UKCC Content Guidance Sheets - sports coach UK

UKCC Content Guidance Sheets

1 Anatomy

2 Physiology

3 Nutrition and Hydration

4 Skill Acquisition

5 Biomechanics

6 Injury Management and Prevention

7 Observation and Performance Management

8 Planning and Periodisation

9 Testing Protocols

10 Enhancing Recovery

11 Behaviour Management

12 Evaluating Coaching Sessions

13 Working with Others

14 Principles of Training

15 Working in a Safe Environment

16 Mental Skills

1 Anatomy

Introduction This content guidance sheet has been designed for use by governing bodies of sport when designing teacher/coach education programmes, in particular in relation to the learning programme of the common units.

Anatomy is one of the generic aspects related to understanding and improving sports performance, to developing teaching and coaching skills and acquiring competence in the teaching and coaching of specific sports.

When deciding what content is required to meet the objectives of the common units within the context of each specific sport, it is essential to start with a clear picture of the demands/requirements of the specific sport (ie all sports do not have the same level of requirements for anatomical knowledge). Sports with high technical requirements and complex movements, such as gymnastics, skating, diving, athletic field events, trampolining and synchronised swimming, have great requirements for knowledge of joint movement.

Such knowledge not only plays a significant role in ensuring the safety and minimising injury of performers while optimising their chances of technical excellence, but also plays a major role in improving the observation and analysis, and hence feedback skills, of teachers and coaches.

Other sports that involve strength training to develop performance, such as swimming, athletics, skiing and canoeing, also have high requirements for knowledge of movements and muscles in order to relate land-based strength training movements to the specific sport’s performance.

Such knowledge not only ensures optimum benefits in relation to strength but also helps to avoid creating imbalances within the body that have the potential to cause injury. Sports need to analyse where they stand in relation to these requirements.

The importance of anatomy, along with other underpinning science areas such as physiology, has traditionally been underplayed in teacher and coach education and, as a result, many tutors within governing bodies of sport are not particularly comfortable teaching these areas. This is an issue that needs to be addressed.

Common Unit LinksThe links below show where anatomical knowledge (skeletal, articular and muscular systems) would contribute to teacher/coach knowledge, understanding and competence, and where they should form part of the learning programme, the resources and assessment.

Although some anatomical knowledge is expected of all teachers and coaches, to underpin their understanding of sports movement and their observation skills, the learning programme designers within governing bodies of sport should assess the level of need for such knowledge within that particular sport and pitch the content, volume and level appropriately.

Level 1While the common unit objectives within Level 1 do not specify anatomy, as a sound basis for the teacher/coach’s future development, it should be established at this point through the underpinning of broader objectives (eg Units 102.4, 103.2, 103.3) with anatomical understanding.

Level 2Unit Number

203.2, 203.2.6, 204.1, 207.1, 207.2, 207.3, 207.4

Level 3Unit Number

303.1, 303.1.3, 303.1.5, 304.1, 308.1, 308.1.6, 308.2, 308.2.3, 308.3, 308.4, 309.4.2

Level 1 Key Questions (for consideration when designing learning programmes)

Anatomy is not identified within the unit objectives at Level 1; however, where relevant, it can be included as underpinning knowledge to other objectives. Learning programme designers should consider the importance of warming up, cooling down and injury prevention within their sport and if they are of any significance, consider the inclusion at Level 1 of the basic anatomical understanding as outlined below.

Even if the sport does not come into the category of having highly complex changing movements (eg gymnastics), if it requires thorough warm-up then an understanding of the basic principles that come from an understanding of the anatomical systems will enhance teacher/coach competence and help to prevent injury.

Delivery Methods

As anatomy is not a fundamental unit within this level, it is suggested that the delivery of the basic/underpinning knowledge is done on a ‘drip feed’ principle of ‘what, why and how’, rather than as anatomy in its own right, within explanations of principles/content of warm-up, techniques of the sport and the principles/content of cool-down.

This will not only develop understanding but, importantly, this ‘gentle’ start will also help to offset what for many learners is a fear of the science areas, before they encounter them in greater depth at Level 2. It is not envisaged that anatomy would be assessed at this level.

This is a principle whereby, from the very start of their teacher/coach education, the learning process and generic and specific sport content is underpinned by its scientific principles (ie the anatomical, physiological, biomechanical and psychological reasoning for what is being done is part of the explanation at a very basic level).

Level 2Key Questions

Learning programme designers need to consider the nature of their sport (ie whether it is technical in nature with frequently changing and complex movements, which would signify that an extensive understanding of joints and movements was essential, such as in gymnastics and diving).

This is in comparison with sports such as running where there is no changing range of complex movements. Most sports require some basic understanding of anatomy at Level 2 but depending on the nature of the sport the dominant requirement might be physiological rather than anatomical (eg for marathon running and other endurance-based sports).

Sports need to analyse the relevance of anatomical understanding to their sport and justify the inclusion, limited inclusion or omission of anatomy from the learning programme.

Key Information

Anatomical knowledge in relation to the skeletal system, articular system and muscular system is important to overall understanding of movement and plays a significant role in the observation and analysis of movement. It is therefore important in acquiring competence in the teaching and coaching of specific sports.

If the sport has a high level of technical performance requirements and involves complex movements, the need for sound anatomical knowledge is particularly important. Anatomical knowledge will help with:

• ensuring performer safety

• minimising performer injury

• improving teacher/coach observation, analysis and feedback

• improving performer technical skills

• making non-sport-specific training relevant (eg strength work related to sport-specific movement).

The areas of knowledge that would be relevant for most teachers and coaches would come from the following:

• the skeletal system (bones of the body, their functions, formation and growth)

• the articular system (joints, relevance of structure/bone shape to joint movement, support of joints, functioning of joints, movements, potential/dangers of increasing range of movement)

• the muscular system (main muscles of the body, how muscle functions, muscle action, development of muscle, improvement of muscle performance)

• the nervous system (brain, spinal cord and nerves, central and peripheral systems, role in muscle action and coordination)

• movement analysis (how to analyse simple movements [ie joint moved/movement muscle/muscle action], sport-specific application).

Delivery Methods

As this may be the first formal encounter with anatomy for the majority of the teacher/coach learners and as learners can be negative or fearful about the sciences, there should be a clear explanation of the importance of the area of study both for their personal development and for the development of their athletes’ performance.

There will need to be some tutor delivery of basic information on which to base the subsequent independent study and application to the sport; students must be aided and supported to acquire the fundamental information and principles in a new area of knowledge. This should not be done purely by self-study.

Much of the anatomy area lends itself to short sections of teacher delivery or teacher-led discovery interspersed with teacher-led partner/group work for further discovery and for application to the sport. Only once the basics have been covered at Level 2 should this be considered as a possible area for self-study.

Assessment of the anatomy area lends itself to use of:

• short written answers or multiple choice questions (related to basic and factual information)

• work focused on diagrams

• logbook work

• sport-related skills analysis tasks.

Further ReadingDick, F.W. (2007) Sports Training Principles. 5th edition. London: A & C Black. ISBN: 978-0713682-78-6.

(Chapter 1 provides a brief outline of parts of the anatomy required. Chapter 2 provides some information on growth in childhood.)

www.teachpe.com/anatomy – Specifically for physical education and sports teachers, this site offers simple clear explanations of all anatomy areas.


Learning programme designers should consider the nature of their sport. If it is technical in nature with complex movements, this would signify that an extensive understanding of joints and movements was essential.

Such activities include gymnastics, diving and trampolining. This is in comparison with sports such as running and rowing where different complex movements do not exist.

However, many sports that do not have the need for detailed understanding of anatomy in relation to the range and complexity of movements often require the knowledge in relation to strength training for the specific movements of their sport (eg rowing).

The planning role of the Level 3 coach would necessitate this level of anatomical knowledge to plan and carry out such programmes safely and effectively. Programme designers need to examine their sport and clarify where the anatomical knowledge is required. All Level 3 coaches will require some anatomical knowledge, although, as at Level 2, for some sports, other scientific areas might be dominant.

Sports should analyse the relevance of anatomical understanding to their sport and justify the major inclusion or limited inclusion of anatomy in the Level 3 learning programme.

Learning programme planners, in addition to analysing the needs of their sport, need to examine the acquisition of anatomical knowledge and understanding over the course of the teacher/coach’s education.

They should consider the roles that they are trained to fulfil, what has been covered at Level 2 where their role is essentially that of the teacher/coach, and what needs to be added to enable them to move to the role of planning for higher performance and for the longer term.

Key Information

Anatomical knowledge is important as a contribution to overall understanding of movement; it plays a significant role in observation and analysis of movement and is also essential to the overall planning of programmes.

It is therefore of importance not only to the competence of the teacher/coach at Levels 1 and 2, but most importantly to the Level 3 coach involved in longer-term planning.

Anatomical knowledge will support the teacher/coach in relation to technical performance requirements, strength performance and also in relation to longer-term planning for groups or individuals. Anatomical knowledge will help with:

• ensuring performer safety

• minimising performer injury



• making non-sport-specific training relevant (eg strength work, flexibility work)

• planning relevant individual or group performance programmes

• planning for young performers, older performers and higher-level performers.


If not fully covered at Level 2 the following areas would need to be covered/completed:

• the skeletal system (bones and their functions)

• the articular system (joints, relevance of bone shape to joint movement, functioning of joints, movements, potential for change)

• the muscular system (main muscles of the body, how muscle functions, muscle action, potential for change)

• movement analysis (how to analyse joint moved, movement, muscle, muscle action, sport-specific application).

In addition, to support the Level 3 coaches’ role in planning, knowledge is used in an applied context. This would relate to:

• flexibility work based on anatomical knowledge

• development of strength and power based on anatomical knowledge

• long-term planning for performance within the specific requirements of the sport

• long- and short-term planning related to child development.

Delivery Methods

Again, there needs to be a clear explanation of the importance of knowledge in this area to underpin decisions about suitable and effective programmes for athletes.

As learners will have done anatomy at Level 2, some of the knowledge base can be built up through self-study.

There will need to be tutor delivery of basic information on which to base the teacher/coach’s subsequent independent study and application to the sport. They must be supported to acquire the fundamental information and principles in what may be a relatively new area of knowledge for most.

This should not be done purely by self-study but with tutor support provided. A lot of the anatomy area lends itself to teacher-led discovery interspersed with partner/group work for application to the sport. Only once the basics have been covered at Level 2 should this be considered as a potential self-study area and this should only be for parts of the work.

Assessment of the anatomy area at Level 3 lends itself to use of:


• work focused on diagrams (related to basic and factual information)

• logbook work

• complex sport-related skills analysis tasks

• programme planning tasks for young and more mature performers

• long-term sport-specific planning tasks for individuals/groups.


(Chapter 1 provides a brief outline of parts of the anatomy required. Chapter 2 provides some information on growth in childhood.)

www.teachpe.com/anatomy – Specifically for physical education and sports teachers, this site offers simple clear explanations of all anatomy areas.

© sports coach UK, September 2012

2 Physiology

IntroductionThis content guidance has been designed for use by governing bodies of sport when designing teacher/coach education programmes, in particular in relation to the learning programme of the common units.

Physiology is one of the generic aspects related to understanding and improving sports performance. When deciding what content is required to meet the objectives of the common units within the context of each specific sport, it is essential to start with a clear picture of the demands of the sport; all sports do not have the same requirements for physiological knowledge.

Sports that require high levels of endurance or where there is a requirement for tolerance or adaptation to extreme conditions have a greater need for physiological knowledge than sports that have mainly technical requirements. Such knowledge is essential for safety as well as for performance. Sports need to analyse these requirements.

The importance of physiology, along with some of the other underpinning science areas such as anatomy, has traditionally been underplayed within teacher and coach education and many tutors within governing bodies of sport are also not particularly comfortable teaching the area. This is an issue that may need to be addressed.

Common Unit LinksThe links below show where physiological knowledge (eg digestive system, cardiovascular system, respiratory system, energy systems, nervous system) would contribute to teachers/coaches’ knowledge, understanding and ability to plan sessions to improve athlete performance and therefore where they should form part of the learning programme, the learning resources, and assessment of knowledge and competence.

Although some physiological knowledge is expected of all teachers and coaches to underpin their understanding of sports performance, the learning programme designers within governing bodies of sport should assess the level of need within that sport, select the content and pitch its depth appropriately. A rationale for such decisions should be presented.

Level 1While the objectives within Level 1 do not specify physiology as such, a sound basis for teacher/coach development should be established at this point through the underpinning of some of the units’ broader objectives (eg Units 102.4, 103.2) with understanding of some of the basic physiology.

Level 2Unit Number

203.2, 205.2, 207

Level 3Unit Number

303.1, 303.1.5, 305.1, 308, 302.1, 302.1.2, 302.2, 304.1

Level 1Key Questions (for consideration when designing learning programmes)

Physiology as such is not identified within the unit objectives at Level 1; however, where relevant, it can be included as underpinning knowledge to other objectives. Designers of learning programmes should consider the importance of warming up and the importance of endurance within their sport and if they are of any significance consider the inclusion at Level 1 of the basic physiological understanding as outlined below.

Even if the sport does not have intense endurance demands, such as those of marathon running, if performance benefits from improved endurance then an understanding of physiology will enhance the teaching and coaching. It is therefore useful to start the coaches’ education in the area early.

Key Information

The following are examples of where physiological understanding (understanding of heart rate), at least at a very basic level, would be beneficial and could be incorporated into:

• Unit 102.4 – Preparing players for activity, in relation to warm-up and preparation for the forthcoming activity (eg the role of increasing body temperature in warm-up)

• Unit 103.2 – Understanding how to support performance/ improve performance (eg knowledge of importance of work intensity/heart rate and the broad principles involved to improving cardiovascular efficiency).

Delivery Methods

As physiology is not a fundamental unit within this level it is suggested that the delivery of the basic/underpinning knowledge is done on a ‘drip feed’ principle with explanations of ‘what, why and how’ rather than as physiological systems in their own right, with explanations of the content of warm-up/sessions etc.

This is a principle whereby, from the very start of their teacher/coach education, the learning process and generic and specific sport-related content are underpinned by scientific principles; the anatomical, physiological, biomechanical and psychological reasoning for what is being done is part of the explanation at a very basic level.

This will not only commence the development of the teachers/coaches’ understanding but importantly this ‘gentle’ start will help to offset what for many learners is a fear of the science areas, before they encounter them in greater depth at Level 2. It would not be envisaged that any physiology component would be assessed at this level.


Programme designers need to consider the nature of their sport (ie whether it has particular requirements of the physiological systems of the body [eg the cardiovascular and respiratory systems for endurance capacity]).

Most sports require some basic understanding of physiology at Level 2, but depending upon the nature of the sport, the dominant requirement might be anatomical or biomechanical rather than physiological (eg for divers and other technical sports, anatomy and biomechanics may take precedence over physiology).

Sports need to analyse the relevance of physiological understanding to their sport and justify the inclusion, limited inclusion or omission of physiology from the learning programme.

Key Information

Physiological knowledge, in relation to the cardiovascular system, respiratory system and digestive system, is important as a contribution to the overall understanding of performance and plays a significant role in the selection of content, intensity of work and development of performance. It is part of the whole range of knowledge and expertise required to develop and improve performance in sports.

If the sport has a high level of requirements relating to fitness and performance duration, the need for sound physiological knowledge is particularly important. Physiological knowledge will help with ensuring:

• performer safety and well-being, minimising the potential for inappropriate intensity, burnout, adverse effects of temperature etc

• intensities and volumes are appropriate to age, stage and objectives

• intensities and volumes are effective in performance improvement.

The areas of physiological knowledge that would be relevant for most teachers and coaches would come from the following:

• the cardiovascular system (heart, blood vessels, circulation, blood composition, reactions of the system to exercise)

• the respiratory system (lungs, function, mechanism of breathing, exchange of gases, reactions of breathing to exercise)

• the digestive system (organs of the digestive system, process of digestion, metabolism, production of energy)

• the energy systems (production of energy, use of energy, relationship to intensities/durations of activity)

• homeostasis (maintaining the stable internal environment of the body, its temperature, its water level, chemical balance etc through the action of the physiological systems)

• the nervous system (brain, spinal cord and nerves, central and peripheral systems, role in muscle action, coordination and functioning of other systems such as respiration)

• short-/long-term effects of exercise on the systems of the body.

Delivery Methods

As this may be the first formal encounter with physiology for the teacher/coach learners they could be negative or fearful about the sciences in general, and question their importance in sports education.

There should be a clear explanation of the importance of the area of study for their personal development as teachers and coaches and for the development of their athletes’ performance.

There will need to be some tutor delivery of basic information on which to base the teachers/coaches’ subsequent independent study and application to the sport (ie they must be aided and supported to acquire the fundamental information and principles in what is a new area of knowledge for most of them).

This should not be done purely by self-study. Much of the physiology area lends itself to short sections of teacher delivery or teacher-led discovery interspersed with teacher-led group work for further discovery and for application to the sport and to training. Only once the basics have been covered at Level 2 could this be considered as an area for some self-study.

Assessment of the physiology area lends itself to use of:


• work focused on diagrams

• logbook work

• sport-related performance tasks (eg involving relating physiological systems/work intensity and duration/effects).


(Chapters 5–9 deal with aspects of physiology.)

Rowland, T.W. (2004) Children’s Exercise Physiology. 2nd edition. Leeds: Human Kinetics. ISBN: 978-0736051-44-6.

(This deals with all aspects of physiology related to children.)

www.teachpe.com/anatomy – Specifically for physical education and sports teachers, this site offers simple clear explanations of all anatomy and physiology areas.


Programme designers need to consider the nature of their sport to identify the physiological demands of it, whether it is a sport such as running, swimming or rowing where there are significant endurance requirements, as opposed to a more technically focused sport such as diving, which has lower endurance requirements but high anatomical and biomechanical knowledge demands.

The planning role of the Level 3 coach would necessitate a good level of physiological knowledge to plan and carry out individual or group/club programmes safely and effectively. All Level 3 coaches will require some physiological knowledge although, as at Level 2, for some sports the need for other scientific areas might be dominant.

Sports need to analyse where they stand in relation to the relevance of physiological understanding to their sport and justify the major inclusion or limited inclusion of physiology in the Level 3 learning programme.

In addition to analysing the needs of their sport, learning programme planners also need to examine the acquisition of physiological knowledge and understanding over the course of the teacher/coach’s education and in relation to the roles they are trained to fulfil (ie what has been covered at Level 2 where their role is essentially that of the teacher/coach and therefore what needs to be added to enable them to move to the role of planning for higher performance and for the longer term).

Key Information

Physiological knowledge (ie in relation to the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, and digestive system) is important as a contribution to the overall understanding of performance and also in relation to the planning and carrying out of programmes and training sessions.

It plays a significant role in the selection of content and intensity of work for training sessions and thus in the development of performance. In addition, for the Level 3 coach, it is essential in relation to planning.

If the sport has a high level of performance requirements relating to fitness, performance duration, temperature etc the need for sound physiological knowledge is particularly important. Physiological knowledge will help with:

• ensuring performer safety and well-being, minimising the potential for work intensities, burnout, adverse effects of heat/cold etc

• ensuring work intensities and volumes are appropriate to age, stage and objectives

• ensuring work intensities and volumes are effective in performance improvement

• planning relevant individual or group performance programmes

• planning for young performers, older performers and higher level performers.

The areas of physiological knowledge would be relevant for most Level 3 coaches.

If not fully covered at Level 2, these are

• the cardiovascular system (heart, blood vessels, circulation, blood composition, reactions to exercise)

• the respiratory system (lungs, mechanism of breathing, exchange of gases, reactions to exercise)

• the digestive system (organs of the digestive system, process of digestion, metabolism, production of energy)

• the energy systems (production of energy, use of energy, relationship to intensities/durations of activity)

• homeostasis (maintaining the stable internal environment of the body, its temperature, water level, chemical balance etc through the action of the physiological systems)

• the nervous system (brain, spinal cord and nerves, central and peripheral systems, role in muscle action, coordination and functioning of other such as respiration)

• short/long-term effects of exercise on the systems of the body.

In addition, to support the Level 3 coaches’ role in planning, greater use needs to be made of the knowledge in an applied context and across a full range of participants. This would include:

• physiology and child development

• long-term effects of exercise related to the specifics of the sport

• long-term planning related to performance

• long- and shorter-term planning related to child development.

Delivery Methods

Again, there needs to be a clear explanation of the importance of this area of knowledge to underpin sound planning decisions about suitable and effective programmes for athletes.

If learners have done some physiology at Level 2, some of the knowledge base can now be further built up through self-study.

There will need to be some tutor delivery of basic information on which to base the teachers/coaches’ subsequent independent study and application to the sport (ie they must be aided and supported to acquire the fundamental information and principles in what is a relatively new area of knowledge for most of them and an area that is known to cause anxiety). This should not be done purely by self-study.

Much of the physiology area lends itself to short sections of teacher delivery or teacher-led discovery interspersed with teacher-led partner/group work for further discovery and for application to the sport. Only once the basics have been covered at Level 2 should this be considered as a self-study area.

Assessment of the physiology area lends itself to use of:



• logbook work

• more complex sport-related planning tasks with physiological explanation; for example related to:

− effects of exercise and performance improvement

− training work for younger performers

− training work for elite-level performers

− long-term planning for individuals/groups.

Further ReadingBompa, T.O. and Haff, G.G. (2009) Periodisation –Theory and Methodology of Training. 5th edition. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. ISBN: 978-0736074-83-4.

(Chapter 1 [pp.21–25] deals with energy systems.)

Cross, N. and Lyle, J. (1999) The Coaching Process. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. ISBN: 978-0-750641-31-9.

(Chapter 5 deals with applied physiology, particularly in relation to energy.)

Dick, F.W. (2007) Sports Training Principles. 5th edition. London: A & C Black. ISBN: 978-0713682-78-6.

(Chapters 5–9 deal with aspects of physiology – Chapter 5: oxygen; Chapter 6: muscle; Chapter 7: fluid systems; Chapter 8: hormones; Chapter 9: the growing child.)

Rowland, T.W. (2004) Children’s Exercise Physiology. 2nd edition. Leeds: Human Kinetics. ISBN: 978-0736051-44-6.

(This deals with all aspects of physiology related to children.)

www.teachpe.com/anatomy – Specifically for physical education and sports teachers, this website offers simple clear explanations of all anatomy and physiology areas.


3 Nutrition and Hydration


Both nutrition and hydration are important in understanding and improving sports performance. When deciding what is required to meet the objectives of the common units, it is essential to start with a clear picture of the demands/requirements of the specific sport.

All performers, regardless of the sport, require adequate nutrition and hydration to perform optimally both in training and competition. The topics are therefore essential for all sports education programmes.

However, in some sports, the demands are even greater due to the type of activity and the duration of performance (eg the extreme stages of the Tour de France or any sport in a warm climate but particularly those of long duration such as a marathon).

In such situations not only regular nutrition and hydration are required but strategies to deal with the extremes of temperature/duration. Sports need to analyse these requirements.

The importance of nutrition and hydration, along with some of the other underpinning science areas such as physiology, have traditionally been underplayed within teacher/coach education and many tutors within governing bodies of sport are not comfortable teaching these areas. This is an issue that needs addressing to ensure that the topic is given the importance it requires.

Common Unit LinksThe links below show where knowledge of nutrition and hydration would contribute to teacher/coach competence in delivering programmes and where this should form part of the learning programme, resources and competence. Knowledge in these two areas is essential to provide athletes with the skills to perform well.

Level 1While the objectives within Level 1 do not specify nutrition and hydration as such, a sound basis for the teacher/coach’s knowledge should be established at this point through the underpinning of some units’ broader objectives with the basic principles about nutrition and hydration.

Level 2Unit Number

203

Level 3Unit Number

302


Nutrition and hydration as such are not identified within the unit objectives at Level 1; however, where relevant, they can be included as underpinning knowledge to other wider objectives. Learning programme designers should consider the importance of nutrition and hydration within their activity and environment (eg the importance of maintaining hydration due to the role of water in temperature regulation and transport of nutrients and waste around the body).

These determine the efficient functioning of the body and hence the athlete’s performance. Even if the sport does not come into the category of having particularly high fluid or nutritional demands, people need adequate levels to function at even the most basic level.

Learning programme designers should consider the nature, duration and environment of their sport and determine where, even at Level 1, a start can be made to establish the importance of hydration and nutrition, and instil good habits in performers for both sport and lifestyle (eg Units 106.2 and 106.3 concerning supporting player performance and concluding activity/recovery after exercise).

Key Information

The following are examples of where an understanding of nutrition and hydration, at a basic level, would be beneficial and could be incorporated:

Unit 106.2 – Preparing players for activity and supporting performers during activity, attention should be paid to fatigue levels and hydration during sport.

Unit 106.3 – Concluding activity, understanding the importance of rehydration and eating following exercise to reduce the risk of injury and facilitate recovery.

Delivery Methods

As nutrition and hydration are not specified within this level it is suggested that the delivery of the underpinning knowledge is done on a ‘drip feed’ principle within explanations of ‘what, why and how’ rather than as a topic in their own right, within principles relating to performance and content of cool-down to facilitate recovery.

This will commence the teacher/coach understanding but importantly this ‘gentle’ start will help to offset any fear of the science areas, before learners encounter them in greater depth at Level 2. It is not envisaged that the topic would be assessed at this level.

This is a principle whereby, from the very start of their teacher/coach education, sport is underpinned by its scientific principles, the anatomical, physiological, biomechanical, nutritional and psychological reasoning for what is being done is part of the explanation at a very basic level. This is important for trainee teachers, coaches and for the athletes they work with.


Learning programme designers need to consider the nature of their sport, whether it is of particularly long duration or performed in a particularly warm environment, which would increase the issues for nutrition and hydration.

Sports require some basic understanding of nutrition and hydration at Level 2 as it is fundamental to efficiency for performance. However, depending upon the nature of the sport, its duration and environment, greater input may be needed for marathon running, endurance sports and sports where there are long training sessions.

Learning programme planners need to justify the inclusion or limited inclusion of nutrition and hydration from the learning programme.

Key Information

Nutritional and hydration knowledge in relation to eating before and after training/competition, hydration before, during and after training and competition, what to eat/drink etc is necessary for all teachers and coaches. In addition it is particularly important to those sports with issues of duration and environment.

Nutrition and hydration knowledge will help with:

• supporting/sustaining athlete performance

• performer safety and minimising injury

• facilitating recovery from training and competition.


• the effects of hydration/dehydration (relate to homeostasis of the body)

• foodstuff/balanced diet/energy requirements/what to eat when in to training and competition

• benefits of water, electrolyte and carbohydrate drinks/what to drink when in training and competition

• principles relating to nutrition and hydration, duration and environment.

Delivery Methods

As this will be the first formal encounter with nutrition and hydration for the majority of the teacher/coach learners and as the majority of learners are somewhat negative, if not fearful, about the sciences, there needs to be a clear explanation of the importance of the area of study for the development of their athletes’ performance.

There will need to be tutor delivery of basic information on which to base the teachers/coaches’ subsequent independent study and application to the sport.

Much of the nutrition and hydration area lends itself to short sections of teacher delivery interspersed with teacher-led group work for further discovery and for application to the sport. In relation to some of the other science areas, this is one that learners generally find of interest. Therefore once some basic principles have been covered this can be considered as an area for self-study.

Assessment of the nutrition and hydration area lends itself to use of:


• logbook work

• scenario-based questions related to the specific sport and its requirements.

Key Information

Nutrition and hydration knowledge is important as a contribution to overall understanding of performance. It is therefore of importance not only to the teacher/coach at Level 1 and 2 but also importantly to the Level 3 coach involved in the wider picture and longer-term planning.

This will support the teacher/coach in relation to supporting and improving performance and also in relation to longer-term planning for the performance of groups or individuals in both training and competition. Nutrition and hydration knowledge will help with:

• safety and minimising injury

• recovery from training and competition

• supporting/improving/optimising athlete performance in the short and long term.

The areas of knowledge that would be relevant for most teachers and coaches would come from the following. If not fully covered at Level 2 the following areas would need to be covered/completed:

• the effects of hydration/dehydration (relate to homeostasis of the body)

• knowledge of foodstuffs/the balanced diet/energy requirements/what to eat when in relation to training and competition

• benefits of water, electrolyte and carbohydrate drinks (hypertonic, isotonic, hypotonic)/what to drink when in training and competition

• application of basic principles relating to nutrition and hydration to the specific sport.

In addition, to support the Level 3 coaches’ wider role in planning, greater use needs to be made of the knowledge in an applied context. This would relate to:

• understanding the principles of nutrition for sport and relating them to the chosen sport

• understanding the different food groups and how energy intake and expenditure affects performance, what to eat when in relation to training and competition

• understanding the principles of hydration and the effects of hydration on performance in relation to the requirements, duration and environment of the specific sport/what to drink when in relation to training and competition

• analysis of the nutrition and hydration requirements of sport-related scenarios.


Williams, M.H. (2007) Nutrition for Health and Fitness. 8th edition. London: McGraw Hill. ISBN: 0-072943-71-8.

www.teachpe.com/fitness/nutrition.php – This website, specifically for physical education and sports teachers, offers simple, clear, although basic explanations of foodstuffs and hydration.

www.brianmac.co.uk/drinks.htm – A useful sports coaching website providing a reasonable amount of factual information about hydration, effects of dehydration, types of drinks etc.

www.brianmac.co.uk/nutrit.htm – A useful sports coaching website giving a reasonable amount of factual information about food and energy requirements etc.


Learning programme designers need to consider the nature of their sport, whether it has particular requirements in relation to nutrition and hydration due to its duration and environment. This would include long performance events such as distance running, triathlon, road cycling, walking and climbing. It would also include events that take place in warm environments either regularly or for a particular competition. In addition this would include sports that have long training sessions (two-hour+ sessions that swimmers undertake place significant nutrition/hydration requirements on the body).

The planning role of the Level 3 coach would necessitate a greater level of knowledge of nutrition and hydration to plan and carry out programmes safely and effectively. Learning programme designers need to examine their sport and clarify how significant such knowledge is to their sport and justify the major inclusion or limited inclusion of it in the Level 3 learning programme.

Learning programme planners in addition to analysing the needs of their sport also need to examine the acquisition of nutrition and hydration knowledge and understanding over the course of the teacher/coach education and in relation to the roles they are trained to fulfil what has been covered at Level 2, where their role is essentially that of the teacher/coach and therefore what needs to be added to enable them to move to the role of planning for groups, for higher performance, and for the longer term.


Williams, M.H. (2007) Nutrition for Health and Fitness. 8th edition. London: McGraw Hill. ISBN: 0-072943-71-8.

www.teachpe.com/fitness/nutrition.php – This website, specifically for physical education and sports teachers, offers simple, clear explanations of basic hydration and nutrition areas.

www.brianmac.co.uk/drinks.htm – A useful sports coaching website that gives a reasonable amount of factual information about hydration, effects of dehydration, types of drinks etc.

www.brianmac.co.uk/nutrit.htm – A useful sports website giving a reasonable amount of factual information about food and energy requirements.

Delivery Methods

Again, there needs to be a clear explanation of this area of knowledge to underpin sound planning decisions about suitable and effective programmes for athletes.

As learners will have covered some nutrition and hydration at Level 2 some of the knowledge base can be built up through self-study.

There will need to be tutor delivery of basic information on which to base the teacher/coach’s subsequent independent study and application to the sport; they must be aided and supported to acquire the fundamental information and principles in what may be a relatively new area of knowledge for learners.

This should not be done purely by self-study but needs tutor support. Much of the nutrition and hydration area lends itself to teacher-led discovery interspersed with teacher-led partner/group work for further discovery and for application to the sport. Only once the basics have been covered at Level 2 should this be considered as a potential self-study area and this should only be for parts of the work.

Assessment of the nutrition and hydration area at Level 3 lends itself to use of:

• short written answers or multiple choice questions (basic and factual information)

• logbook work

• scenario-based questions related to the specific requirements, duration and environment of the sport (eg analysis of an athlete’s nutrition/hydration requirements for a particular period, training day or competition).


4 Skill Acquisition

IntroductionThe acquiring of skill applies to all levels of performer whether it is the complete beginner in a sport or an elite athlete refining technique over the years, and it is of relevance to teachers and coaches at all levels.

It is important in all sports, but of particular importance in certain technique-driven activities such as skating, diving and gymnastics. The acquisition of skill is dependent on many of the fundamental teaching/coaching skills such as observation and communication.

There are many areas of understanding related to theories of acquiring skill (learning phases, learning cycles, conditioning, schema theory, closed loop theory etc) and areas relating to the methodology of teaching and the presentation of skills and feedback to performers. It is the interlinking of the two that brings about effective skills.

Common Unit LinksWhile the objectives within Level 1 do not specify skill acquisition as such, a sound basis for the teacher/coach’s future development should be established at this point through the underpinning of some of the units’ broader objectives (Units 102.4, 103.2, 106.2) with understanding of some of the basic principles.

Where objectives of the units relate to explanations, demonstrations and feedback, all of which are relevant in skill acquisition, the links can be drawn and the coaches’ knowledge in the area developed.

At Level 2 and Level 3 there are clear objectives related to skill acquisition and there are also other objectives where it is not directly mentioned but where, as at Level 1, links with acquisition of skill are possible.

Level 1There are no specific objectives at Level 1; however, Units 102.4, 103.2 and 106.2, which relate to explanations, demonstrations and feedback, would be well justified with links to skill acquisition.

Level 2Unit Number

202.2, 201.2, 202.1.4, 202.3.1

Level 3Unit Number

302, 308.3


Skill acquisition as such is not identified within the unit objectives for Level 1; however, where relevant, it can be included as supporting the learning or development of skill. This is relevant in relation to many of the teaching skills that are the focus of Level 1 and Level 2 such as observation and communication.

Delivery Methods

As skill acquisition is not specifically required at Level 1 it can be delivered as underpinning knowledge by a ‘drip feed’ process to provide some background information to help with teacher/coach development. Skill acquisition does not need to be assessed at this level.

Level 2 Key Questions

Learning programme designers need to look at the requirements of their sport in relation to skill acquisition, the amount of skill acquisition work required and at what levels of performance.

Certain sports have significant skill acquisition at the early stages (eg swimming) and then some refinement of skills over subsequent years but not a lot of new skill learning in the later years, while other sports have an ongoing process of skill learning over the years or the entire career of the athlete (eg diving, skating, gymnastics).

Key Information

The areas of knowledge that would be relevant for most teachers and coaches at this level would include knowledge of:

• motor skills (movement and muscle action)

• types of skill (fine/gross, continuous/discrete, open/closed, in general and specifically related to the sport)

• learning phases (cognitive, associative, autonomous)

• theories of learning such as schema theory/open loop theory/closed loop theory

• theories of learning such as conditioning and problem solving

• transfer of skills

• teaching methods (types of practice and communication).

Delivery Methods

At Level 2 there needs to be some tutor-led input to establish the basics of the topic. This can often be on an input and class group work basis, tutor-led group work or on an input followed by practical application basis.

Some self-study should be possible, particularly in relation to the practical application of the ideas.

Assessment of this area lends itself to:

• short answer questions or multiple choice questions (related to factual information)

• logbook work

• application to sport-specific scenarios to plan skill delivery and development.

Further Reading Sharp, B. (2004) Acquiring Skill in Sport. Eastbourne: Sports Dynamics. ISBN: 978-0951954-34-8.

www.brianmac.co.uk/tech.htm – A useful sports coaching website providing a reasonable amount of basic factual information about skill acquisition etc.

www.teachpe.com/skill_acquisition.php – This website, specifically for physical education and sports teachers, offers simple, clear explanations of all skill acquisition areas.


Learning programme designers need to look at the requirements of their sport in relation to skill acquisition, the amount of skill acquisition work required and at what levels of performance.

Certain sports have significant skill acquisition at the early stages (eg swimming) and then some refinement of skills over subsequent years but not a lot of new skill learning, while other sports have an ongoing process of skill learning over the years or the entire career of the athlete (eg diving, skating, gymnastics). This needs to be clarified in relation to the planning role of the Level 3 coach within a specific sport.

Programme designers also need to clarify in relation to Level 3 how much has already been covered at Level 2 and what needs to be added in the context of long-term planning.

Key Information

Any material from Level 2 that has not been fully covered needs to be reviewed. In addition, material relating to analysing performance and information processing should be covered to enable the coach to deal with the wider role at Level 3, involving planning. This would include:

• factors affecting skill development

• performance analysis to aid the coaching of skills

• information processing as an aspect of movement performance

• principles of feedback to aid development of performance

• approaches to developing skill and ability to respond to open situations.

Delivery Methods

At Level 3 there needs to be some tutor-led input in relation to performance analysis, factors affecting skill acquisition and the long term, or in relation to skill acquisition within annual planning to establish the fundamentals of the topic.

This can often be on an input and class group-work basis or tutor-led group work and can be followed by practical application on a self-study basis to the longer term, specific sport and/or a particular age group/ability etc.

Assessment of this area lends itself to:

• short answer questions or multiple choice questions (eg related to factual information about information processing)

• logbook work

• written work planning skill delivery and development over the longer term for different age groups/abilities as relevant to the sport

• performance analysis tasks to establish improvement/needs/necessary feedback etc.

Further Reading Cross, N. and Lyle, J. (1999) The Coaching Process. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. ISBN: 978-0-750641-31-9.

(Chapter 6: Skill Learning)

McMorris, T. (2004) Acquisition and Performance of Sports Skills. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN: 978-0470849-95-8.

Sharp, B. (2004) Acquiring Skill in Sport. Eastbourne: Sports Dynamics. ISBN: 978-0951954-34-8.

www.brianmac.co.uk/tech.htm – A useful coaching site providing basic factual information about skill acquisition.

www.teachpe.com/skill_acquisition.php – This website, specifically for physical education and sports teachers, offers simple, clear explanations of all skill acquisition areas.


5 Biomechanics


Biomechanics is one of the generic aspects related to understanding and improving sports performance, to developing teaching and coaching skills and acquiring competence in the teaching and coaching of specific sports.

When deciding what content is required to meet the objectives of the common units within the context of each specific sport, it is essential to start with a clear picture of the demands/requirements of the sport; all sports do not have the same level of requirements for biomechanical knowledge.

Sports with high technical requirements and complex movements or key skills where balance, rotation and/or application of force are critical elements, such as gymnastics, skating, diving, tennis and athletics field events, have a great requirement for knowledge of biomechanical principles.

Such knowledge not only plays a significant role in ensuring the safety of performers but also optimises their chances of technical excellence. Sound understanding of biomechanical principles contributes significantly to teacher/coach understanding of skills, their ability to analyse what is happening in front of them and their ability to give suitable constructive feedback. It underpins teacher/coach ability to deliver sports activity and improve performance. Sports should analyse where they stand in relation to these requirements.

Biomechanics, along with some of the other underpinning science, areas such as anatomy and physiology, have traditionally been underplayed within teacher/coach education. Many tutors within governing bodies of sport are also not particularly comfortable teaching these areas. This is an issue that may need to be addressed.

Common Unit LinksThe links identified below show where biomechanical knowledge (fluid mechanics, motion, Newton’s laws of motion, gravity, balance) would contribute to teacher/coach competence and where they should form part of the learning programme, the learning resources and assessment.

Some biomechanical knowledge is expected of all teachers and coaches to underpin their understanding of sports movement and their observation skills. However, the learning programme designers within governing bodies of sport should assess the level of need for such knowledge within that particular sport and pitch the content, its volume and level appropriately.

Level 1While the common unit objectives within Level 1 do not specify biomechanics as such, a sound basis for the teacher/coach’s future development should be established at this point through the underpinning of some units’ broader objectives (Unit 106.2) with essential biomechanical understanding.

Level 2Unit Number

203.2, 203.2.6, 207.2, 207.2.3, 207.3, 207.3.1, 207.3.3

Level 3Unit Number

303, 304, 308.2, 308.2.3, 305.1, 308


Biomechanics as such is not identified within the unit objectives at Level 1; however, where relevant, it can be included as underpinning knowledge to other objectives. Learning programme designers should consider the importance of technical requirements or key skills where balance, rotation and/or application of force are critical elements. If they are of significance, consider the inclusion of the most basic biomechanics information to underpin the sports content of the sessions.

Key Information

The following is an example of where biomechanical understanding (principles of application of force, gravity etc), at least at a very basic level, would be beneficial and could be incorporated into:

Unit 106.2 – Understanding how to support participants in practical performance with sound technical content, underpinned by knowledge of sound principles.

Delivery Methods

As biomechanics is not a fundamental unit within this level it is suggested that the delivery of the basic/underpinning knowledge is done on a ‘drip feed’ principle within explanations of ‘what, why and how’ rather than as biomechanics in its own right (ie simple explanations of principles within the techniques of the skills of the sport).

This will not only develop teacher/coach understanding but more importantly this ‘gentle’ start will also help to offset any fear of the science areas, before they encounter them in greater depth at Level 2. It is not envisaged that biomechanics would be assessed at this level.

This is a principle whereby, from the start of their teacher/coach education, the learning process plus the generic and sport-specific content is underpinned by its scientific principles (ie the anatomical, physiological, biomechanical and psychological reasoning behind the content is part of the explanation at a very basic level).


Learning programme designers need to consider the nature of their sport, whether it is technical in nature with complex movements, or key skills where balance, rotation and/or application of force are critical elements, such as gymnastics, skating, diving, tennis and athletics field events.

Most sports require some basic understanding of biomechanics at Level 2 but depending upon the nature of the sport the dominant requirement might be physiological rather than biomechanical (marathon running and endurance sports).

In addition the specific areas of biomechanical knowledge that are relevant will depend on the sport (eg swimming will focus on fluid mechanics while other sports will have no interest in that area).

Sports need to analyse where they stand in relation to the relevance of biomechanical understanding to their sport and justify the inclusion, limited inclusion or omission of biomechanics from the learning programme and also in relation to the areas that are relevant.

Key Information

Biomechanical knowledge, in relation to balance, rotation, gravity and laws of motion, is important as a contribution to overall understanding of movement and plays a significant role in the observation and analysis of movement. It is therefore of importance to acquiring competence in the teaching and coaching of specific sports.

If sport has a high level of technical performance requirements or key skills where balance, rotation and/or application of force are critical elements, the need for sound biomechanical knowledge is particularly important.

This knowledge will help with:

• ensuring performer safety and minimising performer injury

• informing technical instruction


• improving performer technical skills.

The areas of knowledge that would be relevant for most teachers and coaches would come from the following topics as appropriate to the specific sport:

• motion (angular motion, translatory motion, laws of motion, leverage, speed and acceleration)

• production, application and absorption of force

• stability/balance

• gravity

• fluid mechanics (propulsion, resistance and buoyancy)

• projectiles

• mechanical analysis (sport-specific application).

Delivery Methods

As this may be the first formal encounter with biomechanics for the learners and as they may be negative or fearful about the sciences, there needs to be a clear explanation of the importance of the area of study both for personal development as teachers and coaches and for the development of athletes’ performance.

There is a requirement of some tutor delivery of basic information on which to base the teacher/coach independent study and application to the sport. They must also be aided and supported to acquire the fundamental information and principles in what may be a new area of knowledge for learners.

This should not be done purely by self-study. Much of the biomechanics area lends itself to short sections of teacher delivery of basic principles or teacher-led discovery interspersed with teacher-led group work for further discovery and for application to the sport. Only once the basics have been covered at Level 2 should this be considered as a possible area for self-study.

Assessment of the biomechanics area lends itself to use of:


• work focused on diagrams/visual images for analysis

• logbook work

• sport-related mechanical analysis tasks.


(Chapter 3 deals with mechanics.)


Learning programme designers need to consider the nature of their sport, whether the sport is technical in nature with complex movements or key skills where balance, rotation and/or application of force are critical elements, such as gymnastics, skating, diving, tennis and athletics field events.

All sports require some basic understanding of biomechanics at Level 3 but depending upon the nature of the sport the dominant requirement of the sport might be physiological rather than biomechanical (eg marathon running and other endurance sports).

The requirement of the Level 3 coach as a planner of programmes implies that as the whole range of content is required, a knowledge of biomechanics, even if only at a basic level of understanding the relevance of posture, balance and application of force, must be a requirement to plan and carry out such programmes safely and effectively. In addition the specific areas of biomechanical knowledge that are relevant will depend on the sport (eg swimming will focus on fluid mechanics while other sports will have no interest in that area).

Sports need to analyse where they stand in relation to the relevance of biomechanical understanding to their sport and justify the major inclusion or limited inclusion of the topic in the Level 3 learning programme and also in relation to the areas of biomechanics that are relevant.

Learning programme planners in addition to analysing the needs of their sport need to examine the acquisition of biomechanical knowledge and understanding over the course of the teacher/coach education and in relation to the roles that they are trained to fulfil.

They should look at what has been covered at Level 2 where their role is essential to that of the teacher/coach and what needs to be added to enable them to move to the role of planning for higher performance for the longer term.

For many sports the essential coverage of biomechanics will be at Level 2 where it relates to the teaching and development of skills with greater depth of knowledge in certain areas and greater refinement in the application of knowledge to the individual or to more elite performance coming at Level 3 to support the long-term planning role.

Key Information

Biomechanical knowledge is important as a contribution to overall understanding of movement; it plays a significant role in observation and analysis of movement and is essential to the overall planning of the skill learning and skill refinement elements of programmes.

It is therefore of importance not only to the competence of the teacher/coach at Levels 1 and 2 but also may be important to the Level 3 coach involved in longer-term planning of the finer elements of skill improvement.

Biomechanical knowledge will support the teacher/coach in relation to technical performance requirements and to longer-term planning of skill refinement for groups or individuals. Biomechanical knowledge will help with:

• performer safety and minimising injury



• planning relevant individual or group skill improvement programmes.

The areas of knowledge that would be relevant for most teachers and coaches would come from the following. If not fully covered at Level 2 the following areas would need to be covered as appropriate to the specific sport:

• motion (angular motion, translatory motion, laws of motion, leverage, speed and acceleration)

• production, application and absorption of force

• stability/balance

• gravity

• fluid mechanics

• projectiles

• mechanical analysis (sport-specific application).

In addition, to support the Level 3 coaches’ role in planning, greater use needs to be made of the knowledge in an applied context to facilitate technical improvement/the finer technical refinements that are required at elite level.

This would relate to:

• advanced study of the specific areas of mechanics related to the specific sport

• focus on the application of mechanics to the technical refinements and individual programmes of the specific sport.

Delivery Methods

Again, there needs to be a clear explanation of the importance of this area of knowledge to underpin sound planning decisions about suitable and effective programmes for athletes.

As learners have done some biomechanics at Level 2 some of the knowledge base can be built up through self-study.

There will be a requirement for some tutor delivery of basic information on which to base the teacher/coaches’ subsequent independent study and application to the sport. They must be aided and supported to acquire the fundamental information and principles in what is a relatively new area of knowledge for most of them.

This area should not be done purely by self-study and as a minimum some tutor support needs to be provided. Much of the biomechanics area lends itself to teacher-led partner/group work for discovery and for application to the sport.

Assessment of the biomechanics area at Level 3 lends itself to use of:



• logbook work

• complex sport-related mechanical analysis tasks.

Further ReadingCross, N. and Lyle, J. (1999) The Coaching Process. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. ISBN: 978-0-750641-31-9.

(Chapter 7 deals with biomechanics.)

Dick, F.W. (2007) Sports Training Principles. 5th edition. London: A & C Black. ISBN: 978-0-713682-78-6.

(Chapter 3 deals with mechanics.)


6 Injury Management and Prevention

IntroductionThis content guidance sheet has been designed for use by governing bodies of sport when designing teacher/coach education programmes, in particular in relation to the learning programme of the common units.

Injury management and prevention is essential in all sports and requires a focus for all sports to avoid unnecessary time out from the sport and to avoid serious damage or limiting achievement.

The teacher/coach has a responsibility to the participants to ensure that the environment is safe and that the activities are presented in a way that does not put the participants at risk. Teachers and coaches should be passing on the principles of sound movement and good training practice, to prevent and manage injury.

All sports can address this through adequate preparation, warm-up/cool-down/rest, ensuring nutrition and hydration are optimal to support performance and recovery, and through sound performance-related anatomical knowledge ensuring movement is not stressing the body and avoiding muscular imbalances.

Common Unit Links

Level 1 There are no specific injury prevention objectives within Level 1; however, understanding warm-up (102.4.5) and cool-down (103.3.2 and 106.3.2) and their relevance to preventing injury can commence at this stage.

Level 2Unit Number

203.1, 203.2

Level 3Unit Number

302.2, 302.2.3, 303.1, 303.1.3, 303.4.3


Injury prevention and management as such are not identified within the unit objectives at Level 1; however, where relevant, they can be included as underpinning knowledge to other objectives.

Learning programme designers should consider the importance of warming up, cooling down and potential risk of injury within their sport and if they are of any significance consider the inclusion at Level 1 of the basic knowledge relating to injury prevention as outlined below.

Key Information

Units 102.4.5, 103.3.2 and 106.3.2, which relate to warm-up and cool-down could clearly reinforce the relevance of good practice in helping to prevent injury.

Delivery Methods

As the topic is not specified at Level 1 it should just be incorporated within explanations of practice. This however starts the teacher/coach’s understanding of the area and habits of good practice. The topic would not be assessed at this stage.

Level 2 Key Questions

In addition to delivering a general understanding about injury, learning programme designers need to ask questions about the potential risk of injury within the specific sport and the main risk areas that need to be addressed.

Knowledge of injury prevention in relation to understanding the anatomy of joints, the role of warm-up, the importance of hydration and the importance of adequate rest. This is essential as a contribution to the overall understanding of training and performance, and prevention and management of injury.

It is therefore of importance to acquiring competence in the teaching and coaching of specific sports. Designers of learning programmes need to assess the level of need for all areas of prevention of injury within their sport.

Key Information

This is an area that is little understood and can be filled with folklore tales and homespun remedies, where common sense is overcome with ambition and desire to keep going, risking damage to both the individual and their performance.

The areas of knowledge that would be relevant for the majority of teachers and coaches at Level 2 would come from the following:

• potential for injuries relating to the specific sport

• injuries incurred due to facilities/equipment and injuries incurred due to movement

• types of injuries (acute, chronic, soft tissue) in general and related to the specific sport

• principles of injury prevention (related to avoiding weak or imbalanced muscles, inadequately warmed up muscles, or psychological issues such as aggression and tension)

• principle of hydration and signs of dehydration and its contribution to injury

• obtaining optimum hydration before, during and after activity or competition

• work/rest balance

• management of injury.

Delivery Methods

There needs to be a clear explanation of the importance of the area of study both for the personal development of the teachers/coaches but more importantly for the safe development of their athletes’ performance.

There will need to be some tutor delivery of basic information on which to base the teacher/coach’s subsequent independent study and application to the sport; they must be aided and supported to acquire the fundamental information and principles in what is a critical area of knowledge for most sports and their participants.

This is an area that lends itself, at least partly, to delivery in a practical sport-specific context, if available. Only once the basics have been covered at Level 2 should this be considered as a possible area for self-study.

Assessment of the prevention and management of injury area lends itself to use of:


• logbook work (related to prevention of injury and warm-up, analysis of warm-up as preparation for the specific activity to follow, factors to minimise injury).

Further Readingwww.brianmac.co.uk/injury.htm – A simple presentation of some factors in prevention of injuries.

www.brianmac.co.uk/articles/tindexinj.htm – A series of articles on injuries: different types of injuries and related to different sport.

www.brianmac.co.uk/articles/scni46a2.htm – An article on cool-down and injury prevention.


After covering the basic principles at Level 2 the questions to be addressed for Level 3 relate to the approach for application to a wider range of situations, range of ages, as appropriate to the sport, its demands and its environment.

Key Information

The areas of knowledge that would be relevant for the majority of teachers/coaches at Level 3, where there is a role of planning in addition to teaching/coaching, would come from the following:

• differences between children and adults in relation to physical development, coaching programmes and injury potential

• analysis of the principles of training and the potential for injury within the specific sport in relation to its environment and demands

• analysis of the main injuries incurred within the specific sport

• management of injury combined with rest/training/performance.

Delivery Methods

Following some tutor delivery of basic information at Level 2, teachers/coaches should be able to undertake independent study and application to the sport, as long as they are aided with relevant resources. This is an area that lends itself, at least partly, to group work in a practical sport-specific context, if available.

Assessment of the prevention and management of injury area lends itself to use of:

• logbook work, related to prevention of injury and warm-up, analysis of warm-up as preparation for the specific activity to follow, factors to minimise injury

• scenario/sport-specific written work on injury prevention with adults/children, analysis of injury risks, management of injury plans for specific cases

• construction of ‘information’ posters for different scenarios (age groups/sports, specific risks/specific injuries/treatments).

Further Readingwww.brianmac.co.uk/injury.htm – A simple presentation of some factors in prevention of injuries.

www.brianmac.co.uk/articles/tindexinj.htm – A series of articles on injuries: different types of injuries and related to different sports.

www.brianmac.co.uk/articles/scni46a2.htm – An article on cool-down and injury prevention.


7 Observation and Performance Management


Observation is a key skill in teaching and coaching for safety reasons, for control of behaviour and also for performance. In relation to performance, observation of the skill or activity is required to determine how it is being done, in order to analyse how close that is to the expected technique, what needs to change etc. As analysis is key to improving performance, accurate observation and the ability to recall what was seen are critical to performance improvement.

Various aspects of information may be required about the performance. This can be obtained in training situations or in competition.

These aspects include:

• technical information about performance of the physical skills that are part of the sport

• tactical information about the pattern of play (eg team games)

• physiological information about the level of function of the body systems

• psychological information about the level of motivation etc.

The gathering of such information needs to be systematic and supported by technology where possible and appropriate. A record of the findings needs to be produced as memory alone is not reliable. Much of the information that the coach needs to know in relation to performance or planning can be gathered by observation; however, there are some aspects that require measurement (eg blood lactate level).

In many situations, visual analysis and observer recall, or at best a written record, are all that can be produced; however the discipline of performance analysis now includes much more sophisticated tools to aid observation and record the outcomes.

Various technological advances in digital photography, video and computer analysis programmes and notational analysis have facilitated these advances. These techniques hold the visual or observed record, and with some technological manipulation facilitate the analysis, usually to a level of accuracy way beyond that of the human eye and personal judgement.

The advent of home video recording, more advanced computer capacity at home and accessibility of analysis software in various disciplines/sports has made this accessible to many more people and no longer purely the reserve of the research laboratory.

Common Unit Links

Level 1Unit Number

105.1, 105.1.1, 106.2, 106.2.1, 104.1, 104.1.3

Level 2Unit Number

202

Level 3Unit Number

302.4, 304.1, 305.1, 305.1.1, 207.2, 308.3


Learning programme designers need to consider the nature of their sport, its environment and the level of the teacher/coach they are targeting in deciding the level and sophistication of analysis and which aspects of performance they need to target.

At Level 1 for most sports it will be appropriate to focus purely on teacher/coach visual observation and written recording of the material. Visual observation is a skill required of all teachers and coaches to inform their moment-by-moment decisions in sessions and their day-to-day planning of content, practices and feedback, and is thus a skill that needs to be developed early and continually improved.

Key Information

Participants’ capacity to observe and analyse at this stage is limited as they do not yet have the knowledge or skills required to do, for example, a biomechanical analysis. The observational analysis should therefore be systematic but will be simple.

The following areas of knowledge would be relevant:

• analysis of what types of information can be gained from observation and the potential uses of the information

• identification of suitable analysis of different sports skills to obtain optimum and accurate information

• observation of movement based on simple principles such as preparation/action/recovery.

Delivery

At Level 1, this topic lends itself to delivery in the classroom setting with static visual images or video and, where possible, in the practical setting with the participants they are teaching. In the early stages, at Level 1, the focus is likely to be on observation of skills and possibly, in a games situation, of basic tactics or the pattern of play on the field.

Assessment of the observation area lends itself to:

• the use of short answer or multiple choice questions on basic knowledge

• practical observation tasks (videoed skills)

• identification of the key areas for observation/analysis within the sport.


Learning programme designers need to consider the nature of their sport and its environment and the level of the teacher/coach they are targeting in deciding the level of sophistication of analysis.

They also need to consider which aspects of performance they need to target as this will vary from sport to sport (eg a sport that would benefit from recorded video for detailed biomechanical analysis or a team game that would benefit from notational analysis of the pattern of play).

The availability of the respective technology to support analysis is another factor to consider in determining the suitability of more sophisticated methods of collecting information for analysis.

The level of performer to whom this more advanced technology is applied also needs to be considered. For the general teaching of masses of performers at the lower levels, visual observation will continue to be the basic tool, but for higher level performers and certainly for elite performers, coaches need to be trained in more accurate and appropriate methods.

For most sports teachers and coaches, visual observation, recall and written records will continue to be the first approach and the main input to managing performance, which will need to be incorporated into the learning programme.

However, as the advances in home technology have made other possibilities accessible, and they will become more accessible in the near future, governing bodies of sport need to ask themselves questions about the techniques that will best serve their sport and move towards training their coaches in them.

Key Information

Knowledge of observation and its role in performance management, through the provision of data on decisions about appropriate tasks, feedback etc, is important as a contribution to the overall understanding of movement and plays a significant role in the analysis of movement and the everyday, moment-by-moment exchanges during sessions. It is therefore of importance to acquiring competence in the teaching and coaching of specific sports.

Content that would be appropriate at Level 2 would include:

• systematic observation of sport-specific movement based on simple principles such as preparation/action/recovery

• observation of elements of performance that are critical to practise different types of analysis (technical analysis, biomechanical or anatomical information guides the observation, anatomical analysis to see changing angles at joints, mechanical analysis to look at the timing of the application of force)

• identification of aspects of performance information that are not clearly observable, physiological information and how that data can be obtained to contribute to the total picture and the management of performance

• analysis of skills at different level of competence such as children, young people, adults.

Delivery Methods

Observation, whether done visually, relying on recall or with a written record, always lends itself to practical application. Skills can also be captured on video for detailed analysis.

Depending on the sport, the level of analysis and the feasibility of greater use of technology in the sport, both to record and to analyse the required information, can be investigated at Level 3.

Assessment of observation and performance management lends itself to:

• the use of short answer and multiple choice questions

• practical observation tasks – videoed skills where the same image can be replayed

• identification of the key areas for observation/analysis within the sport

• analysis of skill recorded on video – it can be useful if this is combined with the movement analysis associated with the anatomy (joints, muscles, movements) at this level or combined with the biomechanical knowledge

• live practical skill analysis and written recording of the information – this can be more demanding as it may not be possible to repeat it very often, it may change slightly from each attempt; this however is the normal class situation – how would the information affect the future programme?

• comparisons of two different methods of obtaining information – video analysis and ‘live’ observational analysis of skills, notational analysis of the game and live observational analysis of the game, observational biomechanical analysis and video/computer biomechanical analysis etc – how do the two forms of analysis compare? With the outcome from the analysis, what should be done now/what changes should be made?

• a case study of an individual’s performance, a team’s performance including all relevant areas as appropriate to the sport (ie movement, mechanics, tactics etc) and justifying the method of obtaining the information for analysis, and the outcome from the analysis (ie what would be done now/what changes would be made?).

Further ReadingSport-specific texts and journals.

www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/how-performance-analysis-can-improve-your-coaching-methods-39 – A website that provides an overview of performance analysis and the role and limitations of observation.


Accepting that for most sports and for most teachers and coaches, visual observation, recall and written records will continue to be the first approach and main input to managing performance, the methods available for use with higher level and elite performers become more important at Level 3.

Sports need to question which aspects of performance they need to target as this will vary from sport to sport, whether it is a sport that would benefit from recorded video for detailed biomechanical analysis or whether it is a team game that would benefit from notational analysis of the pattern of play.

As the advances in home technology have made such possibilities accessible, and they will become more accessible in the near future, governing bodies of sport need to ask themselves questions about the techniques that will best serve their sport and move towards training their coaches in them.

Key Information

Observation remains the key element and although for some the possibility of more sophisticated gathering of information can be done, and will be done more in the future, the coach has to be able to see what is happening and make decisions based on that. Observation with and without technology continues to be the focus.

For some sports, combination of observation and measurement analysis will be required to complete the whole picture of the efficiency of the skill, technique/power off the starting block, on entry and when breaking into the stroke in swimming provides an opportunity to combine observation and measurement – measuring the time taken to a specific distance point in relation to the technique.

The complexity of observation skills can increase as can the diversity of skills and participants observed.

The nature of the sport will of course determine whether notational analysis of the pattern of play is needed. Is physiological analysis of heart rate by a monitor needed? Is observation to be long term or fleeting?

Delivery Methods

As at the previous levels, observation lends itself to practical application. Whether it is being done traditionally or with the aid of modern technology, it is the ability of the coach to see what will make the difference and aid performance.

Observation and performance management lends itself to assessment by:

• comparisons of two different methods of obtaining information

– video analysis and ‘live’ observational analysis, notational analysis of the game and live observational analysis, observational biomechanical analysis and film/computer analysis; how do the two forms of analysis compare? Outcome from the analysis – what should be done now/what changes should be made?

• case study of an individual’s performance, a team’s performance including all relevant areas as appropriate to the sport and justifying the method of obtaining the information for analysis

• following observation of a skill or series of movements and recording what was observed, analyse the skill and prioritise action.

Further ReadingSport-specific texts and journals.

www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/how-performance-analysis-can-improve-your-coaching-methods-39 – A website that provides an overview of performance analysis and the role and limitations of observation.


8 Planning and Periodisation


Planning and periodisation are key areas for the Level 3 coach who has a role not just in day-to-day coaching but also in the overall planning of programmes. The coach must be able to plan an annual training and competition programme for individual athletes and groups.

This involves setting targets that are appropriate for the individual or group, planning the competitions that will be used to measure the achievement of those objectives and then planning the training for the year that will help them to achieve the objectives.

The concept of periodisation involves dividing the training year up into shorter periods, which will each have a different emphasis, all directed towards meeting the performance needs of the individual/group.

Learning programme designers will need to look at the adaptation of the principles of annual planning and periodisation to the specifics of the sport, depending on the time of year of the main competitions and the components of performance to be developed. The timing and length of periods will vary.

Common Unit LinksThe links below show where planning and periodisation would contribute to coach competence and where they should form part of the learning programme, the learning resources and assessment of knowledge and competence.

Such knowledge is expected of all coaches at Level 3, although it will be up to the learning programme designers within governing bodies of sport to tailor the learning programme to deliver the concepts related to the sport.

Level 1Planning and periodisation are not part of Level 1 content.

Level 2Planning and periodisation are not part of Level 2 content.

Level 3Unit Number

301.1, 302.1, 302.2, 302.3, 303.1, 303.2, 303.3, 303.4, 304.3, 305.1


Learning programme designers need to analyse the specific requirements, environment and competitive calendar of their sport in order to plan effectively. In addition, the ambitions, potential and current performance level of the participant needs to be established in order to set realistic goals for the programme.

Learning programme planners must ask themselves whether all the key elements have been covered to enable the coach to have the scientific support necessary to underpin the training process and undertake the planning task.

Key Information

Planning and periodisation information are essential to the Level 3 coach in their planning role. If they are to plan an annual programme for a squad of athletes, the coach requires a full range of knowledge about the components of performance and the principles and processes involved in planning for their sport.

The systematic coverage of all the elements required and their appropriate timing within the programme, linked to appropriate goals, are vital for optimum performance.

Planning requires knowledge of training theory, which should be underpinned by sound scientific knowledge. Planning is the process of fitting all the requirements into the available time period in a way that optimises benefits and minimises the stresses on the athlete while providing adequate rest to ensure recovery.

Periodisation is the process of dividing the year up into defined periods that each serve different purposes (the off-season phase/rest and recovery, the pre-season phase/improving fitness, developing skill, the competitive phase/developing competition-based fitness, fine-tuning competition skills).

The pre-season and competitive periods are then further sub-divided into mesocycles and microcycles. Mesocycles are of approximately 6–8 weeks in duration, each of which normally has specific and slightly different objectives.

Microcycles normally last a week and form the framework for the athlete. They should balance the harder, more intense training sessions with less demanding work and periods of rest to ensure that the athlete is able to benefit from the training they do.

Thorough knowledge of planning and periodisation will support the coach in relation to their planning role, ensuring that they can structure the year along sound principles, plan for training and competition, and plan to optimise the performance of their athletes.

The areas of knowledge that would be relevant would come from the following:

• understanding the performance requirements of the sport

• analysis of performers’ strengths and weaknesses and needs

• goal setting based on collected information

• competition selection related to the sport, age and stage of performers

• planning a training year, with off-season/pre-season/competition periods, then planning the individual periods

• cyclical planning of the pre-season and competitive periods into macro/meso/microcycles

• understanding of the components of performance relevant to the sport (skill, physical conditioning, mental skills, lifestyle support, nutritional advice, developmental stages).

Delivery Methods

The learner is aspiring to Level 3 and has a background of Level 2 knowledge and competence so a mixture of course/class work and self-study is appropriate. Once the basics have been covered and understood the application of them to planning for a range of diverse practical coaching situations is the most useful way to develop the planning skills. Coaches could be encouraged to do further reading both of general coaching/training materials and also of specific sport-related materials.

Assessment of the planning and periodisation area lends itself to use of:

• logbook work (eg applying principles to different scenarios)

• portfolio of work-based situation annual planning

• specific sport-related planning tasks relating to the competitive year, different age groups/levels of performers.

Further ReadingBompa, T. (2009) Periodisation. Leeds: Human Kinetics. ISBN: 0-736085-47-5.

(Chapter 6 deals with the annual plan, Chapter 7 deals with peaking for competition, and Chapter 8 deals with training cycles.)

Bompa, T.O. and Haff, G.G. (2009) Periodisation – Theory and Methodology of Training. 5th edition. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. ISBN: 978-0-736074-83-4.

(Chapter 8 deals with short-term planning, and Chapter 9 deals with the annual plan.)

Dick, F.W. (2007) Sports Training Principles. 5th edition. London: A & C Black. ISBN: 978-0713682-78-6.

(Chapters 19–21 provide information on the periodisation of the year.)

Pankhurst, A. (2007) Planning and Periodisation. Leeds: National Coaching Foundation/Coachwise Business Solutions. ISBN: 978-1-905540-43-3.

Sport-specific texts.

www.brianmac.co.uk/articles/scni19a2.htm – A useful sports coaching website providing a reasonable amount of basic factual information about planning and periodisation etc.


9 Testing Protocols

IntroductionThis content guidance sheet covers the following areas:

• sport-specific physical testing protocols for a sport-related activity

• analysis of a range of basic sport-specific physical testing protocols.

The information covered is aimed at the knowledge required of UKCC Level 2 and Level 3 coaches.

Common Unit Links

Level 2203

Level 3303


If there is access to a sports hall or sports field, the learning programme could allow learners to work in small groups to set up, administer and participate in a sample of the testing protocols.

Key Information

Testing Protocol Component of Fitness

Sprint speed test Speed

Illinois agility run Speed and agility

Maximal strength assessment (One repetition max – 1RM)

Strength

Grip strength Strength

Circuit training exercises (eg press-ups, sit-ups, chin-ups, squat thrusts). Measured by number completed before having to rest, in 30 seconds or one minute

Local muscular endurance

Harvard step test Endurance

Multi-stage fitness test Aerobic endurance

Cooper 12-minute run Aerobic endurance

Wingate anaerobic 30-second cycle test (WANT)

Anaerobic endurance

Running-based anaerobic sprint test (RANT)

Anaerobic endurance

Sit and reach test Flexibility

Back hyperextension test Flexibility

Lateral flexion tests Flexibility

Standing stork test Balance

Ruler drop test Reaction time

Standing long jump Power

Standing vertical jump Power

Medicine ball throw Power

Skinfold test Body fat percentage

Body mass index (BMI)Calculates body mass based on height and weight.

Any testing protocol should:

• have an aim, objective or purpose

• follow an outlined step-by-step guide

• obtain relevant information that is useful to sport (eg components of fitness, improvement in performance)

• use the information collected to evaluate and review.

In constructing tests it is important to make sure that the tests measure the factors required and are objective rather than subjective.

In doing so, all tests should be:

• specific (designed to assess an athlete’s fitness for the activity in question)

• valid (the degree to which the test actually measures what it claims to measure)

• reliable (how reliable the test is in re-test situation [ie is it capable of consistent repetition?])

• objective (produce a consistent result irrespective of the variables associated with the tester).

In conducting tests the following points should be considered:

• Each test should measure one factor only.

• The test should not require any technical competence on the part of the athlete (unless it is being used to assess technique).

• Care should be taken to make sure the athlete understands exactly what is required of them, what is being measured and why.

• The test procedure should be strictly standardised in terms of administration, organisation and environmental conditions and may require the permission of a responsible adult when dealing with children and young people.

Delivery Methods

Learning programme designers could develop a range of scenarios and the learners have to identify which testing protocol could be used. For example, a young hockey player has scored a number of goals throughout the season but none of them have been scored in the last 30 minutes of a match. You, the coach, suspect there may be an issue with her physical condition and you would like to test this. Which testing protocol(s) would you use and why?

Suggested Forms of Assessment

Multiple choice questionnaires; role play; viva voce (oral questioning); written task; case study; poster or flip chart.

Further ReadingDavis, B., Bull, R., Roscoe, J. and Roscoe, D. (2004) Physical Education and the Study of Sport. 5th edition. Mosby: Missouri, USA. ISBN: 978-0-723433-75-0.

Internet and sport-specific magazines relating to your sport.

Paish, W. (1998) The Complete Manual of Sports Science: A Practical Guide to Applied Sports Science. London: A and C Black. ISBN: 978-0-713648-54-6.


The Qualifications and Curriculum Framework (QCF) assessment criteria linked to this topic require learners to analyse a range of testing protocols. The learner should highlight the strengths, weaknesses, benefits, issues, difficulties and relevance to specific sports of a range of testing protocols.

Key Information

The information provided in the Level 2 section is also relevant and appropriate for Level 3.

Testing Protocols

A testing protocol aims to produce useful results that can be compared to other results of a similar nature in the future. In addition to the testing protocols listed in Level 2, these could include:

• blood testing (lactate threshold)

• VO2 max (aerobic capacity)

• heart rate monitoring

• GPS measurement (endurance)

• blood pressure

• lactate threshold measurement

• Conconi Test (anaerobic and aerobic threshold measurement).

Note that many of the above testing protocols require appropriately qualified personnel to conduct them and that they will require permission from a responsible adult if administered to children and young people.

What Are the Benefits of Testing?

The results from tests can be used to:

• predict future performance

• indicate weaknesses

• measure improvement

• enable the coach to assess the success of their training programme

• place the athlete in an appropriate training group

• motivate the athlete

• determine readiness to compete following injury

• identify reasons for peaks and drops in performance levels

• evaluate the effectiveness of the physical conditioning programme.

What Factors May Influence Test Results?

The following factors may have an impact on the results of a test:

• the ambient temperature, noise level and humidity

• the amount of sleep and/or rest the athlete had prior to testing

• the athlete’s emotional state

• medication the athlete may be taking

• the time of day

• the athlete’s caffeine intake

• the time since the athlete’s last meal

• the test environment – surface (track, grass, road, gym)

• the athlete’s prior test knowledge/experience

• accuracy of measurements – times, distances

• is the athlete applying maximum effort in maximal tests

• inappropriate warm-up

• the people present

• the personality, knowledge and skill of the tester

• athlete’s clothing/shoes

• surface on which the test is conducted

• environmental conditions – wind/rain.

Delivery Methods

Working individually or in pairs, learners can be allocated one or two testing protocols to analyse and then deliver a short presentation to the other learners. If time allows, learners could set up and administer the tests to each other.

Given the specialist nature of many of the testing protocols it would be beneficial to access the expertise of a sport scientist or appropriately qualified personnel. They could be a guest lecturer and deliver the appropriate section on the learning programme. Alternatively, if it was logistically possible, the learners could observe the sport scientist in a work-based environment (professional club, national/regional talent camps, university sports department) administering the tests.


Multiple choice questionnaires; role play; viva voce (oral questioning); written task; case study; poster or flip chart.



Paish, W. (1998) The Complete Manual of Sports Science: A Practical Guide to Applied Sports Science. London: A and C Black. ISBN: 978-0-713648-54-6.


10 Enhancing Recovery


• methods to enhance participant recovery time from session to session

• the principles and different methods of enhancing recovery between sessions.

The information covered is aimed at the knowledge required of UKCC Level 2 and Level 3 coaches.

Common Unit Links

Level 2Unit Number

203

Level 3Unit Number

303


These are knowledge-based learning outcomes and assessment criteria. At Level 2 the emphasis should be on the methods to enhance recovery that can be applied by a Level 2 coach.

Key Information

Recovery

Rest is a very important principle of training as rest and recovery allow the body to adapt to the stresses being placed on it.

Energy stores are replenished and damaged tissue is repaired or replaced in the recovery phase following a physical training session. Heavy training should be followed by lighter training or even total rest. Furthermore, the more intense the training, or the younger the performer, the longer the recovery required.

Recovery does not mean complete rest or inactivity and the following are some methods that can be used to enhance recovery:

• rest

• sleep

• stretching

• appropriate cool-down methods

• eating properly

• replacing fluids

• active recovery (steady specific movement exercises done at low intensity such as swimming, walking or cycling)

• massage.

Providing sufficient recovery is essential to avoid overtraining performers. This can lead to poor performance due to fatigue and increases the likelihood of injuries occurring.

The main physical reasons for these methods are to promote lactate and waste removal and deliver nutrients to muscles via blood flow. As well as physical benefits there may also be psychological ones.

Delivery Methods

This can be delivered using a small-group discussion to identify the methods that coaches use.

In a practical setting, the tutor should use opportunities during coaching sessions to identify the benefits of using methods to enhance recovery. For example, during a cool-down the tutor should identify the reasons why stretching and ‘loose limbs’ are an aid to recovery.


Multiple choice questionnaires; role play; viva voce (oral questioning); case study; poster or flip chart.





Learning programme designers are advised to read the Level 2 section as the information presented there is also appropriate for Level 3.

The QCF assessment criteria linked to this topic requires learners to analyse the principles and different methods of enhancing recovery. To achieve this, the learner should highlight the strengths, weaknesses, benefits, issues, difficulties and relevance to specific sports of the different methods.

Key Information

Methods to Enhance Recovery

There are a number of methods that are used by sportspeople to shorten recovery times and reduce risk of injury, as well as increase speed of recovery from injury. The Level 2 section identifies some examples. Further examples appropriate for the knowledge required of a Level 3 coach include:

• massage

• physical therapies (including spa baths, flotation tanks and saunas)

• ice baths (use only where appropriate, and take any participant medical conditions into account)

• deep-water running (used under supervision of appropriately qualified personnel)

• psychological techniques (including imagery, breathing drills, autogenic relaxation, progressive muscle relaxation).

The above are methods that are used post-training to enhance recovery.

The Level 3 coach should be aware of the methods that can be used to enhance recovery during training. These include the following:

• Fluid intake – athletes should consume an appropriate amount of fluid to replace body fluids lost during activity. This will vary depending on factors such as the intensity of activity and the environment.

• Nutritional intake – performers need to replace lost muscle glycogen through consuming foods made up predominantly of carbohydrates.

• Work:rest ratios – the coach should plan in their session the amount of time spent performing high-intensity activity with time spent resting; the ratio will impact on the performers’ level of fatigue and their ability to recover between bouts of intense activity.

• Dynamic and static stretching – using stretching in both warm-up and cool-down can help performers recover from muscle soreness.

• Low-intensity activities – in the cool-down stage, low-intensity activities such as skipping, jogging or shaking limbs can aid the removal of lactic acid and enhance recovery.

The Level 3 coach should be aware of the principle of overcompensation and its relationship with recovery. The Overcompensation Model indicates that the training should be sufficiently intense (ie overload) to push a performer beyond their comfort zone, causing short-term fatigue and even a drop in performance.

The recovery period is essential to allow the body’s adaptations to occur. If the body systems have been sufficiently overloaded then, during the overcompensation phase, they will gain an increase in capacity.

Delivery Methods

This can be delivered using a small-group discussion to identify the methods that coaches and supporting staff, such as sport scientists and physiotherapists, use.

In a practical setting, the tutor should use opportunities during coaching sessions to identify methods to enhance recovery. For example, when performers are having a drink break, they can discuss the types of fluid that can be used and the benefits (eg replacing lost muscle glycogen).

Given the specialist nature of many of the methods used to enhance recovery, it would be beneficial to access the expertise of a physiotherapist, sport scientist or equivalent appropriately qualified personnel.

They could be a guest lecturer and deliver the appropriate section on the learning programme. Alternatively, if it was logistically possible, the learners could observe the specialist in a work-based environment (eg professional club, national/regional talent camps, university sports dept) implementing recovery methods.


Multiple choice questionnaires; role play; viva voce (oral questioning); case study; poster or flip chart.





11 Behaviour Management


Managing the behaviour of participants in a positive, effective way is a key skill in teaching and coaching in order to optimise learning and enjoyment, and for safety reasons. The position of having participants who present no real challenging behaviour may not always be the case.

Promoting positive behaviour and being able to deal with challenging behaviour when it arises will help ensure that participants benefit fully from the sessions and coaches gain satisfaction from a job well done.

Key aspects of learning to focus on are:

• how to create a learning environment that promotes, reinforces and develops positive behaviour

• why unwanted behaviour occurs

• how to deal with challenging behaviour when it occurs.

Groups and individuals will vary in terms of their needs and behaviours. Although general principles and relevant strategies can be set out, what works with one person or group may not be so successful with others. It is the ability to know participants and be able to read the situation that will be key to managing behaviour effectively.

Please note that these standards are not aimed at addressing more extreme behaviours such as violent conduct, substance misuse, addictions or dealing with participants who have severe behaviour issues. The standards are designed to address the more common, day-to-day behaviour management issues faced by coaches that may be described as irritating or detracting from a positive learning environment.

As with all coaching, putting good thought and effort into planning and preparation is a useful place to start. However, this will only help to address behaviour management issues if learning is used from previous sessions to inform current planning and preparation. So being a keen observer and reflecting on sessions as they progress, as well as at the end, is important in diagnosing any behaviour issues and being able to plan and implement effective strategies to address them.

Specific areas of learning for coaches are as follows:

• setting the right environment and creating the mood

• behaviour policies and codes

• theories and approaches to behaviour management

• principles of positive behaviour management

• communication – verbal and non-verbal

• specific behaviour strategies and techniques

• working with others.

Common Unit Links

Level 1101.1, 103.1.3, 103.2

Level 2201.3, 201.4, 203.3, 206.3.4, 207.1.6

Level 3301.2, 306.2, 306.3

Level 1Key Considerations

Learning programme designers need to consider the nature of their sport, the different coaching contexts (eg age of participants and the level of the teacher/coach they are targeting) in deciding the appropriate content and depth in relation to behaviour management.

At Level 1, for most sports, it will be appropriate to focus on the teacher/coach’s basic organisation, observation and communication skills. If sessions are active and progressive, fundamental observation and communication skills must be demonstrated. This will ensure that the basics are in place to minimise the potential for challenging or disruptive behaviour to occur.

Coaches should understand that they do not necessarily need to intervene if they witness challenging or disruptive behaviour and that they could simply report the issue to a more experienced, qualified coach who may be better placed to deal with the situation.

Key Areas

Depending on the personal background and experience of coaches, there may be only their ‘common sense’ to rely on as a starting point. However, coaches may have experience of managing behaviour as parents, teachers, youth workers etc, and this can be a useful foundation from which to develop.

The following knowledge and skills would be relevant:

• planning sessions that optimise activity (no waiting etc) and follow a logical skill progression

• communicating what is required in clear, concise terms and reinforcing key points as appropriate

• scanning/observing the group to identify any potential behaviour issues

• knowing what rewards and sanctions are commonly employed

• understanding their role.

Delivery Methods

At Level 1, this topic lends itself to delivery in the classroom setting with a variety of common scenarios being explored. Role-play work with peers during training would be useful and, where possible, in the practical setting with the participants they are coaching.

Assessment of the behaviour management area lends itself to:

• the use of answers to scenario-type questions

• planning activities where session planners are examined for potential behaviour management issues

• practical analysis tasks (eg of recorded situations where context is analysed and potential strategies addressed)

• observation and review of simulated or actual practical sessions.



At Level 2, coaches must understand their role as being qualified to lead sessions independently, which might also involve coordinating the work of coaching assistants working with them and under their direction.

The availability of other, supporting coaches is an important factor to consider in determining what needs to be addressed at Level 2. Coaches need to develop their own knowledge, understanding and skills in relation to behaviour management but also need to know how best to deploy, monitor and coordinate any other supporting coaches working with them.

Key Areas

Level 2 coaches must have a good understanding and develop relevant skills in the following areas:

• planning active, progressive sessions that take into account the effective deployment and monitoring of any other support coaches present

• behaviour policies and codes set out by the governing body of sport, club, local authority or other relevant organisation

• effective communication – verbal and non-verbal

• setting the right environment and creating a positive learning experience

• principles of positive behaviour management.

Delivery Methods

The topic of behaviour management lends itself to discussion of key principles and issues allied with the identification and implementation of effective strategies – the practical application. Specific situations can be captured on video for discussion and analysis or role-played in a safe environment using peers or other participants who have been suitably briefed.

Assessment of behaviour management lends itself to:

• the use of answers to scenario-type questions – some of which may involve how to support coaching assistants rather than the Level 2 coach dealing with the participant’s behaviour directly

• planning activities where session planners are examined for potential behaviour management issues


• observation and review of simulated or actual practical sessions

• coaches presenting real behaviour management issues they have experienced, reviewing the situations, evaluating the effectiveness of their actions and identifying any key learning points from the experience.

Further ReadingEarle, C. (2008) Coaching Young Performers. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-902523-56-9.

Fuller, N., Chapman, J. and Jolly, S. (2009) Positive Behaviour Management in Sport. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-905540-67-9.

Haskins, D. (2010) Coaching the Whole Child: Positive Development Through Sport. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-1905540-78-5.

Haskins, D. (2012) How to Deliver Engaging Sessions. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-909012-06-6.

www.nspcc.org.uk/inform/cpsu/resources/briefings/managingchallengingbehaviour – Guidance from the Child Protection in Sport Unit (CPSU) on managing challenging behaviour:



As Level 3 coaches may fulfil a ‘club coach’ role, they must be prepared not only to address any behaviour management issues that arise directly within their own coaching but also to support other coaches and assistants within their coaching team to address issues that may arise with their coaching.

When fulfilling a ‘club coach’ role, Level 3 coaches are key to ensuring that any relevant codes of conduct are understood, implemented and reinforced by all coaches within their coaching context.

In addition to those aspects covered at Levels 1 and 2, understanding how to set about developing a particular club or squad ethos, with attendant ground rules for behaviour, setting out what is to be encouraged and discouraged, must be understood.

Key Areas

Level 3 coaches must have a good understanding and develop relevant skills in the following areas:

• behaviour policies and codes set out by the governing body of sport, club, local authority or other relevant organisation – what these mean in practice and how they are reflected in all coaching

• effective communication, both verbal and non-verbal, in order to minimise the potential for disruptive behaviour and to address it when it arises

• setting the right environment and creating a positive learning experience

• theories and approaches to behaviour management – to understand why challenging or disruptive behaviour may occur

• specific behaviour strategies and techniques – for a variety of different participant groups

• working with others – parents, administrators, officials – to ensure key principles identified in terms of relevant codes of behaviour are being implemented and reinforced.

Delivery Methods

As at the previous levels, the topic of behaviour management lends itself to discussion of key principles and issues allied to the identification and implementation of effective strategies – the practical application.

Specific situations can also be captured on video for discussion and analysis or role-played in a safe environment using peers or other participants who have been suitably briefed.

Observation and performance management lends itself to assessment by:

• the use of answers to scenario-type questions – some of which may involve how to support other coaches rather than the Level 3 coach dealing with the participant’s behaviour directly

• planning activities where session planners are designed to address potential behaviour management issues


• observation and review of simulated or actual practical sessions

• coaches presenting real behaviour management issues they have experienced, reviewing the situations, evaluating the effectiveness of their actions and identifying any key learning points from the experience

• reflective coaching logs that identify and evaluate behaviour management issues over time, show learning from experience, a good grasp of underlying theories and principles and the implementation of sound strategies.

Further ReadingFuller, N., Chapman, J. and Jolly, S. (2009) Positive Behaviour Management in Sport. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-905540-67-9.

Haskins, D. (2010) Coaching the Whole Child: Positive Development Through Sport. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-1905540-78-5.

Haskins, D. (2012) How to Deliver Engaging Sessions. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-909012-06-6.

www.nspcc.org.uk/inform/cpsu/resources/briefings/managingchallengingbehaviour – Guidance from the Child Protection in Sport Unit (CPSU) on managing challenging behaviour.


12 Evaluating Coaching Sessions


Evaluating coaching sessions is a key coaching skill to ensure the ongoing development of the coach and participants. While planning and delivering a coaching session are undertaken, the evaluation or review stage of the coaching process is often neglected.

Coaches need to understand that the evaluation stage of a session provides valuable feedback on the performance of both the participant and coach. This then feeds into the next stage of planning.

Within the learning programme, time needs to be dedicated to ensuring the learner understands and appreciates the value of investing time in evaluating how sessions have gone and recording thoughts for future reference. This helps to identify activities to repeat and/or avoid in the future, and so strengthen their role as an effective coach.

Common Unit Links

Level 1Unit Number

104, 105, 106

Key Questions (for consideration when designing learning programmes)

For the learner to improve, they need the skills to analyse their behaviour and the reasons for their behaviour. They should review these against what they already know about skilled coaching and how they understand a skilled coach should act. Doing this will help them to decide what they would like to do to improve or change.

Learners need to understand that changing behaviour is usually neither quick nor easy, but is essential in their journey towards becoming an excellent coach at whatever level they wish to operate.

Learners should take time to reflect on the following questions:

• How can you accurately describe how you coach?

• How can you explain why you behave the way you do?

• How much does it vary from situation to situation?

Key Information

The initial stages of evaluation need to include a comparison between what was delivered and what was planned. The learner needs to be aware that having to make changes to their delivery to meet the needs of their participants during the session is a positive coaching skill. Coaches need to record why and how any changes to their plans took place.

Along with self-reflection, one of the key parts of evaluating a coaching session is gathering feedback from participants, coaches and others involved in the session. Things to think about include:

• reviewing the planning and delivery of the coaching session

• reviewing the outcomes of the session, feedback from participants, coaches and others involved in the session

• identifying whether goals for the session were met

• identifying how effective the delivered activities were

• identifying their management of the session, including health, safety and welfare issues

• identifying ways to improve future coaching sessions

• discussing their evaluation and feedback with colleagues

• recording their evaluation for future reference

• reflecting on what they have learnt in future planning and coaching.

Coaches need to understand that a session evaluation has to be integrated into the planning stage and conducted in a timely manner once the session has been completed. It can also be a useful tool for reflection at the beginning of a session to emphasise where improvements and changes can be made.

Below is an example of the evaluation part of a coaching session plan. Learners should be made aware of the rationale behind completing each section and that it is not simply a paperwork exercise but a useful tool for their ongoing development as a coach. There are three key elements to session evaluation, which are:

• session evaluation

• feedback from participants and others

• self-evaluation.

What are the Benefits of Evaluation?The evaluation of sessions should be promoted as a valuable development tool for both the coach and participant for a number of reasons, including:

• improved coach and participant performance

• the identification of areas for improvement and development

• the identification and assessment of where improvements take place

• a measureable assessment of the success of a training programme

• the development of participant-centred, developmental training programmes

• motivated participants and coaches working at an appropriate level.


Observation, viva voce, poster/flip chart, oral questioning.

Evaluation of Session

Were the goals/objectives met? How?

This section should look at how the learner addressed the session goals, if the participants understood the session goals and if they carried out the activity correctly.

Would you change anything?

The learner should list here any exercises or explanations that did not work/help meet the goals of the session, and how they would change them to improve the session (eg different demonstrations).

This is an opportunity for the learner to reflect on how they explained the activity to their participants. Did they understand immediately or did the coach need to use a different coaching method for them to understand the activity? How would the coach have done things differently if they were to run the session again?

Feedback on the Activity/Session

Feedback from participants

(How was this received?)

The learner should list how they received feedback (eg through question and answer, written feedback)

What feedback did the coach receive from participants before, during and after the session? Even if they didn’t ask for formal feedback, were participants given the opportunity to ask questions, feed back about their understanding and give their opinion about how they felt the session was going? If the learner failed to receive or log any feedback from participants, how would they do this differently next time?

Feedback from others

(How was this received?)

The learner should list how they received feedback (eg through question and answer, written feedback)

Did the coach receive feedback from any other people involved in the session, such as lead coaches, mentors etc? How was this feedback received? Was it useful and how will they use it to improve and develop their sessions in the future?

Self-evaluation Areas of Strength Areas of Weakness

Areas of strength/weakness

The learner should think about how they engage with their participants. They should reflect on the ‘essential and desirable’ traits of a coach. How many of these skills did they use during their session? What were the positive aspects of their session plan? What do they feel their strongest coaching skill is?

Coaches often find it difficult to reflect on their coaching practices, but we expect it of our participants so we should do it ourselves too in order to improve.

This feedback should help the coach to develop an action plan. They should list what they do/ not do so well (eg ‘My explanation of the exercise did not work very well. I could have used a demonstration so I didn’t have to explain things three times). Did they take into account the needs of the participants throughout the session?

Priorities for own personal development/action plan

What will the coach do to make their coaching better (eg shadow other coaches to see how they explain exercises, develop a range of methods of communication)?

Level 2 Unit Number

201, 202, 203 and 204

The reasons for planning are as stated for Level 1, but the evaluation is more sophisticated over a period of coaching.

Level 2 coaches will evaluate a block of coaching and individual session plans. Level 2 coaches will be planning with a team and often are coaches responsible for planning linked sessions.

The QCF requires a Level 2 coach to plan four linked sessions to show that they can plan progressive sessions on a theme. This is often asked for in a block planner that shows the outline plan, and then the four plans are required in detail to be delivered and evaluated at each stage and any adaptations to the overall block planner noted and reasons explained, such as the need of the athlete and various external circumstances or as a result of competition where performance might change the focus of future sessions.

When developing a qualification, consider that coaches need to understand the following:

• What is the purpose of developing an action plan for personal development?

• What are the key principles of evaluation?

• What factors should the coach consider when self-evaluating their coaching sessions?

• What areas for improvement might they include in an action plan?

• How often would they revisit your action plan?

Key Information to Consider about Evaluation:

• Preparation for the coaching session

• Conducting the coaching session

• Coaches’ knowledge/technical competence

• Self-reflection/coach evaluation of the session.

Coaching Session Checklist

PreparationThe Coach:

• organised the facilities, resources and equipment for the coaching session

• checked facilities and equipment for safety

• familiarised him/herself with the emergency procedures for the venue

Conducting SessionThe Coach:

• welcomed the group

• considered safety and control

• outlined session of planned activities

• clarified rules

• performed warm-up

• gave clear and accurate demonstrations

• set goals

• observed performance

• identified and corrected errors

• fed back to participants

• motivated the group

• responded to individual needs

• provided technically sound information/advice to participants

• developed skills in a progressive way

• linked technical and tactical skills into game situations

• selected and modified small-game situations to enhance learning

• concluded the session with a summary and cool-down

• communicated clearly with the group

• demonstrated effective time management

• established and maintained good relationships with participants

• coached the session in line with the sport’s code of practice/sports coach UK Code of Practice for Sports Coaches.

EvaluationThe Coach:

• reviewed all aspects of sessions and sought the views of participants and others involved

• effectively evaluated all aspects of sessions and identified ways in which they might be improved

• produced an action plan that identified improvements for future coaching sessions.

Level 3 Unit Number

301. 4, 302, 303, 304 310.1

Key Things to Consider about Evaluation at Level 3:

• advantages of self-reflection

• potential to improve own coaching ability

• when and how to seek feedback from others

• personal action planning

• use evaluation to improve the programme/session.

This is similar to Level 2 but in a more sophisticated format, and coaches are often working with support staff. Others who might contribute to this evaluation are:

• assistant coaches

• fitness/strength and conditioning coach

• specialist position coach for a sport (eg goalkeeper, wicketkeeper)

• captain

• manager

• performers.

The Level 3 coach will evaluate:

• the season plan – macrocycle

• 6–10-week blocks or chunks – mesocycle (depends on the sport)

• individual units or sessions – microcycle.

These will be linked to player profiling of technical and tactical goals, physiological and psychological goals. Within a team sport, there may be much differentiation that needs to be planned and well evaluated to inform the next session.

Evaluating a Coaching Programme at Level 3

A key aspect of effective Level 3 coaching is to make interventions that make a difference to the athletes’ performance.

Provide three (minimum of two) player evaluations of the training programme:

• seasonal

• mesocycles

• subsequent individual sessions.

Coaches should review the coaching programme they have planned and delivered for each cycle.

Possible aspects to evaluate include:

• setting goals

• psychological aspect

• physiological aspect

• technical aspect

• tactical aspect

• coaching styles

• coaching methods

• balance and structure of the programme

• methods of monitoring and evaluation – discussions, video, tapes, reports

• the role, purpose and benefits of performance analysis to inform coaching practice

• monitoring and evaluating working with others.

Level 3 Self-reflection Questions

• Were the goals/objectives met? How?

• Would you change anything?

• Did you receive feedback from others?

• What was the method of feedback and who was it from?

• What were your areas of strength?

• What are your priorities for your own personal development/ action plan?

Level 3 Assessment Criteria

PreparationThe Coach:

• organised the facilities, resources and equipment for the coaching session

• checked facilities and equipment for safety

• familiarised him/herself with the emergency procedures for the venue.

Conducting the SessionThe Coach:

• welcomed the group

• considered safety and control

• outlined session of planned activities

• clarified rules

• ensured physical and mental readiness

• performed warm-up

• gave clear and accurate demonstrations

• set goals

• observed performance

• identified and corrected errors

• fed back to participants

• motivated group

• helped players to set realistic goals for the activities

• observed and analysed players’ performance and identified and corrected errors

• intervened at appropriate points with coaching points for individual players on their performance

• intervened at appropriate points with coaching points for groups of players on their performance

• encouraged and enabled players to reflect on learning and how to apply it to improve their own performance

• concluded the session with a summary and cool-down

• communicated clearly with the group

• demonstrated effective time management

• established and maintained good relationships with participants

• coached the session in line with the sport’s code of practice/sports coach UK Code of Practice for Sports Coaches.

Technical CompetenceThe Coach:

• provided technically sound information/advice to participants

• developed skills in a progressive way

• used a number of practice routines to add variety

• linked technical and tactical awareness into game situations

• selected and modified small-game situations to enhance learning.

EvaluationThe Coach:

• reviewed all aspects of sessions and sought the views of participants and others involved

• effectively evaluated all aspects of sessions and identified ways in which they might be improved

• produced an action plan that identified improvements for future coaching sessions.

Practical Assessment Guidance – The Seven Steps

1 Planning and Preparation

Consider:

• exactly what is being assessed

• the sport’s technical standards

• what makes up an assessment

• the paperwork that needs to be prepared

• anything you need to know about the coach

• the date, venue and timing of the assessment

• facilities that need to be organised and prepared

• equipment that will be needed

• health and safety requirements, plus risk assessments and first aid.

NB: Some of the organisation may well be the responsibility of others (eg the course organiser or the coach). However, it is always advisable to check arrangements to ensure the smooth running of the assessment(s).

2 Briefing• Set the scene and the ‘climate’ – ‘professional’ but friendly.

• Discuss and agree the assessment plan with the coach – what is being assessed, who is being coached, methods of assessment, any specific needs of the coach or players, health and safety requirements, facility requirements, timings.

• Brief the coach on procedures and timing. Give clear and accurate information.

3 Observation and Analysis• Be as unobtrusive as possible when observing the assessment, but

make sure you can see from a range of angles and hear what is being said.

• Do not intervene unless safety is compromised.

• Only use the specified criteria to assess.

• Only assess what the coach actually does and what you actually see.

• Complete the observation summary sheets while observation is in progress. Start to transfer evidence into judgements on the criteria checklist.

• Coach then completes their self-evaluation form.

• Study, examine and analyse the evidence (reads coach’s self-evaluation).

4 Questioning (the viva)• Questions are used to determine competence.

• Questions are used simply to find out what the coach knows and understands – they should not be designed to catch people out.

• Question only on the agreed criteria and the agreed areas to be assessed.

• Try to get the coach to self-evaluate as much as possible – avoid telling them your opinions! Start with a question such as: ‘What were you pleased with in that session?’ Then later use: ‘If you were to take the session again, is there something you might change?’

• Questions must be clear and unambiguous.

• Avoid ‘leading’ questions. Questions should focus on specific areas but be open and searching in order to judge underpinning knowledge and competence.

• Structure and use questions that start with ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘how’.

• Take account of any special needs.

5 Decision and Feedback• At this point, you will have decided whether or not the coach has

met the criteria or not – ‘competent’ or ‘not yet competent’.

• Give feedback as soon as possible.

• Involve the coach in this feedback. Use their self-evaluation to proceed together. Ask relevant questions.

• It is important that the coach takes some responsibility for their performance and the outcome of their session. Their self-reflection, combined with your questioning and listening skills, will aid this analysis.

6 Action Planning• Feedback can provide help in determining the coach’s next

moves so action planning comes immediately after feedback.

• The action plan is the time to look forward and consider the future – it is really a goal-setting exercise with the coach (SMARTER: S = specific; M = measurable; A = agreed; R = realistic; T = time-phased; E = evaluated; R=recorded).

• The action plan should be designed to ensure that opportunities for further development are signposted, negotiated, agreed and recorded.

7 Documentation• All assessment forms are then signed by both assessor and coach

on the day.


13 Working with Others


Working with others has become much more important in coaching in recent years. There are now more examples of coaching teams being established and operating rather than individual coaches working in isolation. Also the importance of coaches communicating and developing effective working relationships with others (parents, administrators, officials, sport scientists and teachers) has been recognised as an important secondary role that supports the primary role of working directly with participants.

It is self-evident that coaches must be able to establish effective working relationships with their participants, and fellow coaches/support staff. However, coaches must understand and appreciate the boundaries between friendship and working relationships.

At times, there may need to be some ‘social distance’ established between the coach and the participants as indeed there may need to be between the coach and other coaches/support staff.

Coaches need to ensure that everyone with whom they work is treated equally and professionally. Coaches need to ensure that their actions cannot be misinterpreted where young athletes are concerned, especially in a group.

Developing effective working relationships with others will not only support learners’ coaching, but ensure that they derive more professional satisfaction and enjoyment from their work.

Key aspects of learning are:

• developing effective working relationships

• understanding roles and responsibilities

• knowing the implications of the relevant codes of conduct for coaches and other support staff

• interpersonal and communication skills

• equality, inclusion and diversity

• developing effective working teams

• leadership and delegation.

Common Unit Links

Level 1101.1, 101.2, 102.1.3, 104.1.3, 104.2, 107.1, 107.2

Level 2201.1.3, 201.1.7, 201.1.8, 201.1.9, 206.3, 207, 208.1

Level 3301.1.2, 301.1.7, 306.2, 306.3, 308

Level 1Key Considerations (when designing learning programmes)

Learning programme designers need to consider the nature of their sport, the different coaching contexts (eg age of participants and the level of the teacher/coach they are targeting) in deciding the appropriate content and depth in relation to working with others.

At Level 1, for most sports, it will be appropriate to focus purely on the coaches’ primary relationship with the participants. Communicating effectively and bringing good interpersonal skills to bear on their coaching will provide the foundation for developing sound relationships with their participants. If they are coaching children then it is useful to consider how they may need to interact with parents.

Key Areas

One advantage of this area is that everyone will have some experience of working with others on which to base discussion. First, Level 1 coaches need to understand their role and responsibilities – working with more experienced and qualified coaches to deliver the best experience they can for the participants in their sport.

Specific roles and responsibilities will be set out by the governing body of sport. In addition, each club may have its particular way of working that limits or extends the extent to which that coach needs to work with other coaches and support staff in their day-to-day coaching.

Whether or not a Level 1 coach is required to work with other members of a coaching team will vary depending on the specific coaching context, but what remains constant is the necessity for the coach to work effectively with participants.


• communicating effectively – giving clear, concise instructions, encouragement and positive feedback

• developing positive relationships – adopting a participant-centred approach, getting to know their participants, identifying needs and interests

• safeguarding and protecting children (SPC) – for those coaches working with children.

Delivery Methods

At Level 1, this topic lends itself to input and discussion in the classroom setting complemented by practical application – either simulated with peers or with participants, if available. As identified previously, the focus should be on the primary role of working with participants and building effective working relationships with them.

Thus there will be some variation depending on the participant group the Level 1 coaches are working with (eg working with children has different demands to working with adults).

Assessment of working with others lends itself to:

• practical observation tasks (eg of recorded activities)

• scenarios/case studies where the coaches have to describe how they respond in certain situations when working directly with participants

• shorter answers to questions about key principles and issues (eg safeguarding and child protection).

Further ReadingCoaching codes of practice – generic sports coach UK version and sport-specific version set out by the governing body of sport

Kirkland, S. (2009) Equity in Your Coaching. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-905540-80-8.

Slinn, N. (2009) Safeguarding and Protecting Children: a guide for sportspeople. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-905540-26-6.



At Level 2, coaches will have to consider not only working with their participants but also working with other coaches, assistants and other support staff. Level 2 coaches may be required to direct the work of coaching assistants and perhaps even head up a coaching team.

Although a secondary role to working with participants, it is a very important role and one that, if undertaken effectively, will support participant development. If Level 2 coaches do work

as part of an effective team, they will experience even greater professional satisfaction and enjoyment in their coaching.

Key Areas


• communication skills – listening, questioning, explaining and providing constructive feedback

• building effective relationships and teams – clarifying roles and responsibilities, empathy


• equality, inclusion and diversity.

Delivery Methods

At Level 2, this topic lends itself to input and discussion in the classroom setting complemented by practical application – either with peers or with participants, if available.

Although the focus should remain on the primary role of working with participants and building effective working relationships with them, some time needs to be devoted to the additional demands that working as part of a coaching team may make.

There will be some variation depending on the participant group the Level 2 coaches are working with (eg if they are working with children, this will make different demands than working with adults).



• scenarios/case studies where the coaches have to describe how they respond in certain situations when working with participants and/or others

• shorter answers to questions about key principles and issues (eg safeguarding and child protection)

• reflective logs on how specific issues about working with others have been addressed.

Further ReadingCoaching codes of practice – generic sports coach UK version and sport-specific version set out by the governing body of sport.

Fuller, N., Chapman, J. and Jolly, S. (2009) Positive Behaviour Management in Sport. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-905540-67-9.

Kirkland, S. (2009) Equity in Your Coaching. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-905540-80-8.

Slinn, N. (2009) Safeguarding and Protecting Children: a guide for sportspeople. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-905540-26-6.



At Level 3, coaches will have to consider not only working with their participants but also working with other coaches, assistants and other support staff. As more coaches achieve the Level 3 qualification, this may become the benchmark level for ‘club coaches’ who not only work with participants but also lead the work of a coaching team and routinely need to work with others such as administrators, officials and support staff. Working with others in a harmonious and effective way will become a key part of the Level 3 coaches’ work and should enhance professional satisfaction and increase enjoyment in their coaching – as well as support the development of participants.

Key Areas


• developing effective working relationships

• understanding roles and responsibilities


• interpersonal and communication skills

• equality, inclusion and diversity

• developing effective working teams

• leadership and delegation.

Delivery Methods

At Level 3, this topic lends itself to more detailed input and critical discussion in the classroom setting. This should be complemented by practical application – either simulated with peers or with participants if available. Although working with participants and building effective working relationships with them should remain a clear priority, more time needs to be devoted to the additional demands that either leading or working as part of a coaching team may make. The different contexts in which the Level 3 coaches work will determine the specific nature of the content and discussions.



• scenarios/case studies where the coaches have to describe how they respond in certain situations when working with participants and/or others

• critically reflective logs on how specific issues about working with others have been addressed and what key learning points have been identified.

Further ReadingMiles, A. (2004) ‘The coaching process’, in What is Sports Coaching? Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-902523-51-4.

Whitehead, M. and Pack, K. (2010) ‘Working with others to achieve aims’, in Capel, S. and Whitehead, M. (eds) Learning to Teach Physical Education in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. 3rd edition. London: Routledge. ISBN: 978-0415561-64-8.

www.structuredtraining.com/news_and_articles/making_teams_work.htm – Guidance on what makes an effective team.


14 Principles of Training

IntroductionThis content guidance sheet is designed to provide learning programme designers with enough scope to develop assessment tasks; however, some sports may decide that more in-depth information is required.

Common Unit Links

Level 1102.1.4

Level 2202.1.4, 202.2, 202.3, 202.4, 203.2

Level 3302.1, 303.1, 302.2.3, 302.3.4, 302.3.5

Key Information

Principles of Training

For any training programme to be effective, it must facilitate the process of adaptation. Under the right conditions, the body and mind will react to the stresses imposed in training by increasing their capacity to cope with such stress. This is the process of adaptation and it explains the training effect.

The process of adaptation is governed by the principles of training, which apply to all of the components of performance, whether physical, technical, tactical or mental. Programmes of training are constructed by applying the principles of conditioning to the components of performance.

The major objective in training is to facilitate physical and psychological adaptations so the performance will be improved in specific tasks. These adaptations are governed by the following principles:

Individual differences

Different people will react to training in different ways. Some performers will learn and adapt slowly while others need relatively little stimulus to gain large increases in performance. This can be due to factors such as previous participation in sport and physical activities, levels of fitness, stage of maturity, age, gender, genetics, nutrition, rest and recovery.

Progression The training load should be progressively increased to account for the increased capacity of the performer. Performance will improve through participation in training sessions, but if this performance is to continue to progress, greater demands must be placed on performers. Remember that slow and steady progress with gradual increases in volume, intensity and technical difficulty is most appropriate. For this to occur, the physical and technical difficulty of the session, or series of sessions, should be progressively and gradually increased over an appropriate period of time. However, if the difficulty within, or over the series of sessions is increased too quickly, performers will not have time to adapt and learn, and this may result in injury, fatigue or demotivation.

Adaptation The body and mind adapt to training stresses by increasing their ability to cope with such stresses. Regular participation in activities can result in adaptations in respiration, circulation and heart function, improved muscular strength and endurance, stronger bones and tougher connective tissues and improved skill and coordination. The changes that occur physically are very small and may not be immediately evident, whereas technical improvements can occur much faster and improvements tend to be easier to observe. It takes time to adapt to the physical demands exercise places on the body; however, in the following weeks and months, the changes become evident. The body adapts slowly, and the process cannot be rushed by placing inappropriate demands on performers as this may cause prolonged fatigue, illness and injury.

Specificity The adaptation brought on by training will be specific to the type of training undertaken. Whatever programme is devised for performers, it must be tailored to suit the physical and technical demands of the sport or desired outcome.

Variation Training should be varied, as constant training of the same type will lead to a stage of diminishing returns. Also, performers can become bored or stale if there is little variety, which can lead to an increased risk of accidents due to reduced concentration and will almost certainly lead to poor performance. Sessions that require only one component of fitness are more likely to develop unbalanced performers in terms of their fitness or technique development. Sessions should be varied and focused on developing a range of techniques and components of fitness.

Reversibility Training effects will be lost if they are not maintained. Reversibility can occur as a result of a reduction in the number or intensity of sessions in which performers participate or if they stop participating completely. The effects of reversibility apply to learning techniques and maintaining skill as performers will show a reduction in their level of skill if a particular technique is not constantly practised. Aerobic endurance can be lost at a faster rate than the other components of fitness (gains can be lost in a third of the time it took to achieve them). Strength declines more slowly, but a lack of exercise will still lead to a reduction in muscle power.

Recovery Recovery becomes increasingly important as training load increases. As performers develop, more components of performance are added to their programme and their training load increases in each. Recovery then becomes a vital aspect of preparation. Recovery enables the body to replenish energy stores and repair or replace damaged tissue. If appropriate recovery time is not allowed, then progression will be limited or may even be reversed as a result of overtraining.

Long-term planning

The effects of taking part in activity sessions on a day-to-day basis are small and virtually undetectable; therefore the accumulation of these small adaptions into noticeable performance enhancements takes time. Planning is a vital part of achieving these performance enhancements as the sessions and activities need to be correctly sequenced and delivered at an appropriate time. The time allocated to achieving these performance increases (goals) also needs to be realistic or they will not be achieved.

Overload For optimal effect, the training load must exceed that normally experienced by the performer. For a series of sessions to be effective, they must place increasing demands on performers. If the demands of participating in the sessions remain the same, then their performance will be maintained rather than improved. This is sometimes described as the law of diminishing returns. Achieving the appropriate overload requires the skilful manipulation of training volume and intensity. The volume of training will be determined by the frequency and duration of training sessions. The intensity of the training sessions is a measure of how close your performers are performing to their maximum ability. These three variables – frequency, intensity and time – will be used to determine the appropriate training level. This is often referred to as the FIT principle.

The FIT Principle

There are three variables that determine the level at which a performer will be working – frequency, intensity and time. It is how these variables are combined that will determine which component of fitness is required to participate in the session (or will be developed by participating in the session). It is important to consider these variables when planning the content of a session or a series of sessions, to improve performance:

• frequency (how often)

• intensity (how hard)

• time (how long).

Volume is a combination of the frequency and duration of the sessions. It is the manipulation of volume and intensity that will determine the component of fitness required to participate in the session. The volume should always start low and progress slowly over time, depending on the performer’s ability and state of fitness.

Coaches also need to consider the total volume of sports participation undertaken by each performer, to ensure they do not overload performers. This is particularly important when coaching young people, as they may participate in several different sports.

Overtraining can occur if the overall load placed on performers both within a session and/or over a series of sessions exceeds their capabilities. Coaches should also be alert to the signs and symptoms of overtraining, particularly when coaching talented performers as they tend to be involved in a number of sports.

Signs and symptoms of overtraining include:

• reduced performance in activity sessions

• loss of weight

• loss of appetite

• muscle soreness/tenderness

• increased susceptibility to illness

• sleeping difficulties

• slow recovery from participating in activity sessions

• general irritability

• increased heart rate at low training intensities.

As long as coaches and performers communicate with each other regarding training loads and other sports participation, the possibility of overtraining will be significantly reduced. It is important to remember that each performer is an individual and will respond to training differently. A volume of training that is suitable for one performer may be inappropriate for another.


• Production of sample training programmes and/or sessions

• Written/scenario-based questions

• Multiple choice/short answer questions.

Further ReadingBompa, T.O. and Carrera, M. (2005) Periodisation Training for Sports – Science-Based Strength and Conditioning Plans for 17 Sports. 2nd edition. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. ISBN: 978-0-736055-59-8.

Bompa, T.O. and Haff, G.G. (2009) Periodisation – Theory and Methodology of Training. 5th edition. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. ISBN: 978-0-736074-83-4.

Dick, F.W. (2007) Sports Training Principles. 5th edition. London: A & C Black. ISBN: 978-0-713682-78-6.

Governing body of sport-specific coach education resources.

Mujika, I. (2009) Tapering and Peaking for Optimal Performance. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. ISBN: 978-0-736074-84-1.

Pankhurst, A. (2007) Planning and Periodisation. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-905540-43-3.



A sports coach is responsible for the safety and well-being of their athletes and participants at all times; children and vulnerable people especially. To keep their participants safe, the coach has to consider how health and safety issues – in relation to the planned activity/session or programme, physical environment, facilities, equipment and other participants – can impact on the individual and session. They must have appropriate strategies to manage this.

Health and safety issues will need to be identified before the activity/session or programme and on an ongoing basis throughout the session. Typically, this is done through a risk assessment, which is conducted by the coach. Identifying risks/hazards, both potential and actual, relies on the coach employing good observation and analysis skills and working in a solution-focused manner. They need to be able to look at and appraise their planning, the coaching environment, identify the various risks/hazards that could occur and plan forward to either remove the risk or reduce the likelihood of it happening. Coaches must also know how to manage situations appropriately and effectively should they arise.

There are five steps to risk assessment that a coach must be familiar with:

• Identify the hazards.

• Decide who may be harmed and how.

• Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions.

• Record their findings and implement them.

• Review their assessment and update if necessary.

How these steps are employed at the various coaching levels will vary, but the principles will be the same.

When integrating the concept and practice of ‘safety’ into the learning programme, the designer must first consider what level the coach is working at, what environment they will be working in, the length of the activity/session or programme they are engaged in and how much responsibility they will be assuming with regard to the health, safety and well-being of all the participants.

15 Working in a Safe Environment

Typically at Level 1, assuming the coach is working in either an assistant capacity or under the direction of a head coach, the coach’s health and safety focus is restricted to the activity/session they are delivering and the activity area they are working in. At Level 2, coaches are more likely to be working remotely and independently and as such have to assume sole responsibility for the health and safety of participants within that coaching environment. At Level 3, coaches are working with athletes over an extended period of time, and the responsibility of the coach at this level is extended to ensure that they can manage safe and effective coaching programmes, as well as the athlete and the environment within which they are working.

This content guidance sheet will help designers to consider what to integrate into the learning programme in terms of need-to-know content, how to give coaches the opportunity to apply their knowledge and new skills practically, and consider how best this knowledge/skills can be assessed.

Common Unit Links

Level 1101.3, 102.2, 102.3.2, 102.3.3, 102.3.4, 103.1.2, 105.2, 106.1.1

Level 2202.1.2, 204.1.1, 204.1.5, 204.2.5, 206.1, 207.1.4, 208.2.5

Level 3306.1, 308.1.4, 30.1.5, 308.1.9

Level 1Key Information

At Level 1, coaches need to know how to establish and maintain a safe coaching environment. More specifically, they need to be able to focus overtly on safety as part of their planning, delivery and evaluation and ensure that the:

• coaching environment or activity area has been risk assessed

• facilities and equipment are safe and appropriate to use

• participants are ready to participate.

Key Questions

At Level 1, the amount of face-to-face contact time is notoriously tight. The question for designers is how much of the need-to-know content can be delivered through alternative mechanisms (eg the sports coach UK ‘Safeguarding and Protecting Children’ workshop or first aid training courses). Some sports insist that coaches have attended this as part of the prerequisites for entry on to the Level 1 course. This prerequisite does then liberate more time on course to focus on the practical application of this learning.

Are you in a position to adopt the same approach? If so, you should consider which pieces of learning are addressed directly through that workshop and which you need to focus on as a key feature of your Level 1.

Given the generic nature of these workshops, your focus on the learning programme will no doubt centre on the sport-specific application of these generic principles in the coach’s own environment. How to deliver the need-to-know content to the coaches is a key consideration. Can this be facilitated through supporting resources (eg coach handbook/manual/handouts), via self-directed learning, on course during the face-to-face workshop, or is this a mix of all three?

Delivery Methods

Typically, ‘health and safety’ has been delivered in a classroom context somewhat detached from the practical environment and viewed as a relatively dry topic, often difficult to make interesting and relevant to coaches. In a bid to ensure coaches can apply their new knowledge and skills, you will need to consider how you could take their learning and apply this practically.

How could you use the practical space or visual images of different practical spaces littered with intentional health and safety issues to support the learning? Could coaches be encouraged to undertake risk assessments in their own coaching environment? How could various different health and safety scenarios be used to challenge coaches to think, react and respond? Are you in a position to set up group work and discussions or simulated situations and role plays? Ensuring that coaches can reflect on how effective they have been is key to support ongoing learning and development.

Remember too that assessment can also form a vital part of the learning and the coach’s development. Assessment of safe practice can be undertaken using a variety of tools:

• short answer or multiple choice questions on basic knowledge

• a completed risk assessment or safety checklist from their own coaching environment or from a simulated session

• the coach’s activity/session plan and their self-evaluation beyond this

• observed assessment of their coaching practice against defined observable criteria/coaching behaviours.

Further ReadingLearn-2-Coach – Apollinaire e-resource.

Sneyd, S. (2006) How to Coach Sports Safely. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-902523-50-7.


In addition to the knowledge and skills a good Level 1 coach is expected to model, the Level 2 coach’s focus shifts to embrace responsibility for the planning of the session/series of sessions and the whole coaching environment within which they are inevitably working alone and independently. The level of responsibility for participant safety and welfare sits at a higher level and, as such, there is an emphasis on the development of strong coach:athlete relationships with all participants, especially children and vulnerable adults.

Key Questions

Typically, most courses at Level 2 are four learning days. Some have the assessment element integrated within this while others have this sitting in addition. Again, the question around time and how much learning time you have to focus on ‘safety’ will inevitably surface and you should consider how prior learning and experience can be acknowledged. In almost every case, attendance at the sports coach UK ‘Safeguarding and Protecting Children’ and ‘Equity in Your Coaching’ workshops and often first aid workshops are a must before gaining access/entry on to this level of course. So, what new learning over and above that delivered at Level 1 needs to be integrated into a Level 2 course?

You are aware that the coach at this level is working independently and autonomously and will inevitably assume responsibility at a higher level than a Level 1 coach for the safety and welfare of their participants. How much new learning needs to be integrated into the course about, for example, accepted health and safety policy and practice, the coach’s legal responsibilities, negligence and duty of care, professional behaviour, risk assessment and risk control, active and reactive monitoring?

Another consideration for you in designing the programme is around the new learning required at Level 2 and how this overlaps with/relates to other areas of the learning. It is at this level that the concept of safety begins to merge with other key learning areas. For example, a coach working at this level will be expected to be able to personalise the learning and meet the specific needs of children and vulnerable adults. This is designed to a) keep them safe and b) support performance improvement. Coaches would be expected to differentiate on task and content and use perhaps the STEP model to adapt and modify the activity/session to meet individual needs and support participant development. We can see from this one example that safety and differentiation and safety and the coach:athlete relationship have strong overlaps. The question is how this is delivered on course and critically how the assessment is structured to ensure an applied and integrated approach to learning and assessment.

Delivery Methods

At this level, there is a requirement that coaches undertake a period of applied practice and produce evidence of having delivered a number of sessions, of which at least four must be linked. This is an ideal opportunity for coaches to plan for and apply their new skills in their own coaching environment and then reflect on the effectiveness of this. The challenge for designers is to consider which specific safety and related content needs to be delivered before this period of self-directed learning. Remember that this learning can be delivered through face-to-face learning or via the course’s supporting resources.

In terms of face-to-face delivery, the same principles around engaging, interactive, applied and practical learning all stand at this level. Coaches should be encouraged to reflect more critically, perhaps look with a stronger lens in order to reflect more critically and identify more specific opportunities for their own development.

The assessment tools used at this level may well be similar to those used at Level 1. However, you will be looking for more evidence and more detailed responses from the coaches that highlight their increased knowledge/skills and reflect their increased level of responsibility.

Further ReadingHackett, P., Hackett, S. and Top Lodge Leisure (2004) Creating a Safe Coaching Environment. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-902523-74-3.

Learn-2-Coach – Apollinaire e-resource.

Sneyd, S. (2006) How to Coach Sports Safely. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-902523-50-7.


The cumulative expectation around the coach’s knowledge/skills from Level 1 to 2 is mirrored from Level 2 to 3. By the time coaches are ready to progress on to the Level 3 qualification, they should have extended experience working remotely and independently, having assumed full responsibility for the safety and welfare of all participants, in a range of contrasting environments over a series of linked sessions. They should be able to operate instinctively when it comes to risk assessment and safety checks, and their ability to employ the most appropriate management strategy will be an easy choice.

At Level 3, the expectation around the quality of their planning, delivery and evaluation skills is raised significantly. Focusing specifically on the concept of safety, the emphasis shifts from ensuring the participants, safety and well-being in a single activity/series of sessions to an entire coaching programme, which, depending upon the sport, could span an entire season and include any pre- and post-season commitments.

The Level 3 coach’s responsibility at this level focuses on the participant as an individual even if the coach is working with a squad or team. Coaches will be expected to build high-quality relationships with their athletes to ensure training plans are tailored and continually evaluated and adapted. Building a tailored plan is not just about performance improvement, it is about keeping the athlete safe and injury-free; this is a key skill at this level.

Key Questions

Some of the questions you ask yourself at this level when designing the programme will be the same questions you ask at previous levels. What are the prerequisite requirements before gaining access on to this course? How much does the coach already know and what can they already do? How can you accredit and acknowledge their prior learning and experience? What new content/learning needs to feature at this level? How does this overlap with other learning? How can it be delivered and assessed?

The strongest emphasis in this area and at this level is on the further development of the coach:athlete relationship. New learning around human communication, rapport building, inter- and intrapersonal coaching skills, advanced and listening questioning techniques, information processing and decision making may all potentially be quite new and will have to be integrated. How will you give coaches the opportunity to practise and reflect on this new learning?

Delivery Methods

Again, in designing the programme there are key questions that you will ask around how to deliver/assess the programme. The same questions posed at Level 2 will reappear at Level 3. How much of the content can be delivered offline and how much needs to be addressed on course through face-to-face learning? How can you integrate this in an applied and practical manner?

The same principles around engaging, interactive, applied and practical will still apply, and some of the methods you have used at previous levels, such as group work, discussion and the use of scenarios, are all valid. Coaches at this level will have far more experience than at previous levels, and their experiences could be used extensively to stimulate debate, discussion and shared learning.

The level or bar at which coaches operate has been raised significantly, and the expectations of the coach are increased. Coaches will be expected to act as independent critical reflectors, and the use of video footage to support this forensic reflection will be a key learning aid.

The coach’s ability to manage the safety of all those engaged in the coaching programme, including the management of effective relationships and behaviour, will need to be assessed, and some of the same tools used at the previous level will be appropriate. A professional discussion will also be central to the assessment strategy in order to explore the coach’s thinking, information processing and decision making.

Further ReadingHackett, P., Hackett, S. and Top Lodge Leisure (2004) Creating a Safe Coaching Environment. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-902523-74-3.

Learn-2-Coach – Apollinaire e-resource.

Sport specific texts and journals.


16 Mental Skills


• sport specific.

The information covered is aimed at the knowledge required of a UKCC Level 2 and Level 3 coach.

Common Unit Links

Level 2203.3 Understand principles of mental preparation in sport

Level 3303.3 Understand how to develop participants’ mental skills within sport-specific annual coaching programmes


If there is access to a sports hall or sports field, the learning programme could allow learners to work in small groups to set up, administer and participate in delivering mental skills training.

Learning programme designers are reminded that the outcome of the qualification is not to train coaches to act as psychologists; rather it is to assimilate the appropriate knowledge of sports psychology and use it to improve their coaching.

The following assessment criteria must be covered at Level 2:

• Identify the mental capabilities required for a sport-related activity.

• Identify key concepts for improving participants’:

– confidence

– concentration

– motivation

– emotional control

– cohesion.

• Describe the principles of participants’ development at the different stages of cognitive, emotional and social development.

• Outline how a coach can profile participants’ mental skills.

• Describe the basic coach intervention techniques for developing mental skills for training and competition.

The information on mental skills featured below is relevant at Levels 2 and 3. The expectation for the Level 2 qualification would be for the learner to have knowledge of the key points and the information that features in the bullet points, and not the full level of detail.

Delivery Methods (suggested)

Learning programme designers could develop a range of scenarios and the learners have to identify which testing protocol could be used. For example, a young hockey player has scored a number of goals throughout the season but none of them have been scored in the last 30 minutes of a match. You, as the coach, suspect there may be an issue with their physical condition and you would like to test this. Which testing protocol(s) would you use and why?

Learning programme designers should be aware that the assessment criteria linked to mental skills is theory rather than application. However, teaching the knowledge will be best achieved using practical activities that are relevant to coaching within their sport. While the coach at Level 2 is not expected to implement any of the mental skills techniques, they could be set an off-course task (optional) to try one, reflect on it, and then share their experiences with other coaches and tutors.


Multiple-choice questionnaires; written tasks; case studies; posters or flip charts.

Further ReadingCrisfield, P. and Cabral, P. (2005) Motivation and Mental Toughness. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-902523-24-8.


The assessment criteria linked to this topic requires learners to analyse a range of testing protocols. The learner should highlight the strengths, weaknesses, benefits, issues, difficulties and relevance to specific sports of a range of testing protocols.

The following assessment criteria are required to be met at Level 3:

• Describe the key mental skills that impact on participant performance and skill development.

• Identify sport-specific mental capabilities and how to profile participants’ mental skills.

• Explain the principles of developing participants’ mental skills.

• Describe how to plan interventions to develop participants’ mental skills in relation to both training and competition.

The information provided is a guide for what you would expect to cover on the learning programme.

Delivery Methods (suggestions)

Working individually or in pairs, learners should be allocated a case study to analyse, before delivering a short presentation on it to other learners.

Given the specialist nature of sport psychology it would be beneficial to access the expertise of a sport scientist, or equivalent appropriately qualified personnel. This could be a guest lecturer who could deliver the appropriate section of the learning programme. Alternatively, if logistically possible, learners could observe the sport psychologist in a work-based environment (eg professional club, talent camp, university sports department) implementing some mental skills training.

Coaches at Level 3 could be expected to implement some of the mental skills training and techniques covered. Therefore, setting them tasks to do off-course and then sharing their experiences with the other coaches and tutors is also recommended.


Multiple-choice questionnaires; viva voce (oral questioning); written tasks; case studies; posters; and flip charts can be used to check for knowledge.

Assessment evidence for Level 3 should indicate a level of understanding and application by the coach. Authentic evidence should be provided in the learner’s portfolio, which may include a log of reflections on mental skills interventions such as the techniques and training identified above; completed documentation such as goal-setting sheets; testimonies from performers on the effectiveness of mental skills interventions by the coach; and video recording of the coach implementing mental skills.

A work-based assessment would be effective in examining the coach’s knowledge, understanding and application of mental skills.

Of particular value for assessment evidence would be the annual plan which should identify when and what mental skills techniques and/or training had taken place or was planned.

Further ReadingCrisfield, P. and Cabral, P. (2005) Motivation and Mental Toughness. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-902523-24-8.

Davis, B., Bull, R., Roscoe, J. and Roscoe, D. (2004) Physical Education and the Study of Sport. 5th edition. Mosby: Missouri, USA. ISBN: 978-0-723433-75-0.


Key Information for UKCC Levels 2 and 3All sports require participants to possess a level of mental capability in order to perform to a reasonable level. It has often been said that to achieve top performance in sport, having strong mental capabilities is essential. With this is mind, it’s important coaches have an understanding of some of the elements of mental capabilities and can identify some of the key methods for improving participants, including:

• confidence

• concentration

• commitment and motivation

• emotional control

• cohesion.

ConfidenceCoaches need to create practices, sessions and environments that provide performers with the opportunity to feel competent and develop their self-confidence.

Self-confidence can be enhanced in four main ways:

• through goal achievement (setting and achieving SMART goals)

• through vicarious experience (ie watching other performers carry out a skill successfully)

• with verbal persuasion (ie self-talk – ‘I can do it’; coach reinforcement – ‘you can do it’)

• by the appropriate interpretation of physiological cues (ie increased heart rate and/or rapid breathing can be seen as either a positive sign [feeling of readiness] or negative [sign of stress]).

ConcentrationStudies show expert sports performers are able to pay attention to relevant information or cues, anticipate the outcome and formulate appropriate responses. Where attention should be focused will depend on the sport, the specific situation, and even the skill level of the performer.

Coaches can help performers to improve concentration in a number of ways:

• Trigger words (eg ‘watch the spin’, ‘relax and swing’) can be used to focus attention

• Use of visual cues (eg looking at the logo on the golf ball when swinging)

• Use of auditory cues (eg the sound of the swoosh as the squash ball rebounds from the wall)

• Use of kinaesthetic cues (eg the feel of your heartbeat as you release the arrow)

• Development of set routines (eg breathing exercises prior to pistol shooting; specific routine prior to a rugby penalty kick)

• Use of ‘distraction’ games in practice (eg session including a variety of distracting incidents such as poor officiating, negative verbal comments, intimidating opposition).

Commitment and MotivationWith commitment, performers can make steady progress towards achieving their goals. Committed performers usually work on all aspects of their sport with minimum supervision because they possess the desire to achieve.

There are three stages in establishing and maintaining commitment:

• Determining the performer’s aims and ambitions

• Identifying any conflicting interests

• Converting aims into goals.

Coaches can help performers develop commitment by:

• working together to identify their aims and ambitions

• identifying any interests which may conflict with the performer’s training

• converting aims and ambitions into long-term, intermediate and short-term SMART goals.

Emotional ControlIt is important that coaches help performers learn how to control their emotions so they can channel their energy and focus their attention on successfully achieving the task. The most common and disruptive emotions are stress and anxiety, which have a negative impact on sports performance.

Stress can be positive or negative and is based on a performer’s perception of their ability to perform in relation to the demands of the situation.

Anxiety describes the negative reactions to stress that can disrupt sports performance.

To avoid the negative effects of stress and anxiety, performers need to learn the following four emotional control techniques:

• imagery

• relaxation

• routines

• thought stopping.

To gain the greatest benefits from positive stress and arousal, coaches need to help performers learn to raise their levels of arousal pre-competition to the optimum level (to gain the greatest benefit for sports performance). Performers should see the situation as challenging, exciting and exhilarating.

CohesionDeveloping squads and teams gives performers the opportunity to bond together – this is referred to as cohesion. It occurs when a group of performers unite in pursuit of a goal and the whole group becomes greater than the sum of its parts. Generally, motivation in cohesive groups is high. Research shows cohesive teams have:

• more success in competition

• less absenteeism from training

• fewer drop outs

• less conflict

• better communication

• greater commitment to achieving the group goals.

A cohesive group has many valuable qualities, including:

• good teamwork

• strong team spirit

• acceptable and clear goals

• mutual respect and trust

• a willingness to make sacrifices for team members

• high motivation.

Coaches should encourage groups and teams to become cohesive units. Several factors can help improve cohesion in a group (eg similarity of background and shared attitudes, beliefs, motives). While some of these are outside of the coach’s control, he/she can influence the group’s:

• size

• communication

• experiences

• shared goals.

Group SizeSports differ in their nature so coaches need to be creative when it comes to forming groups. For example, football squads could practise in small groups based on playing positions (goalkeeper, defenders, midfielders, forwards).

Group CommunicationListed below are a few communication techniques that can build group cohesion.

• Encourage frank exchanges of opinion in structured discussions.

• Promote group identity (eg team songs, training tops).

• Highlight the group’s traditions and achievements.

• Develop group pride (eg code of conduct).

• Encourage the use of the terms ‘we’ and ‘us’.

Group ExperiencesCoaches can enhance group cohesion through the following experiences:

• Place group members in close proximity but away from other groups (eg group huddle).

• Organise enjoyable group social activities to provide non-competitive opportunities for interaction (eg trip to play tenpin bowling).

• Increase perceptions of a threat from an outside source – this encourages the group to work together to overcome the threat.

• Promote group satisfaction by increasing competitive success over an extended period via careful goal setting.

Group Shared GoalsThe group may have an established goal such as to win the championship or league. The challenge for the coach is to establish and achieve the group’s goal(s), while also helping each individual to realise their personal goal(s).

The coach should encourage open discussions where everyone has their say.

This will:

• lead to an agreed and achievable goal being set

• focus the group

• raise individual and group motivation

• create a no-blame culture.


Documents

UKCC Content Guidance Sheets - sports coach UK