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Scaffoldillg nnn bilingual shared reading experiences: Promotillg priman) school

students' ienmillg and development

• Wendy Cumming'Potvin, Peter Rcnsh,Hv ilnd

Chrislinil E. \",m Kra,lvcnoord

M I:RI)OCf! U~JVF.R~lrv. GRIHITfl U)/,VUSIH. UNIVERSITI OF Ql..H" 5tAND

This pap'" t'xp/ort'S IIlr comlt'CliollS ".:t1l'fi'1! scajfoldi" g, St'Comf fungl/ugf lel/ming a'id bilinglw l sira f,'d r<'adillg t'xp~rkIK(s, A socia-cull ural tlll'(}ry of cognition (Vygolsky. 1978, 1986) IIl1d(rpill$ III .. ;"Vt'StigUlioll, 1I'llie!! invclwd iml'lrmfnti"g II umgllllgl! lind Cull lire AU'IIno"l'S$ Program (LeAP) ill II Year -I classroom ami ill Ih" school commull ily. 5t'1~cled passages lrom obsrrmlio'ls lire 1I;I!d /0 analyst' Iht' leumillg of Ilrru s/Jllit'u ls, parlim/llrly in n'Ja/ioll to l.Jmgllases O/h~ r TJuIII E1!glish (LOTE), As lh.:se thr~e C(lSt' sludy slutl~lIls illlt'fllc/rd ill/he c/rlssr()Om. al howe IIlId ill Ihe cowwll llily. they ccrconslru(lt~', "I'prol,ri"lt>d fIIU/ a''1,lied kllO<II/rdge from ollt'/mlgllage 10 mlol/I"f. Tlmmgh smffoldillg. soci(l/Sll(!ces were cOlls/mcled, !dl~re si/ldellilellmillg (lml lit'lleiopmCIII w(re eXlm ded tlmmgh a !'ariety of IIcli,/ilit'S Ihal ill!'oh'l'tI (lrl illt' }l(!rlicipaliolJ, such as eXP<'rimClJlillg ,{Jilh /allgllag", "ski,'g qUI'S/ioIlS (lm/makillg Sllggt'Sliolls. E:rlmdil1S Ih~>e opporlullilies for sludt'lIl /,'amiIlS 11111/ drl'dopmerl l is wlIsideml ill rdllllOlllo cr~aling tfllCilillg /Iud it'll millS "lll'ifQllIIlI'IJIS Ihal cdl'l)mte sccio-cillt uml mId lingUIstic diwrsily.

llltrodllctioll Supporting children's literacy and lilnguag<, learning from a socio­cuhur.,l persp..--cti"c hilS Ix><om<' ina~'ilsingly .lppropriate in the current context of globalis.ltion, compl .... ~ migratory patterns ~nd poluis.l tion between advantaged and disadvantaged groups. Sociocultural ,}ppro.lcht'S to literacy emphasise the import;)nce of intcgril ting s tudents' cveryd'ly life experiences and cultur.}1 pr.lc tices into classroom peda­gogics (Bloch, 1999; Breen ('t aI., 1994; Heath. 1983; Toohey, 2001). In this regud, the sh.JTcd rcading context has p.Hticutar pertinence because it OffNS a fI.:-xibl.:- Mrangement th.lt simulates an 'a t homc' s torytimc .1tmospnerc, which enables learners to approach literacy th rough discus­sion and mcaning-centred activi ties t.lilorro to their needs. In relation to s..'Cond langu.lge leMning. whilst cmpirical s tudies have investigated th.e dfects of shM.:-d fl'ading, thc methodology has st'ncrally been expen­m~'ntal or focused on participiln ts who are IC<Hnins the nMinstream

language of a communit),. Uttle is known about how students enhance tht>ir second language den'lopmenl " ia bilingual shared reading ex· periences. Furthermort', little is known about how children obtain infor· million from both first and second lilnguage experienct.'S, JPpropriilte it and JPply it to various contexts. such JS peer - peer interaction in the home or community. As sc~ffolding takes placc wi th different pilrlners .md contexts, the bre.ld th and depth of the zone of proximal develop' mcnt can be a.(fl'Ctcd. The purpose of this arlicle Incrt'fore is 10 enrich our underslJnding of how middle primary students can construct, apply and appropriilte knowledge gained from bilingUill shilred reading experiences. In particulilr, the article will eXilmine how students become agents of change, who d isrupt routine learning in a 5<"hool community, ,IS they are chilllenged in a diverse socio-cultural cm'ironment viii a process referred to ilS multi·tiered scaffold ing.

5Jwred relltl ing in classrooms Holdaway (1979) initially employed the term shan,.'-d rt'ading experience in clilssrooms to describe the interaction between teoJchers and students during reilding as well.lS the social and literde)' eVCTlts surrounding tnc story. These events took place typically in early childhood settings char· otctt'riscd by dc\·elopment.lliitt'racy programs. Since Holdaway's use of enlarged books to create a print-s timulated process, experimental studies aimed at promoting academic outcomes have investigated sholrl-d reading in classrooms (Aldridge, 1993; Morrow, O'Connor & Smith. 1990).

Involving students in clilssroom shared rt'ading e"periences can be espcci.llly signiflc.-.nt for supporting second l.-.nguilge learners. Strkkland, ~lorro\\', Fiett'lson and Iraqui (1990) eXi\mincd disad\'.m· t.-.gl'<l Ari\b children \\,1'10 spokc a non·standard local Ar.lb di.-.!et:t before form"l schooling where SIJndard lileM".' t\r~b was thc norm. [ndi .. idu:l1 k'Sts of listening comprehension ~nd ,I picturc·story Idling task demon· str.lted th.1I childr,," from thc experimentil! class, who participated in shaT\.>d r('ading ('vt'rrday, outperformed their peers who participoltl'<l In.-. slruct\lred language devclopment program, in i\reas of lislening compre­hension and active language use. Carger (1993) observed that the rere.-.d· Ing of t,,·o storybooks with ESL learners in c!ilSS improved second l.lngu.lge word count. As well as thc qUilntifiable dat.l, Carger notl-d ilffl'Cth'e rewlts such .-.s children's increasing self·confidence and com· munic.ltion abilitit'S after repc~tcd pretend re.-.dinlls. Yell,md. Pollard Jnd Mercuri (1993) ex,lmin('(! the metJlinguistic benefits of an ltaliMI program Ihat focused on stOril'S, rhymes and pictures. Conclusions sug· gested th.-.t .-.fter six months of instruction, marginally bilingual children ~howed a signific.mtly higncr level of worn ,-,wart'ne.ss thiln their mono­!.nSIMI COUnterpMt!>. In a juni(lr·p rim.-. ry ESL c!.-.ssroom, Dansie (2001) uhlised story n,.·,ldmg .mJ n,.·tdling within a curriculum cycle 10 scaffold

55 Aus!lC'eC" Jou,rI(]I c~ ~. crv1 L 'e"tX,

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56 VollJme 26 Number 2 june 1003

orJI languag.: through procesSt's such as modelling and joint const ruc­tion. Results ind ica t("(! tha t le,len.:r p ractice in,-ol\'ing high chil 1l~'fIge and hiSh support m,lximiscd student [earning by CT(';lting condit ions whereby stud"nls (Ould pr,lI:ticc retelling s tori!.'s p rio r to producing mOT(>compl('x ],mguagc.

This school-ba,;ed r('5(',lrch affirms th" conclusions o f (',ITll<.'r correla ­tion,ll s tudil'S th,l t indic;ltcd a posi lh 'c rd'llionship bclwt!1.'n (,>,Irly child­hood rcadinb experiences with adults <lntl children's vocabu lary dc\'t.'lopmcnt, their eagerness to read and success in le,l ming to read (Chomsky. 1972; CIMk, 1976; Durkin, 197-1-75). However, since th" 198Qs, rt"Search('rs have increasingly opted for descriptivc methods to analyse how the compl("x int("rpl,lY of oral and writt("n I,mguas(" b<! twren adults and childr("n in sh.ned ["("ading promotes ("m(" rg("nt literacy skills (Heath, 1983; [>hillips &: McNaughton, [990; Teale & Sulzby, 1987; Wl'lls, 1986). I-. Ior(" recently, rC"S("Jrch("rs hlll'e employed socio-cultural pJr,ldigms to highligh t issu("s of authority and power in the discours .. patterns bctw("('n teach("rs and s tud .. nts during shared ["("ad ing. ,'fter .. xamining the convers.1lional interaction of small talk around big books in two Year two classrooms, Talt)' (1995) concluded tha t if trad itional classroom question, answer ,md evaluation sequences dominat(" disroufS(", li teracy learning is reduced to a competition aimed at guessing !(" teher answers. Q'Bri("n (1998, 2(01) worked e.~ t .. nsively with a Rccl'p tion to Y('ar Two cI.,ssroom to reveal how the pcn.:eived au thority of texts could be d is­rupted by scaffolding s tudents to critica lly analyse m,lss-m,uket texts.

Evolvillg frnmeworks of SCI1/foldjllg ill firs t (Hut secolld Itmglll1ge leamillg Th .. met,lphor of scaffold ing was developed to describe how adults support child ren's probl("m'solving activi ty th rough graduated and stra\("gic assist.Ince (Brun('r, 1983; Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976). As such, it builds on a par!icul,u vision of how th(" wne of proximal development might be created through parent.11 tu toring. Vygotsky ( \ 978) described the zone of proximal development as the difference between the child's actual level of d('velopm('nt ass('ssed through ind("pend("nt problem solving and the level of pot('n ti"i development d("termined from various forms of assisk>d performance. Rcc('ntly, in school sett ings, pr,lc titioners have embraced the metaphor of scaffold ing to d~'SCribc the temporary st ruc lurC's of ' .. acher support provided to facilita l(" children's under­standing and skiHs (Hammond & Gibbons, 2001).

HowC'\'er, the m('taphor of scaffolding has often been viewed as a linear process, involving a sympathetic adul t guiding a co-opera tive child, who graduJl!y gains more control in the p~rtnership. For cXJmple, Sharpe (2001) focused on the role of thc !each("r in the classroom 10 plan explicit s tr,ltegic:; ,llld execut .. 'point of need' scaffolding that builds on students ' qu('S(ions during t<'<lcher-student t.11 k. This pcrspccth'e high-

lights the expert relinquishing control by d ireeting the leamer's allenlion to key aspects of the tasks, monitoring progress Jnd adjusting degll'l.'S of assistJnc.:!. How\!v\!r. som\! reS('Mchers have focused more in ten tly on the child's ilc tive pilrticipilt ion in problem-solving activi tit.'S (paris &: Cros.s, 1988; Rogoff, 1990; Stone, 1993), which complements the more te'lCher-focuso..-d vkw of sc.1ffolding_ For example_ Rogoff (1990) extended the con<:ept of the zone of proximal de\'elopment by describing two ele­ments of guided parlidpation: the inlerdependent Jnd complement.uy role of children, thei r cMt.'gi\-ers ilnd companions and the importance ot' dbt.ll and race-to-fJce social in teraction. Stone (1993) Jnd Wells (1999) c1,limed th,lt the potentiill for learning within the zone of proximill de\'elopment varies .lS a function of the interpersonal relationship and interaction bo!t"'e.!n pMlicip.lnls rather than <IS a fi .~ed Jttribute of the [e,lnler. Rensh.l" · ( 1996) argued that the manner in which children obl.lin inform'ltion from scilffolding ;lnd appropri.lle it through different con­texts. such as peer-peer interactions or indi" idua! aetivilk'S, needs to be in"estigatt.-d.

These au thors havc taken intoconsideralion Iht.' sometiml"S conflicting n;l!ure which characterises social relationships during the scaffolding process. For cxample. dl"Spite a limi ted level of competence in a specific task. some children nonethel<.'S5 attempt to lead or control the activi ty. On other OCCJsions. children mJY resist requests by the adult to engage in an Jetivity. A child may resist by objecting to suggestions by the sc,lf­fold ing adult. or by telling the adult to do merely mechanical and peripheral <'ISpeclS of the .leti \·ily. Par .ldoxically in Ihis prOCt.'SS, the child begins to adopt the adult-like identity of the nl.1n<'lg<.'r and design<.'r of Ihe aClivity. So. whilsl w(' have I('am('d iI gll'al deal.looutthe scaffolding process. li ltle is known about how stud('nts' learning and participation in sc,lffolding episodt.'S M(, influenced by faclors such as the cont<.'xl of the [e.lming Siluillion (c.g. school or home), the rdationship betwl'('n p.ulicip.lnIS (e.g. f.lmily members or peers) .md differences in medi,l ­lion.l1 tools emp[o)'ed k.g. books or multi-medi., lex IS). [1'1 pMticul.tr. the e"lenl 10 which f" ctors such as ch,mging p,lftners and conlexts might also influence the breadth of the child's zone of proximal dc,·elopment in So..'Cond I.mguage le.,ming has yet to be ill\'cstigall>d.

To ad.Jpt the metaphor of scaffolding 10 invcsligale the wne of proxi­m~1 d<.'\·<.'lopment in second l.lnguagc [eaming, Ihe siudy dr.-w upon ele­ments of Ihe inl('raclionist view (Kushen, 1982:; Peregoy & Boyle, 1997). This perspt.'Clivc SUggl'Sts th,l t second l~nguJge acquisition is supporled by compll'hcnSibl" input, creJlOO during 1'\,1tural convcrs.ltions bc~wccn n.l tive spcak<.'rs and non-native spe.,kers. Long (198;) suggcsled thill the concept of 'in teractional modific"Iion' was a ncccss,uy mechanism for m,'king input comprehensible in con\'ersations between nJtive speakers .lnd non-n.llive spe,lkers. ,""lti\'c speakers were seen to adjust thei r l'lngu'lge 1"\'1'1 10 f,lcili 1.11e comprchension. l'Spccia 11 y for beginning-lev('1

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" AuUJI;lI,an j(lu,,..cl of L(l~: . and uteroc!

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sa '/oItJme 26 l'iumoer] June 1003

[" arners ;IC'luiring J second kmguagc. In particula r, L.1PP, Flood and TInJjl'ro (1994) coin.'>(! thc to:-rm 'ofJl

previewing' to d(>SCribc thc adjustment of tC,lchers' language input to childrcn's language proficiency ill1d comprehension level during story reading in s<'Cond [,mguJgc kaming. This teaching stra tegy involves scil(folding t''Chniqucs such as m.lking frequent repetitions of key words and ideas, clMifying the meaning of words through ilius tr.Jlions and using gestures, body language ,lnd f.lci.ll expressions to convey concepts. Again, thc focus is on Ihc process by whkh an adult assists ,1 child to complete tasks beyond the child 's individual c.1pabili ties (Wood, Bnmcr &. Ross, 1976). A broader metaphor for sc.lffoldin g in second ],mguage learning would consider the participa tion of students with a vJ r;ety of partners and thl" p<lttems of hdrmony <lnd conflict, characteristic of co­constmctoo mo:>aning. Ho:>re, conclusions from resea rch conductoo in first languago:> scttings tha t focused on students' and teachers' rolo:>s during sc.1ffoldoo activities c.1I1 f,ldlit,lte the rel1('C tion related to second lOIn· gu,1ge IO:>Jming. For ex,'mpll', Jones (2001) ctJiml'd thJt differing beliefs about tho:> processes of leJming could ShJpc clOlsSTOOm events: scaffold· ing slr"tcgies CJn unfold diffl'rently in twO clOlSSl.'S due to students' dif­fering perceptions of the purpose of tJlk in the classroom envi ronment.

Tile research co"text The investigation took place a t S"int G<lbrietle's CJtholic primary school in a n isolated Tl'gion in Quecnshlnd. A p rincipJI research question undl'rpinning this qualit,1 ti,'c s tudy was ' How did s tudo:>nt learning and development change in relat ion to usc and undl'rstanding o f language and sodJI interJction during a teaching e,~pcrimcn t?' As descrilx-d by D,l\'ydov (199~ ), the term tCOlching o:>xpcriment is based on ,m innov<lIi\'e resc<lrch methodology introduced by Vygotsky (1926/1991), which examines children's development in a dynamiC manner by fOCUSing on the appropri<1lion uf socio·cult ural patterns through upbringing and teaching. Char<lcterised by Je live intervention of the researcher in to the psychological ,md cultural procl'Sscs being studied, this type of experi­ment differs Significantly from the ,'erific<ltion method that a ttempts to isolate and control independent variables.

OVI'T a period of nino.' months, the princip<ll rcsc,lTcht' r (Wendy) adopted the dl",1 role of teacher-re5C<lrcher in the school community. The S(,lcclt-d Ye.lT 4 class consisted of 28 s tudents, the majority of whom had tittle or no previous experi .. ncl' with LOTE cl,lSSC5 in p rimary school. ,lnd th .. ir r .. gular teaeh .. r. Although the t~aching of French wa$ thl" focus of th .. program, langullges such as English, Dutch and Danish were also used to t<lke ~dvolntnge of the children's own Tt.'sources. Throughout the s tudy. the liter,lCY leMning of thr ..... s tud,mts Uerry, 5.1r" h .. md Tom) WilS tr,Kked in three CJSC s tudies, which documented the stud .. nts' language use ,mJ soci,,] inter ,lction wi th ,1 '·Mi .. ty of pMhlt'T5 in fonnal and infonnal

learning sell ings. As the C,lse s tudy students' participation "'<IS analysed. the conne<tions bdween scaffolding and ~,,<ond langu"ge le,lTning emergt.>d. JS important for unden>tanding learning and de\·clopment.

M etllO(lofogy Phase one of the study invol<'ed negotiating ,lcresS to the field site and ensuring that trust was dl'\'dopt.'<I ~t"'t.,<,n the researcher ,md partici­pants. In Phase two. the pilot study, various instruments in the class­room were tria lied, such as dire< t observa tion. interviews and videot3pcd bilingual sequences. Phase th~. the main study, im 'olved implementing the te<'lching l'lI penment using a variety of st rategies. Nine ,:cmi-structuTed group and individual int(,Tviews were conducted with parents, teachers and stud,mts. Direct observation of s tudents' social interaction in formal and infomlal first and second language learning si t­uations was conducted. A major focus of the main study w"s the design, implementation and analysis of the LCAP; the aim " 'as to challenge students to extend their current understandings and Ii terJcy prJctices and begin to explore a diverse socio-cultural and linguistic environment.

Both traditional and participant observ,lnollS were useful for recording events in diverse conteds, such as the classroom, school, local lib rary and home. During participant observation, Wendy engaged in an ac th'e role, such as ma rk ing students' work, conducting bilingual shared Tl:ading e llpcriences or animating English reading groups organised by the cl;lssroom teacher. Tht.'SC p,lTticipant observations were retrospe<­tively rccordoo in a n."'Search journal, which providt.>d a means to refk"<t "nd generJte hypotheses and sometim~'S guide fu ture interventions.

Videotaping was also conduc ted to capture moments of the d aily life of the students. A Ithough flexibility was permitted following d iscoveries groundo!d in Ihe fieldwork, a predetermined plan guided some of the filming sequences. Care was t .... ken to follow a procedure that would gradually int roduce and demystify the video equipml'nt for p.uticipants. For e,~Jmpll', during the first w~'C'k of data collection, the video camera anu tripod were presented to the students, who were then given the opportunity to ask 'luestions about the equipment. The following week, when the video carner" and tripod were set up in tht' cI,ISli room, stu­dents were pcrmitlL>d to look through the camera lens ,lnd adjust the angle.

Te(lcIJ illg /II et llods In par ticul,u, the LCAP in the selected Year", classroom ,mu school com­Il\llnity involved the anim,ltion of a series of literacy ,1CIl\' ities for stu­dents, including;

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7 bilingu'll shML>d reading experienct'S (cI,lssroom ,lnd loc.,llibrary) I sh.ued reading e"fX'ril'nce (classroom)

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In the cl,lssroom, independenc(' in langu,lg(' leaming W,IS ,1150 enCOUT­i1ged through thc e> tablishmcnt of a bilingll'll Ic.uning cenl l"(' where s tudents could choose to work, Fo llowing their engagement in learning centre tJsks, s tudents were encourJged to reflec t on the ir I(,Jming through informJI COn\·ers.1 tions. Parents weI"(' also encouragoo to part ic­ipnte in thl! LeAP by cond\l(ting sha .. :.>d reading eXlX'riencl'S in the class­room. with the option of introducing J LOTE through a s tory. To promote home-school links, a newsletter relating to the LCA P was distributoo on ,I rcgular basis. The classroom te.:lcher was also ('ncour­agoo to eng,lge in form,11 and informal curriculum pl.",ning ,11ld assess­ment of the LCt\!'. ,\ s described by Johnstone (199-1), the ;"Ippro.lch used was b,ISo..>d on ;"IW.:Ireness and emph;"lsised two objectives. The first aimed to scnsilisc childl"('n to the nntul"('. purpose and structure of language (language aWMcnl'SS). The So..'Cond aimed to scnsitisc children to aspects of the cultUI"('S in which particular I'lnguages MC spoken (cu lture aware­ness). Via an integrated model, which has previously bc<:'n utilised in second language teaching in Germany (Bliescner, 1993), the awareness perspective was combinro with the embedding model Oohnstone, 1994), which integra tes the teaching of a sccond language to other learning areas, such as English and Society .:Ind Envi ronment.

The in tegration of curriculum areas was promotro particularly through the (oncept of the bilingual shared TCJd ing experience, which emph,ISiS(.>d the social inlerJc tion Jnd dialogue inspi red by prin t or am­\"eTS<l tions surrounding print. The e mphasis on social interaction Jlso reflects a socio-cultural PCrsIX'C tive, which examines the goals and beliefs underlying the reading event and the process through which it is CiHri ... >d out. This in teg rat~'<i ,lppro.1Ch to sh,1Ting s tories was adapted from the work of I-Ioldaway (1979), Lukl! Jnd Frc-cbody (1999) and van Kr'l<lyCl1oord and 1I.·loni (1999). For ex~mple, during the Code Breaker pr,lCtice, the pedagogical leader (Wendy, the community libr,}rian or a parent) introdll(('(1 the theme words or expressions in LOTE by using songs, poems or g.lmes. I-Iere, f1l1Cmpts were also made to ,1CCess s tu­dents' prior knowledge by asking for predictions abou t the story to be told or read. Illustrations. titles and sub-tit\(.'S in the chosen story were used in discussions.

The Text I'art ieipnnt pr,lctiee involved the s tudents li stening.. think­ing, responding to or initiating 'lucs tions or comments nbout the story. Oft en. the LOTE theme words werc TCpe,ltro in chorus throughout the story reading or telling. Sometimes students WeTC in"ited to use learning management s trategies such as note taking or drawing the s tory. I-Iere, students were also encouraged to critically analyse the slory by dis· cussing elements such as plot, ch;"l racters and language use. When dppropriate. attemp ts were made to discuss the author's depietion of

socio-cul turdl ,md linguis tic diversi ty. The Extension of the Text prac tice involved students' engaging in wri tten or oral activities (in English and/or LOTE), such as playing memory match games, interactive com­puter games o r making s tory maps, which reinforced concepts or expressions introduced in the stories.

Results: Spaces f or lean/illg alltl devefopmmt during scaffo lding As Jerry, 5.,rah .md Tom's progn."$S was tracked during the LeAP, results indica ted that tho:.- most dramatic possibilities for Icaming and develop­ment were obst'rved in sociill spaces that unfolded as pt'dagogical can­nl'C tions were made between school, home and th ... communily. Th(.'SC meeting points were Sh,lped through social interaction ,md a v.lTiety of contextual elements, such as teaching stra tegies, form,ll objectives 'lOd perceptions of various ilctOrs in the field. 5.lhni (2001) desc ribed soc;,ll spaces as circles of mutuality where children res truclure the cI<lSS through ac tions such as making choices, playing ' ''ith I;mguage <I nd expressing needs and wishes. For Jerry, 5.1rah and Tom. social space:; were constructed frequently d uring informal group contexts where children's tal k was predominant and teacher in tervention was minimal. In such SP.1CCS, teachers attempt to build on sludents' previous knowl­edge by pro"iding open-ended questions and direc tive strategies to support risk-til king (Van Lier, (999). lk'Caust' teachers are not viewed as the only source of au lhori liltive knowledge, these spaces blur Ihe bound­Mies between teachers and s tudents by dispersing sociill conlrol. The social space:; in which students' learn ing and de,-elopment were p.1fticu­larly illumindted involved .I process referred 10 ilS muhi- liered scdffold­ing (Cumming-Potvin, 2(01). Here, Je rry, 5.1rah and Tom monito!\.-d and extended thei r learning Ihrough collaboration during purposeful, child­di!\.'Ctoo t<lsks with peer p,utners of differing ages ,md ,111 adult. The natull' of the sequential interaction was often triangul,l r (involv ing thrl~ pMticipants). and emphdsised Ihe sh,uing of expertise to complete a common 1,1Sk. This in lerdclive and sometimes unp!\.'<liclable sharing of p<.~r-peer and child -adult language appeared 10 momentarily rupture the predominant teaching-Ie,u ning p,lttem observed in the d<lssroom, which involved much te,lCher-talk, student p,lssivity <Ind the exdusi'-e usc of English. For 5,lrah, the process of multi -tiered scdffolding WdS re\'Cdll'<l in an informal cI,lss room-bascd deti"il;,' in"olving English Jnd Dutch. Wendy initially provided scaffolding during .I Code Bredk('r .lelivil)" which followed .I story reading. Courtesy expressions in d iversc l'lnguages (i.e. bonjour, hold and Sil),on,u,l) WeT\' in troduced and Slu­dt'nts were invited 10 bring mullilingual resources from home to share. Se"eral weeks later, Mdurecn (d pupil in the YCdr 4 classroom), excitedly "pproached Wendv in the corridor <Ind Sl,lled th;H her mother had rt'Ct'ivt'd d Dutch birthday card from friends III HollJnd. but neither she

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62 Vo/lJme 16 Number 1 june 200]

nor hcr mother could rc.ld it. Wendy suggested th.u 501mh (who:;c (~mily spoke Dutch) might help by transla ting thc grl.'Ctings from Dutch to Engli~h. As illustrate<! in the following c.~tr.lc t taken from transcribed fidd notes of thc inform<ll T('x t User activity ' Dutch Birthday Card' (7/ -1 /98). by translating tht:' Dutch greetings. 5.lT,lh provided scaffolding for both ,1 p..~r and ,In ildul t, which ,l llow{'d the thTt't' pM!i,ip;!nts (1<.'I,!urecn, SJrilh and Wendy) to function collabor,lt iv('l>' in the zone of proxim,,1 development:

"Iaure..'n jSh ... h,mds th ... CMd o" cr to 5.lr .. h.l: Cdn you !.-II us whJt this me,lnS in English? [S,u"h Mkes th ... ( ... d Jnd bcsins to ..... Jd it_I Wendy: A fril'nd from Holl,md S('nt,1 to ."I"ur("I'n's Mum for her bi rthJay. SMah: Wait" minu t\'. [She Op<'ns and do:;..'S the cMd S<'wr.11 timl'S .. ~ sh ... rere"ds it] I'm not sure. Wendy: "" I,'ybe we could ,lsk your Mum. 5."ah (She isstililooking at th\' (Md.]: No, J don 't nl't'd to ask hN. J ~an H ... d it. It says ... Hip, hip Hooray. Ah, [She points to th\' words.] Congratulations on this special day. Mum.'!.'n (~milingl: Th,mks SarJh. s"rah: Jt '~ oka y. [She .mile'S dnd hands back th ... CJrd to Mau n.'!.'n.] Wendy: [looking at th ... card dS M~urcen hold, it1 . Som" of th" words are similJr in Dutch "nd English. M,lUrl"''''' ," ... h. [Sar.,1l and MJurc<.'n mo,"" together and look clOS\'ly ,11 the Dutch words].

During this inform .. l reading task, Sarah assisted Maur('('n to m,l ke con­ceptuallinks between langu<lges by appropriating past knowledge from bilingual shared rNding experiences in school. community ,md home so·ltings. R,lther than identifying is()I,lted pr('-det ... rmineJ word~, 5<!rah embarked on a complex process of transl<1tion tha t involved coining the me<lning of Dutch expressions thai nccessi tated a gelleral comprehension of the text. I' reviously, du ring a form<l] bilingual shared s tory session anim.1k,i by the community librMian, S;:.rah statl'(i lhal she was unable 10 spc<l k Dutch. However, when given an informal opportunity to ere .. te me .. ning from two langu,'ges, S,'Irah .. dopte<! the role of resource person by focusing on the linguistic dem.1nds of the t<l sk. As Sar .. h beg .. n to monitor her learning <lnd that of others, she resisk'd the suggestion to consult her mother. Here, Sar"h's .. s.cending ownership for the task .111udcs to the shifting na ture of the zOlle of proximal de,"elopment, which v-uies in rel.,tion to the contex t of the le"ming. the p-uticipants' perceived identi ty and the rela tionship established between g roup members.

For Jerry, the process of multi- tie red sc"ffolding was re'"ealed in a cI.1SSroom .letivi t)' entitled 'Jerr), ,md Doug Work Together' (3013/ 98), which invoked both English and French. jerry's mother, who spokc French.lS a firs t l.mgu,lg", initiall)' offered sc;-.ffolding b)' modl'l1ing the

uS(' of the French l~t \t>r game to Wendy in a home setting. Sc\'era l wC(:ks la ter, Wendy modell.:.'<1 the mech ... nics of the Fromch game to the s tudents while expl ... ining ... r ... nge of tasks for the bilingual le,uning centre. Following the demonstration. Jerry and Doug (who h,ld established ,I friendship outside thc cl,lssroom), spontaneously ehoS(' to coll ... borate to compl"'e the task. For several minutes, the boys repeated thc following >cri~'"S of sleps th,lt allowed them to focus on graphophonic aspeds of the words and function collaborati\'ely in the zone of proximill develop­ment:

• • • •

jerry poin ted to a spe<"ifie word on Ihe card; Doug look the 'Ippropriale let te r out of the box and handed it Jerry; jerry ,1Ild /or Doug pronounced the name of the letter; jerry placed the lettcr on the card .

For Tom. multi-tiered scaffolding emerged as an e\'o1\·ing network of pL'Cr-p"er and teacher-student p'lTlnerships in a formal group ac tivity th;,t in\'olved th ... use of English and French. For example, following several form.ll bilingual shan'd rt,',lding experiences in class settings, Wendy provided books publish~>d in both English and French during p ... r tner shan..>d reading sessions. As illustrated in Tum I of the following exl r,!C! taken from transcribed field notes of Ihe activity 'Tom reads with Cathy and Mary' (3/4/98), Wendy provided scaffOlding by inviting the students to sek'1: t a book from the collec tion placed on the bench.

In Tum 4. Mary, (J pre-primary agL'<I child who was informally visiting the class), initia ted a second st ... ge in the scaffold ing process. Raised in ... bilingual environment from birth, 1I.'1,lry spoke only English in the p ublic Men,l, but uSt.>d Fr(>nch ,It home. MilrY's dl"Siw to read in Fr(>nch was ,lssociat~>d with h{'r ability to comprehend simple con\,ers ... t ions and p ronounce isola ted words in French. After {'xamining the collec tion of booh, ;\ lary insisted on reading on{' that w ... s written in French. When 1I.l.uy h'lnd~'<i the book 'Peti t Ours Brun' to Tom and Cathy, she physica lly articulatl'<i her desire to be read to in French. She also poin ted to the illustrJtion and provided the English transl ... t ion for the word 'petit', thus prol'iding scaffolding for the two YeJr 4 s tudents. Confronted with ,I percell'cd in ... bility to read French. but a wi!lingness to help il younger peer. Tom and CMhy dirl'Ct~>d thei r a ttention to \-\'{'nd~'. [n Tum 7, Tom ini ti ... ted the third stage in Ihe scaffolding process by ... sking Wendy to re,ld the book. [n Turn 8, Wendy read the first p ... ge before asking the childr .. n ,I question that encour ... geJ them to take responsibility for solving Ih" linguis tk Challenge.

I\\'end~ pld(cs the books on th ... bench for th ... students to p.'ruse. "-1,"y. who is si tt ing on ,mother bt-nch, st ~nd~ up .... "Iks on,'r to the pil,· of books ,md b.'gins to IOt.k through th,·m). l\l,.,y ,h<JO:>C~ ,1 book written III Fr""eh Jnd ,Nurns to the bench<"S where Tom dnd CJth~' Jrc ~ Lttlng. '" lMY h,mds the book 10 both p.lrtL"'",;,1

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OJ /<USlml'(In

JOl1fn(li of Lor ~ oro l,!ercci

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6< VoSi;IT't' 26 Number 2

JlJf'e 100)

ITom .. ".i Cuhy open th.> book loge!I"', ,Ind look ,lI the p,lSe'S.) Th'5 book's in Freoch! IThq turn lowMds the R'S<.'MChc" who is SllIi,,!; ,Ippro~im d lely two meln..,; .IW.lY on the b..'flCh.1 Wendy: Is it~ MMy [She 1.l~C5 tile' book frum Tom .>nd C.Hhy.l: [ \\',Inl to ",,',1.1 this One. L;III~ .. brow" be,lr. [She points 10 the; lluslr,lIlon on the (ron t con"l. I'.·tit. 5<!C [points to b..-.uJ. He's hllie. [Wi th ),. I.I'Y in th" middle .. nd Tom dnd c .. t h~· on ei ther side, ,l llthr,,,, PMI­ners Si t on the bomeh looking imcn:;o.-ly ,H se\'er,.1 p.ISe'S in the book. I Tom: 11-1,' dir.....:ls his .>u ... ",ion 10 W~ndy, looking slightly ,,·orri, ... q Cd" you !'e;ld il? [Wcnd~' "pprwchc'S thc chi ld",,, , I"ok,; O\"l.'T th" ir ~ho"ld ... rs ,ma ,,·.1<ls the Il lle p.'ge 0/ Ihe book.! 1'etit Ours Bn," S(' (ewill,-, IVh", do you think sc n" -"ill,, ml'.los? M,,.y: H,,'s s<'U;ns up. \\'I.'nd ~': Th.lI'S righ t. It looks lik ... he's "',lkinS up.

As the episod., unfolded. both Year 4 p,ntner5 collabor.lte..! to create m('anins from the French text. They predick'<l the meaning of isolated French words by comparing English and French spelling and by associ­il ting the written text with illustrations. As Tom and Cilthy created English meaning for words such JS 'Milman', 'non' imd 'content', they initiated a fourth stage of scaffolding. Although ini tially T~T\'ed "bout reading French, Tom and Cathy extended their Il.'aming through the coll,lboTative use of word attilck str.!t;:<gies which were consistent with those uSl.'d during prl.'vious bilingual sh.ucd reading e.~periences

whereby Wl.'ndy demOllStrJtl.'d how to SCJTch for similariti6 between words in French and English. This episode thus dl.'mOns tr.,t.'s the effce­ti\'('ncss of students appropriating past ski11s .Ind str.ltl.'gies th.lI, laken ,llone, would h,lve been insuffidl.'nt to succcssfully compl!.'!e thl.' present t.!sk. In 'ldd ition, <IS Tom ,1Ild C<lthy purposefully tr,lns!a tl.'d ,,",ords from French to English for Mary ,1Ild <lucmpll'd to r('ad, they affirm .. >d their idl.'nti ty.!s English speak;:<TS who wer" ,}bll.' to re"d words in Frl.'nch.

DisclIss ioll To compll.'mcnt tht, socio-cultural theory o f cogni tion (Vygotsky, 1978, 1986). M!'han 's model of discourse an'llysis (1979), which Mscribed talk in dilssrooms as a tc,lchcr-initi,lted, structured round of qu,-slioning, W,IS ad,lptl'<\ to consider how structured and natu rilily occurring seilf­folding is embedded .!nd renewed by dialogue, conte:d S and partner­ships. To analyse the phenomenon which has been described as multi·tiered se,lffolding.. Mchan's defini tion of initiation W<lS widen(>d to ,Hxommod.lte teacher, student ,1Ild peer ulteran(('S, that were articulated in the form of qu~'Stions or statements. From this viewpoint, current sp..:.lkers Me pcrcein>d to e.~pt,·ct th,lt one of a rilnge of possible <lctions shollid be complet!'d by subsequent spe,lkers (Schegloff, 1912). To e~tend the notion. ,;c,lffolding tl"'l 1"k('S pl,ICe during di,'loglll:" betwt'l'n

p.lst .md present spcakt'rs is int1ucnced nOI only by th" it'aming contcxt and tht' rcl.llion:;hip between spea k"rs and lis teners (S tone, 1993; \\'ells, 1999), but .llso by the langu,lge used, the dyn'lmic n,ll ur" of the subject· specifiC knowledge and skills of parlicip,1I1ts and their pcrcciVl>d identity within th" 1e,lming task.

In this sellS<.', the notion of multi·tit' red scaffolding br(hldt'ns the widdy ,I(Ceptl--d defini tion of sc'l ffolding .IS tempor.1ry support whercby ,I more .lccomplish.:-d pMlner (norn1.llly.1 parent or tc.lcn"r), g r.ldually rdinquisnes control to .111 .lpprentict' (Bruner, 1983, ; Vygotsky. 1978, 1986; Sharp;:', 2001). In the examplt's rt'lating to Sar.lh. Jl·rry and Tom. a zone of proxim'l l de\'dopmcnt was created through tht' process of S<.'quential, triangul.u inter,letion Ihal involv .. >d the interpl,IY between a multiplicity of p,lsl ,md present ·voiccs·. Here, scaffOlding comprised S<.--qucnc~--d p.lrlnerships involving ill I('ast thn.'t:' individu,lls. The first p.lrtncr provided sc.lffolding fo r at It'ast one other nlt'mber of Ihe pari' n('rship. The second partncr(s) then provided scJffolding for a Ihird partner(s). Whilst the second round of scaffolding often ocC\lrred almost imml>di<ltely, it sometimes look place se \'erJI weeks later in OJ new contt'.~I.

By t'mph.lsising Ihe dynamic nature of Ihe scJffolding prO«"Ss with I'\.>spect to pM!ners. time and setting, the notion of multi-lien.-d scaffold­ing adds nuances to popUIM classroom shared rc<lding models. Such modds e.~plicate the various components of typiC.11 shared rcading expe· riences that te"ch.:!Ts animJte in c1,I$Srooms. 11le notion of multi· tiered sc,lffolding explores evolving small group inter,lc tions where students using bilingual t e.~ts in w,lys Ihat connect knowledge constructed from home. school and community experiences. Tom appropri.l ted wo rd ,ltt.ICk Slr,l\.:!gil'S gainl-d from sll,lred story experiences to usc in a pur· poseful bilingu,11 St'tting where he sc.lffolded .1I1d W.1S scaffoldoo by a ~'ounger "ged pt:'t'T. S.'H,lh appropriated Dutch linguislic skills g.lined in the home S<.·tting to scaffold an adult ,md a pt-'t:'r informally in class. Whilst eng'lging with a French bo.lrd game provided by his motht'r, Jerry JPplied graphophonic strategies and collaboraled wilh a friend to complete;1 !earning task. It is in these rcl'l tively unexplored zonl'S thai the children beg,ln to appropri,lle knowledge and skills obtJined in one conte~t to use in \'arious combin.llions of peer-peer ilnd te,lcher·studenl inter.lction.

TIlese It'Jming contexts often involved tht' uS(' of ''''0 languages; multi· tiered SCJffolding generally coincided with purpost>ful tasks in which students collabor,lled to complete,' bilingual activity with p'artners of differing ages. Although SI\lden ts coliabor,lted, al least one member of tht' p.Htnership momenl,uily 'ldopted the "dult-like identity of dt'Signer or m,lnager of the tJsk. Group members' idenl ity sometimt'S shi fted as t..nowk-dgt' was e;.;t('nded. When faced with the inability tn undcrstand Dutch. \\'t'ndy momt'ntarily relinquished the voice of authority to sMah.

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6S AI.ISlfOball

Journal or LG·. end L!erocy

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66 'IoIume 26 Nurrber 2 jlJre 2001

As S.uah adoptoo the role of r~'SOurcc ~rson, she cxprt.'SSCd ,l 'voice' th.l! sen:N not only to sc.lffotd others. but also to construct an identity tha t was linked to a community of bilinguallcameTS. In this s.:nse, the metaphor of scaffolding is widened to encompass not only temporary teacher support in classrooms, but also on-going knowlL><Igc gained from pttr and f,lmily inter,l(lion.

CO Il c/usio" In this .1ttklc, an .ltt('mpl h.Js bo.'('n m.ldc to contribute to the limi tl"Ci amount of rt'S('arch invcstiga ting the connt'<:tions betwl..'!'n sc.lf(olding. sc<ond ],mguagc learning and stl<1n:-d reading. B,Ise<! on.l socio·cultural thoory of cognition ( Vygol~k)', 1978, 1986), the study track('d thT\'!' Y('il r" students' LOTE learning in rdation to bilingu,l! shared reading experi. CIl(CS. A number of socio-cultural resenrch strategies, including the design .lnd impkmo:ntJt ion of a teaching ~'x~riment ,,'en' utilised to extend students' current knowledge. I\S they explored a dh-erse sodo­cultur.J1 and linguistk environml'nt, the case s tudy students were challenged by the changing nature of sc.Jffolding in a variety of contexts_ "-'I ulti- tiered s<::.lffold ing W.1S observed as students engag~>d with v,uious partnN'S to cQ-Construd knowledge in a changing classroom environ­ment that promoteJ ('xperimenting with language. asking questions and making choices. It appcarl.'<! that students appropri.Jted and applied knowledge in fo rm.11 and informal contexts and from one Innguage to ano ther.

In the contt'mporary Austr,lii.ln classroom, bilingual sh,lred reading exp<'riences used in English .Jnd LOTE classes rna)' .Jssist pr.lditioners to widen the 'tourist method· often taken tow.uds SI.'Cond language learn· ing. Bilingual stor i~'§ c,ln be b,l$ed on authentic pedagog;"ll m~teria1. which links te.lching ,md le,lming to students' life experiences ,md soda­cultur,ll pr,lctices. Th('S(' s tories m,lY be sh,H1.'d in n manner th,lt incorpo­r,lt('s interactions from bilingual resource people in the community. These indi\"idu.lls can cont ribute by sh,lTing stories nnd discussing dif· fercnc~'S and simil,lTiti~'S in IJnguagl'S and cul tures. ['.uent \'olunt~'Crs could also assist to d~'Cor,lte the cI,lssroom wi th multilingu.J1 posters, sisns and pJintings. Recycled m~teriJls. such as newspapers, magJ7.ines and food containers C,1n crente visua I or tac tile experienc~'S reflecting cul­tm,ll and linguistic din·rsi l}'. Le,lTning cen tl'1..'S can be used to promote a b,llancoo lit('rilcr program to ,1cqu.Jint s tudents wilh a diverse .ura), of I,mguages and cultuT\.'S through multimod,ll ,lClivitics such ilS \'iewing videos, listening to recorded music and stori~'S and engilging with inter· actin' computer programs. Pictur.:: books written in LOTE can ,tlso be includC'd in the classroom libr.JfY. From th is p.:-rspo.'Ctivc. the actu~l story I\',lding or tclling forms pMt of ,1 multi-dimension,ll process undert'lken to celebrate the socio-cultur .11 ,lnd lingu istic diversity of the school com­munity.

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Brren. M .. Louden. W. B.>rret·l'ugh, C, Ri\'alland , L Rohl, /I.!' , Rhrdwen. M .. Lloyd, S. & Carr, T. (1994) bttrotry I" its pIau: Literary pm(,I(N ill 11'00" Qml rural rom",,,,,,t,,'S. O\'e,,,iew .'nd intl'rpretJ tions. Canl>l'rra. Ocp,utment of Educa tion and Tr,l ining.

Bronwyn. D. (2001) Scaffolding Oral L.lflgU,'gl': The Hungry Giant RetQld. In J. Hammond (I'd.). Sral/,,/,/mg. Newton, NSW, £>rim')ry English TeJchers' Associa tion.

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67 AusutlJsan Jo!-rnol o( L, ' c."<1l.l!e'C(l

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68 Volume 26 Number 1

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s.:h~(;loff, E. (1972) Not('S on d Com'('lSdtion I'r~Clicl"'. In D. Sudno'" (ed.), Sludks '" ml rnlC/wII plllCt. N o:" , York, Fn. .... Pr('S$. pp. 75-119.

Sch~1:loff, E. (1992) RepJI< after ""~t tum: t .... I.lst s truct u rally p ro.-td<-...! fo r place for the d l,'/..,nso: of int..,,.,,ubj..'Cti\'ity '" CQn,"o:rs.>tion. tlII,,·t icall IOIO mn/ of Sociology, 95(5), 1295-1345.

Stonl"'. CA. (1993) WhJ t is miss;n!; in the mo:t.1phor of scaffold ing? In E. Forman, N. M imck &. C. Stone (t..:\s). COII/al;; for k""''''g: 5ocion,/lUtnl Jy"nllllcs ;', chilo ,Irm'$ dm·!I1I"",·m. Oxford, Cft /ord Universi ty Press, pp. 169-183.

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