PVC or painted. Can be recycled and re-used,especially if designed for disassembly.

relative cost Low.

Appendix C

164


glass

suitability Roofs or walls. Use where light and/or visibility is required.Generally permanent fixed structures.

UVR protection Depends on thickness and type. Ordinary window glass offerslittle protection from UVR. Laminated glass can absorb almostall UVB; by contrast, toughened glass transmits some UVB.Additives during manufacture and reflective surface laminatescan affect UVR penetration.

waterproof Yes.

light transmission High depending on tint.

solar heat gain Less heat gain if tinted.

structural implications Talk to manufacturer to select glass appropriate to the job.

ease of replacement Usually readily available and easily re-fitted.

maintenance requirements Needs regular cleaning. Breakage and safety issues if nottoughened or laminated.

life span Long life if it doesn’t sustain impact or over-pressurisation.

particular properties Transparency allows wide range of uses, eg windbreaks.

environmental considerations High embodied energy although small volume of materialrequired. Additives and coatings required to provide UVRprotection made of oxides of metals: iron, nickel, cobalt,silver halide which complicate the recycling of glass and mayhave disposal complications. Glass used in buildings is notcurrently recycled and has very little recycled component.

relative cost Reasonably high compared to other translucent materials.May require more sophisticated support structure.

Appendix C

165


polycarbonate sheeting

suitability Roofing, walling, louvre systems, awnings, skylights andcanopies. Typically used for permanent fixed shadestructures, although could be used as adjustable louvres.Most suited to winter shading where warm shade is required.

UVR protection Very high protection.

waterproof Yes.

light transmission High. Differs according to thickness, profile and colour. Clearor opal transmits more light and heat than darker tints.

solar heat gain High. Becomes warm and produces a heating effect.

structural implications Design structure for wind uplift.

ease of replacement Readily available; easily re-fitted.

maintenance requirements Low maintenance. Impact resistant.

life span About 10 years. Material may become brittle anddiscolouration may occur sooner than 10 years.

particular properties Long lengths; range of profiles and colours available.

environmental considerations The environmental problems associated with plastics suchas polycarbonate sheeting occur in their manufacture anddisposal – they cause fewer problems during constructionand use. Toxicity during manufacture depends on thestabilisers used (which is what protects polymer from solardegradation so is necessary for shade provision). Theseare often environmentally dangerous (especially phosgene).

Solvents used in polymer manufacture are problematic – themost common, methylene chloride, is a suspectedcarcinogen. Made from non-renewable resources, highembodied energy offset by low amount of material needed.Can be recycled, but generally down-cycled. Because of longlife span and durability, potential for re-use high; specifyshapes/mouldings and support structures with this in mind.Will not decompose. Disposal is to landfill. Good for watercollection. Requires less structural support materials.

relative cost Low.

Appendix C

166


fibreglass sheetingteflon coated, silicone coated

suitability Roofing, walling, louvre systems, awnings, skylights andcanopies. Typically used for permanent fixed shadestructures, although could be used as adjustable louvres.Most suited to winter shading where warm shade is required.

UVR protection Very high protection. Differing UV stabilisers and coatings willchange level of UPF.

waterproof Yes.

light transmission High. Various tints, UV stabilisers and coatings will changelevel of light transmission. Clear or opal transmits more lightand heat than darker tints.

solar heat gain High. Becomes warm and produces a heating effect.

structural implications Design structure for wind uplift.

ease of replacement Readily available.

maintenance requirements Low maintenance. Impact resistant.

life span Coatings (such as teflon/silica) protect the resin/glass fibresfrom weathering and will extend the life span, as will detailing.Weathering will gradually make material more opaque.

particular properties Fibreglass sheeting consists of glass fibres mixed withpolymer resins. Can be bought in sheets or moulded forspecific applications.

environmental considerations Material uses non-renewable resources. High embodiedenergy as well as problems with toxicity and volatile organiccompounds in manufacture, although manufacturers areincreasingly following best practice initiatives. Pollution andwaste during manufacture depends on type of plastic resinand stabilisers used. Currently not recycled in New Zealand;re-use dependent on design specification, ie whether boughtin sheeting or hand-moulded.

relative cost Low.

Appendix C

167


canvasor similar tightly woven cloths

suitability Good for adjustable, short-term fixed and demountablestructures. Not suitable for large projects.

UVR protection Good protection when new. Prolonged or severe weatheringmay reduce UPF.

waterproof Watertight up to saturation point. Greater protection can beachieved using coatings.

light transmission Lighter colours transmit greater light.

solar heat gain Darker colours gain more heat.

structural implications Guy ropes cause obstruction.

ease of replacement Readily available. Ease of replacement of individual panelsusually means that the whole structure would need to bedismantled.

maintenance requirements Lacks self cleaning properties. Is not mould resistant. Lifespan can be extended by regular maintenance and properdrying to inhibit rotting. Will still retain strength even if partiallyaffected by rot.

life span Limited. Susceptible to break down due to UVR exposure.

particular properties Wide range of colours and fabric designs; also wide rangeof proprietary products available using canvas.

environmental considerations Usually made from low grade (otherwise waste material)canvas, although can be made from hemp and flax.Renewable resource although high use of water, fertilisers andpesticides in production. Canvas (especially for outdoorapplication) usually finished with a waterproofing agent suchas aluminium or plastic sprays such as polyurethane (whichhave high toxic volatile organic compound emissions) toextend life. Low volume of material in relation to area covered,and low volume of structural support material needed. At endof life will degrade but waterproof coatings may causeleaching problems in landfills.

relative cost Material cost low, though some proprietary products may berelatively expensive on a square metre basis.

Appendix C

168


PVC coated polyester fabric

suitability Canopies and side panels. Highly curved structures – notsuitable for flat surfaces. Typically used for fixed permanentstructures though can be retractable or demountable. Mostpopular material in use for construction of fabric structures.

UVR protection Very good.

waterproof Yes.

light transmission High.

solar heat gain Heat transmission is similar to glass.

structural implications Structures must resist wind load, especially uplift.

ease of replacement Fully imported material, though readily available. Ease ofre-fitting depends on use; ‘structural’ fabrics may requiredismantling of structure for full replacement. Can be readilypatched.

maintenance requirements High gloss self-cleaning surfaces.

life span Minimum seven to eight years in zones experiencing intenseUVR. Effective life is very dependent on location andenvironment; in excess of 20 years likely in areas of lowpollution. Pollution acts as a corrosive agent on PVC surfacecausing erosion. Vehicle emissions are among the worstpolluting agents. Manufacturers usually provide five yearguarantee.

particular properties Usually white or light cream in colour. Usually coated withclear Tedlar film which assists cleanability and prolongs the lifeof the PVC medium. Easy to work with. Fire resistant – fabricwill char or holes will be formed if placed over a flame sourcebut is not likely to ignite.

environmental considerations PVC and polyester are from non-renewable resources.Problems in production due to stabilisers/additives such asfire retardants, which may also leach in landfills. High pollutionand toxicity during manufacture of PVC (though closedsystems can minimise escape of dioxins). Support structureneeded is minimal and volume of material is small in relationto the area covered. After use, product can be re-used unlessis too degraded. PVC can theoretically be ‘downcycled’ andpolyester recycled, but combination of the two cannot berecycled. Both are thought to release dioxins in landfill.

relative cost Relatively expensive.

Appendix C

169


teflon coated fibreglass fabric(PTFE)

suitability Large span canopies – able to achieve lower curvatures thanPVC coated polyester. Fixed permanent structures – notrecommended for retractable systems or flat surfaces.

UVR protection Very high.

waterproof Yes.

light transmission Translucent.

solar heat gain Less heat gain if tinted.

structural implications Structures must resist wind loads, especially uplift.

ease of replacement Fully imported. Consider using smaller panels for ease ofreplacement in the case of damage and to ensure continuoususe of the covered space.

maintenance requirements Beware of potential for water ponding in sudden downpours.

life span Very durable. Design life of 20 to 30 years.

particular properties More difficult to fabricate and erect than PVC polyester.Non-combustible – satisfies building code requirementsfor fire protection in enclosed spaces, eg shopping malls.Resistant to UVR exposure and airborne pollution.

environmental considerations Non-renewable resource. High embodied energy inproduction. Low volume of material needed in relation to area,and minimal support structures. Toxicity in production, thoughis generally contained. Cannot be incinerated or recycled,usually goes to landfill where there may be some problemswith leaching.

relative cost About two to three times the cost of PVC coated polyesterfabric structures.

Appendix C

170


knitted polyethylene(shade cloth)

suitability Proprietary products such as canopies and freestanding pavilions.Commonly used for shade in car yards.

UVR protection UPF varies according to colour, fabric density and degree of stretch.Only the solid sections form a barrier to UVR. Typically, cover factorsvary from less than 50 percent UVR protection to more than 90percent. Shade cloths with a rating of 90 percent give only mediumUVR protection or UPF 10. Double knits or double layers may give ahigher UPF.

Use only fabric that provides 94 percent or greater protection fromdirect UVR.

waterproof Porous, lacks rain protection.

light transmission Lighter colours allow more light but reflect and scatter more UVR.

solar heat gain Darker colours are hotter but reflect less UVR.

structural implications Minimal down or uplift force due to porous nature of the material.

ease of replacement Readily available – many different sources and countries of origin. Re-fitting generally easy.

maintenance requirements Keep clear of tree debris to avoid sagging problems. Susceptible tomould growth and dirt pick-up.

life span About five years depending on location. It should be noted that shadecloth may be characterised by poor durability if used in a location that issubject to windy conditions. Prone to vandalism.

particular properties Easier to fabricate than solid fabrics. High stretch fabric. Curvedsurfaces can be formed easily.

environmental considerations Contains no chlorides. However, additives to ensure low flammabilityare often highly toxic and can emit volatile organic compounds. Shortlife span means regular replacement. Less structural material neededdue to small weight. After use it is too degraded to be recycled andusually goes to landfill; it can be incinerated depending on additives.Easily transported. Not suitable for water collection/other uses.

relative cost Inexpensive. Cost of different cloths is directly proportionalto quality.

Appendix C

171


woven PVC coated yarn(shade cloth)

suitability Adjustable and fixed systems, outdoor furniture and other proprietaryproducts.

UVR protection UPF varies according to colour, fabric density and degree of stretch.Only the solid sections form a barrier to UVR. Typically, cover factorsvary from less than 50 percent UVR protection to more than 90 percent.Shade cloths with a rating of 90 percent give only medium UVRprotection or UPF 10. Double knits or double layers may give a higherUPF.

Use only fabric that provides 94 percent or greater protection fromdirect UVR.

waterproof Porous, lacks rain protection.

light transmission Lighter colours allow more light but reflect and scatter more UVR.

solar heat gain Darker colours are hotter but reflect less UVR.

structural implications Minimal down or uplift force due to porous nature of the material.

ease of replacement Readily available, many different sources and countries of origin. Re-fitting generally easy.

maintenance requirements Keep clear of tree debris to avoid sagging problems. Susceptible tomould growth and dirt pick-up.

life span About five years depending on location. It should be noted that shadecloth may be characterised by poor durability if used in a location that issubject to windy conditions. Prone to vandalism.

particular properties Easier to fabricate than solid fabrics. High stretch fabric. Curvedsurfaces can be formed easily.

environmental considerations PVC is made from non-renewable resources. The type of yarn usedmay either be renewable or non-renewable. High toxicity duringmanufacture of PVC (though closed systems can minimise escape ofdioxins). Its short life span means regular replacement and thus morematerial. Volume of material is small in relation to the area covered.After use, this product is usually too degraded to be recycled. Notsuitable for water collection/other uses.

relative cost Inexpensive. Cost of different cloths is directly proportionalto quality.

Appendix C

172


shingles and shakestimber, fibre-cement

suitability Roofing and walling. Aesthetic suitabilityin some contexts. Fixed permanent structures.

UVR protection Excellent protection, UPF50+.

waterproof Yes.


solar heat gain Better thermal performance if lined.

structural implications Structural framework required.

ease of replacement Material may not be readily available; high degree of skillrequired.

maintenance requirements High. Shingles may require fireproofing treatments.

life span Long.

particular properties Available in timber, usually western red cedar, or fibre-cement.

environmental considerations Timber shingles may be derived from a renewable source(which depends upon timber source). They require littleenergy in manufacture, are biodegradable and able to bere-used. Fibre-cement products (both shingles and sheets)have relatively minimal environmental impact and areotherwise resource efficient. As they are durable they shouldbe used in long-life applications as their potential for re-useand recycling is poor.

relative cost Expensive, labour intensive to install.

Appendix C

173


thatch

suitability Roofing, screens and windbreaks. Suitable for fixedpermanent structures.


waterproof Yes.


solar heat gain Excellent thermal insulator, cool in summer.

structural implications Structural framework required.

ease of replacement Material may not be readily available, special skill required.

maintenance requirements Relatively high.

life span Greatly depends on the type of reed or grass used and thecraftsmanship in construction. Life span of 50 years or more,which is comparable with metal sheet, fibre cement andconcrete tiles.

particular properties May attract insects and termites. Excellent insulatingproperties.

environmental considerations Environmentally advantageous material as it is renewableand often a locally available resource. No manufacturingimpacts and is extremely low in embodied energy (especially ifsourced locally). As an organic material it is easily disposedof, and can act as a nutrient. Possible problems withflammability in dense urban areas.

relative cost Reasonable. Material is inexpensive though labourcomponent during fixing is intensive and costly.

174

175

The Shade Inventory can be used to prioritise theneed for protective shade. It is most useful fororganisations that are responsible for a large numberof outdoor locations. For example, councils have alarge number of sites within their local governmentarea for which they are directly responsible. A ShadeInventory will provide the framework for a strategicplan that will allow funds to be directed, in the firstinstance, to the sites of greatest need.

The Shade Inventory can also be a useful tool insituations where sites are so large that they become acollection of individual settings, each requiring its ownshade assessment, eg universities and hospitals.

The Shade Inventory lists and prioritises settings inorder of need, allowing the organisation to allocatefunds and plan the provision of protective shade in anorderly and effective manner.

Using the Shade InventoryTo prioritise a range of sites according to their need forprotective shade, two factors must be considered andassessed:• site usage patterns, which help to determine the

extent to which users are likely to be exposed toharmful solar UVR (solar risk)

• the extent of existing shade.

user groupThe characteristics of the user group, particularly age,are important in determining the risk of UVR-relatedskin damage. Research indicates that children andadolescents exposed to large amounts of solar UVRhave a significantly greater chance of developing skincancer later in life. Accordingly, sites where childrenand adolescents are the main users would be a highpriority for solar protective shade.

time of useThe period of greatest daily UVR intensity is usuallybetween 11am and 4pm during the summer monthsSites with high usage between these times have anincreased need for protective shade.

The period of greatest seasonal UVR intensity issummer. Therefore, sites used extensively in summerhave greater priority shade needs than those usedpredominantly in winter.

duration of useThe length of time over which the outdoor activitytakes place is an important factor. This is because thelonger the period of exposure to solar UVR, thegreater the risk of harm. It should be noted that insummer, sunburn can occur in as little as 12 minutes.

level of usageSites that enjoy high levels of usage would generallybe expected to take priority over less utilised sites.However, usage patterns can change over time.

If usage level is a determining factor in decidingpriority, periodic checks should be made to see if theusage levels have changed. Should the level of usageof a site change significantly, its priority grading shouldbe reconsidered.

Appendix DThe Shade Inventory

What is the Shade Inventory? Assessing usage patterns

Appendix D

176

The Shade Inventory

likelihood of risk behaviourIn situations where outdoor activity is likely to occur inminimal clothing, such as beaches and swimmingpools, the priority for shade would be high.

Also, children at play may be more likely to engage inrisk behaviour than adults, who may seek out shadefor protection or comfort. Even in situations wherechildren may be under the supervision of an adult, itshould not necessarily be assumed that theirbehaviour will be low risk, as the supervising adultmay not be aware of the need for solar protection, orindeed enforce solar protection strategies.

Assessing existing shade

A detailed assessment of the adequacy of existingshade would not be undertaken at the ShadeInventory stage. Rather, this would be done during theShade Audit. However, two sites having a similardegree of solar risk can be prioritised by comparingthe extent of existing shade. The site observed tohave the least shade would be graded as having ahigher need for shade.

See Chapter 5, The Shade Project, for a fulldiscussion of the Shade Audit process.

177

Introduction

The school is located on the corner of Harry and MillyStreets. The southern boundary adjoins Thea Avenuewith the western boundary adjoining residentialproperties. A site plan is shown on page 178.

For the purposes of this study, the landscaped areaon Harry Street, in front of the school, has beenexcluded, though this forms an important part of theexternal environment used by school children. Asaccess to this area is restricted, its inclusion wouldgive an inaccurate impression of the shaded areanormally available to the children.

Classes are conducted in accordance withDepartment of School Education timetable,comprising four terms per year, of approximately10 weeks duration per term. Holidays during themid-summer period mean that the school is closedduring late December and most of January, when thehighest levels of solar radiation are encountered.

Typically, the playground is used as follows:

• prior to 9.25am free play

• 9.30am children form into classgroups

• 11.15am morning break

• 1.20pm lunch, taken seated inplayground

• 1.55pm free play.

In addition, classes undertake external sport andfitness activities, including dance, during the teachingperiod of the day.

The school caters for approximately 330 children,ranging in age from five to 12 years, and employs 15staff.

Example of a completed Shade Auditundertaken for a school

noteThis sample Shade Audit was prepared for a Sydneyprimary school by a shade consultant. Although theissues to be addressed in Shade Audits will vary widelyaccording to the location and use of the site, thegeneral format and content of the sample provide auseful guide.

Appendix E

aimsThe aims of this Shade Audit are to:• assess the existing external environment of the

school

• evaluate shade availability and needs

• identify achievable solar protection opportunitiesby provision of shade.

It is hoped that the Audit will become an integralcomponent of an overall school solar protection policy.The policy would include the following elements:

• the provision of adequate shade

• scheduling of outdoor activities to minimise UVRexposure

• a sun-protective school uniform

• the use of sunscreen when appropriate

• a sun protection education/awareness programmefor children and parents.

expected UVR levelsSydney, at latitude 34o south, has high levels of UVR.(Auckland is at latitude 37o and has similar levels ofUVR.) Summer levels are considerably higher thanwinter levels, due mainly to lower solar altitude anglesin winter. Cloud cover can significantly affect solarUVR levels, with heavy cloud reducing UVB to lessthan five percent of the clear sky value.

On cloud free days, the maximum UVB level occursat solar noon (1pm daylight saving time in Australiaand 1.30pm in New Zealand). In summer, 50 percentof the total UVB received during the course of the dayoccurs within two hours either side of solar noon.

On a summer day with clear skies, a time of around11 minutes in the sun will result in potentiallydamaging exposure to UVB. In winter, it will takelonger to exceed recommended levels.

Site description and use

Appendix E

178

Sample audit

site plan

A

B

C

D

EF

G

H

I

J

THEAAVENUE

HARRYSTREET

MILLY STREET

Appendix E

179

Sections of the playground are out-of-bounds tochildren. These areas comprise narrow spaces behindbuildings and space under the demountable buildings.It is not considered that these areas provideopportunities for additional shade as no change inplayground management is likely to make their useacceptable. Accordingly, these areas have beenexcluded from calculations.

The balance of the playground comprises four opensports areas, where cricket, handball and team gamesare played. Any shade structure that required theconstruction of columns within these areas would beinappropriate.

AssessmentThe solar protection offered by the site was assessedby preparation of shade diagrams and calculation ofboth shaded and unshaded areas. Existing summerand winter shade are considered, with noon summerand winter shade shown on pages 180 and 181respectively.

The critical protection time has been selected at 1pmon 27 November, when children are required to sit toeat their lunch in the playground. At this time, 330children must share the available shade. Given thatit takes only 11 minutes to exceed maximum UVBexposure levels at this time of year, solar protectionis essential.

Quantity of shadeAnalysis of existing summer shade at the site (seeTable 1) shows useable shaded area per child of2.09 m2, compared to a preferred minimum of 2.5 m2.

The quantity of shade is 135 m2 less than thatrecommended for a school of 330 children.

Table 1: Area and shade datacritical protection time 1pm on 27 Nov

total playground area 2945 m2

total shaded area 1000 m2

useable shaded area 690 m2

percent playground with 24 %useable shade

percent shade useable 69 %

useable shade area per child 2.09 m2 approx

recommended minimum 2.50 m2

area per child

additional shade recommended 135 m2

Sample audit

Sources of shadeThe playground receives shade from four sources:school buildings, the new shelter, verandahs andvegetation.

Though not extensive, shade cast by the buildings isof good quality, with the east/west orientation ofbuildings creating shade at the critical solar noonperiod. The new shelter adjacent to the hall, the hallverandah and the verandah of the two storey building,all provide good solar protection.

Shade trees provide the balance of the existing shade.Their type and shade quality, which varies accordingto the nature of the foliage, are set out in Table 2 onpage 182–3.

Appendix E

180

summer shade

Sample audit

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

THEAAVENUE

HARRYSTREET

MILLY STREET

Appendix E

181

winter shade

Sample audit

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

THEAAVENUE

HARRYSTREET

MILLY STREET

Appendix E

182

Sample audit

Of the available shade, there is considerable variety inits useability. As previously noted, shaded areas arecurrently inadequate to allow all children to eat lunchin the shade. Seating in some locations is wellshaded; other seats have no shade.

Access to shaded gardens is obstructed by lowvegetation, preventing full usage of shade in someareas.

Table 2: Schedule of shade trees

area comments species comments about speciesabout area (E)–evergreen (condition good unless noted)

(D)–deciduous

Useability of shade The play structure, a critical area for shade, enjoysmoderate protection. However, areas where activesport is played are poorly shaded in summer, due inpart to the need to retain unobstructed playing areas.As children spend many hours in these areas, someform of summer shade would be beneficial, thoughcareful consideration of the need for winter warmthis required.

A Allocasurina torulosa (E)Eucalyptus robusta (E)Acacia floribunda (E)Eucalyptus maculata (E)Banksia integrifolia (E)Eucalyptus species3 Eucalyptus speciesTristania laurina

B Eucalyptus scoparia3 Eucalyptus species Very young, medium and mature trees.(red bark) Good top branching spread.

C Metrosideros (E)Eucalyptus speciesHibiscus tiliaceus (E) Canopy very open and sparse.Acacia longifolia (E) Near end of its life cycle.Harpephyllum kaffrum (E) Will mature to 8m high x 8m wide.

Soil compaction is aproblem in this area. New100x50mm timber edge,2m from boundary, withheavy mulch and fertilizerwould help.

Four major trees with shrubunderstory. Very sandysoil, requiring edge, mulchand compost.

Six canopy trees of goodheight and width, withshrub understorey

Appendix E

183

D 5 Eucalyptus eximiaHibiscus tiliceus (E)Melaleuca armillaris (E)Acacia longifolia (E) Past its prime.Callistemon species Extensive planting of young specimens.

E 3 Eucalyptus species Recent planting – will mature to 10m x 4m.Tristania laurina Recent planting – will mature to 5m x 3m.

4 – 5 years before shade-producing.

F Eucalyptus scoparia Will mature to 10m x 8m.Grevillia species (E)Callistemon “Captain Cook”

G Eucalyptus maculataEucalyptus species Good canopy.Hakea salificolaBanksia integrifoliaLeptospermum laevigatum

H Overgrown with Kikuyu. Phoenix canariensis (E)Agonis flexuosa (E)Mulberry (D)

I Eucalyptus robusta Prone to drop limbs – not recommended.(Swamp mahogany)Acacia floribunda (E) Very sparse canopy – requires more water.Acacia longifolia (E)

J Eucalyptus nicholiiAgonis species Bank covered with copse of low Agonis.Eucalyptus species Multi branching, canopy sparse.(white bark)

area comments species comments about speciesabout area (E)–evergreen (condition good unless noted)

(D)–deciduous

Damaged top foliage ofEucalyptus possibly due tosalt burn – replace withmore suitable species.

Add mushroom compostand mulch to soil.

Sample audit

Appendix E

184

It is clear that the school is already implementing asolar protection strategy. Students, staff and parentsare increasingly aware of the dangers of sun exposureand, due to this awareness, a satisfactory outcomeseems likely.

As this consultant has not been involved in sunprotection planning at the school to date, it is likelythat some of the measures suggested to combat sunexposure may have already been considered or be inhand.

Goals to achieveAs a result of the inspection of the school andcalculations of existing and recommended shade,it is recommended that planning for solar protectionby way of shade should focus in two areas:• better use of existing summer shade

the easiest, cheapest and most achievable goal –that would improve summer solar protection withoutreducing winter sun

• additional summer shade to playing areaswith minimal loss of winter sun.

Methods for achieving goalsBetter use of existing summer shade couldbe achieved by:

• relocation of seats from unshaded locations toareas with summer shade and, where possible,winter sun

• modification of garden beds at bases of trees toprovide seating areas. Several areas have goodshade that falls mostly onto garden beds. Theseareas have the potential for shaded seating and,with minimal pruning of low branches, could beutilised

Sample audit

Recommendations• the garden area designated as J could become a

shaded adventure play area by trimming the lowbranches of the Agonis and creating a tunnel maze.As play in this area is likely to be very attractive tochildren, it offers solar protection for long periods ofplayground use

• additional summer shade to the playing areabetween garden H and the ‘new’ two storey buildingwould be beneficial, as this area is intensively used.

Comprising some 240 m2, this would providea substantial shaded area for play and outdooreducational activities and exceed the additionalarea recommended in Table 1. An additional factorin favour of shading this area rather than others, is thatthe area is hard paved, so creation of shade will notbe detrimental to lawn growth.

Any structure needs to be planned so as to permitgames to continue free from obstruction by columnsand support structures:• A series of low tensile shade sails could provide

shade without interference to the playing areabelow. Use the existing building as one line ofsupport and span the sails across the area to a rowof poles at the edge of garden H

• in order that winter sun to garden H is retained,the sails could be removed during the wintermonths. Being a low tensile structure, removaland re-erection would be easily achieved usingvoluntary parent labour

• sail fabric should provide at least 94 percentprotection from direct UVR; a range of suitablefabrics, in a variety of colours, is available. If well-designed, these sail elements would make a positiveand exciting aesthetic contribution to the schoolgrounds.

Such a structure could be erected for some$A8,000–$A10,000.

Appendix E

185

Sample audit

shade plan

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

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HARRYSTREET

MILLY STREET

PRUNE LOW BRANCHES TOALLOW ACCESS UNDERVEGETATION

PRUNE LOW BRANCHES TOALLOW ACCESS UNDERVEGETATION

PRUNE LOWBRANCHESAND RELOCATESEATS

CREATE SHADED ADVENTURE PLAYAREA BY PRUNING LOW BRANCHESAND FORMING BUSH TRACKS

SHADED STRUCTUREAPPROX 240SQM

186

References

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Armstrong BK. The human health consequences ofozone depletion – An overview. AustralianMeteorological Magazine 1997;46.

AS/NZS 4399:1996 Sun protective clothing –Evaluation and classification. Standards Australia andStandards New Zealand.

AS/NZS 4422:1996 Playground surfacing –Specifications, requirements and test methods.Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand.

AS/NZS 4486:1997 Playgrounds and playgroundequipment Part 1 – Development, installation,inspection, maintenance and operation.Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Unpublisheddata. Canberra, 1997.

Australian Radiation Laboratory – UVR Data NetOctober 1995;3.

Ballinger JA, Prasad DK, Rudder D. Energy efficientAustralian housing. Canberra: Australian GovernmentPrinting Service, 1992.

Brisbane City Council, Department of Recreation andHealth. Tender documents for supply and delivery ofshade structures (unpublished).1993.

Cancer Society of New Zealand. The costs of skincancer to New Zealand. Cancer Update in Practice.Issue 2, 2000

Cancer Society of New Zealand. Sample Sun Smartpolicies for primary/secondary schools. Wellington,2000.

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Davis BT. Shade roof systems for open deck carparks, playgrounds and similar areas. Paperpresented to Membrane Structures Association ofAustralasia Conference; Auckland, New Zealand, July1–2 1993.

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Gies PH, Roy CR and Elliot G. Ultraviolet radiationprotection factors for personal protection in bothoccupational and recreational situations. RadiationProtection in Australia 1992;10:3.

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188

Glossary

biodegradable capable of being decomposed by bacteria or other livingorganisms

critical protection time time/s of day and year when protection from solar UVR ismost important at a site

custom made structures built shade structures that are designed specifically for a site

design brief documents the issues that need to be considered during thedesign stage of the shade project

direct UVR UVR which reaches the earth from the sun in a straight linethrough the atmosphere

discretionary use areas areas of a site where people make a choice to be there, eggrassed spectator areas at sports grounds

down-cycling tendency for recycled materials to be used in lower gradeapplications than the initial use

ecologically sustainable design relational approach to design in which possible negativeenvironmental impacts of a proposed design are minimised

embodied energy sum of all energy used to produce a material, product orstructure including extraction and processing of rawmaterials, manufacturing, assembly and transportation.

Environmental UVR protection seek to create outdoor spaces that provide protection fromboth direct and indirect UVR

equinox times of the year when day and night are of equal length, ie21 March and 23 September

indirect UVR UVR which reaches the earth from any direction after beingscattered by atmospheric particles or clouds and/or reflectedoff surfaces and terrains

macroclimate prevailing climatic conditions

magnetic north the direction of north as indicated by compass readings; notto be used for shadow projections

microclimate local climatic conditions

minimal erythemal dose (MED) amount of exposure to UVR required to produce the firstdetectable reddening of the skin

non-discretionary use areas areas of a site where people are compelled to be, egnumbered seating in grandstands at sports grounds

non-renewable resource resource that is concentrated or formed at a rate muchslower than its rate of consumption, so for all practicalpurposes it is non-renewable

observation method method of assessing existing shade at a site by marking theshade patterns on the ground, measuring them and plottingthem to scale

strategies

Glossary

189

off-the-shelf structures built shade structures that are pre-manufactured

projection method method of assessing existing shade at a site by projecting theshade patterns using sun angles and plotting them to scale

recycling to treat a material so that new products can be manufacturedfrom it. The main benefit of recycling is that it helps stem theflow of waste to landfill. However, recycling is not alwaysautomatically environmentally beneficial. It consumes largeamounts of energy, and can disperse poisons into theenvironment

renewable resource ability of a resource to be produced as part of its naturalfunctioning system at rates comparable with its consumption

Shade Audit procedure for determining the adequacy of existing shade ata site and whether there is a need for more shade

Shade Inventory procedure for prioritising the provision of shade acrossmultiple sites or for large sites with a number of precincts

solar azimuth angle angle of the sun, measured clockwise from north in ahorizontal plane

solar altitude angle angle between the sun and the horizon at a given latitude

solar noon time of day when the sun is highest in the sky. In summer thisoccurs at about 1.30pm New Zealand daylight saving time

solar UVR part of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation emitted bythe sun, comprising UVA, UVB and UVC; cannot be seen orfelt

Solar UV Index a measure of the intensity of UVR – information suppliedby NIWA

solstice times of year when the sun is furthest from the equator, ie the21 June, the day with the shortest period of daylight and the22 December, the day with the longest period of daylight

stratospheric ozone gas present in the earth’s upper atmosphere, that absorbsmost of the solar UVR entering the atmosphere before itreaches the earth’s surface

summer protective shade shade that minimises UVR levels, as well as reduces heat andlight

thermal mass sum of all materials used that are able to store and dischargeheat (usually walls, floors and thick slabs). The greater thedensity of a material, the greater the thermal mass

Glossary

Glossary

190

Glossary

true north direction of north when magnetic variation is corrected.Magnetic variation differs according to location and should bedetermined by consulting a surveyor or referring tonavigational charts. The azimuth angle at solar noon is alwaystrue north, expressed as 0 degrees

ultraviolet protection factor scale developed by the Australian Radiation Laboratory torate the UVR protection provided by materials. A material’sUPF rating is based on the percentage of UVR transmittedthrough the material

UVR protective shade shade that minimises exposure to both direct UVR andindirect UVR

UVR reflectance degree to which a surface material or terrain can reflect UVR

winter protective shade shade that minimises UVR levels, while allowing for thetransmission of sufficient levels of heat and light.

(UPF)

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Documents

Under cover - cancernz.org.nzUnder cover: Guidelines for shade planning and design. NSW Cancer Council and NSW Health Department Sydney, 1998. ... Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is part