UGBS 302 Research Methods - WordPress.com · UGBS 302 Research Methods Session 11 – Extracting Information From Texts And Lectures ... Hogue, Ann (2008) First Steps In Academic

College of Education

School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017

UGBS 302

Research Methods

Session 11 – Extracting Information From Texts And Lectures

Lecturer: Dr. David Odoi, LANGUAGE CENTRE Contact Information: [email protected]

Session Overview

In this session and the one after this I will teach you how to arrange your notes to reflect a writer’s focus or main points in order to give prominence to the most important ideas and discuss some other formats for making notes, and how to take notes at lectures.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this session, you should be able to make an outline note by doing the following

• use an appropriate numbering system

• arrange your notes to reflect the organisation of a text

Dr. Richard Boateng, UGBS Slide 2

Session Outline

The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:

• Techniques for making notes from texts

• Outlining

• Other formats Using the Table Format

Using Clustering or Webbing as note-making format

Using a tree diagram

• taking notes from lectures


Reading List

a) Chapter 5 & 8, Lewis, Jill (2001) Academic Literacy, pp. 122-147; 255-293

b) Chapter 2, Hogue, Ann (2008) First Steps In Academic Writing, pp. 33- 64


TECHNIQUE FOR MAKING NOTES FROM TEXTS

Topic One


Using titles as a note taking technique

• A title summarizes the main point or focus of a book. It therefore serves as a clue to the contents.

• When you are selecting a text to study and to make notes, you need to consider its title. For example, the title of a book that reads ‘A course Book for Writing Skills’, ‘An Introduction to Sociology’, or just ‘Biology’, will give you a comprehensive treatment of the subject.

• A number of books, however, carry sub-titles as well. For example a title which reads ‘The Akan Language: Its Sound System and Tonal Structure’, promises to inform about the sound system (or phonology) of the Akan language. Likewise in the book titled ‘Politics in Ghana: The place of By-elections’, the writer is expected to concentrate on the significance of by-elections in Ghanaian politics.

• Titles therefore guide you to select the appropriate books, articles, etc for your notes on a given topic.


Using chapter headings

• Chapter headings and sub-headings give more specific information than the main title does.

• A chapter heading indicates the aspect of a topic that is being treated while the sub-headings break down this topic into sub-topics.

• Before you make notes on a whole chapter or even read it, you have to survey it by skimming or scanning the sub-headings.


Importance of topic sentences(controlling ideas) in organising notes

• In textbooks and other academic writings, the topic sentence usually, though not always, comes first in the paragraph or fairly close to the beginning.

• In this sentence, the writer expresses the most important point he or she wants the reader to know or understand about the topic.

• Being able to determine this main idea increases your comprehension of the text. Therefore it is a good reading and note-making strategy to be able to identify the topic sentence.

• This is because all other sentences in the paragraph will relate to the topic sentence.


Using supporting details in note making

• Supporting details develop the controlling idea further. They may do so by elaborating or expanding, comparing or contrasting the main idea, or by introducing a different view.

• In whatever way the supporting details develop the controlling idea, you can list the information contained in them under the sub-heading you create.


Abbreviations

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word, for example, Mr. (Mister), Rev. (Reverend) and SOS (Save Our Souls). Words may be abbreviated differently. You may abbreviate words by a) reducing the words to initial letters only e.g. MA (Master of Arts), W.A.E.C (West

African Examinations Council) b) writing the words to a point where they can be recognized, e.g. Prof. (Professor),

abbr. (abbreviation) c) cutting out vowels, as for example in wd (word), world (world), yr (year). • It is usual to abbreviate words but not all words can be abbreviated. The first

group of words that can be abbreviated are those known country-wide or world-wide, and which have already been reduced to abbreviated forms, e.g. UN, UNESCO, USAID etc. The second group consists of commonly occurring words for example Econs (Economics), Ling (Linguistics), Lang (Language) etc.

• The danger in abbreviating rare words is that you may not readily remember the full forms.

• First, abbreviate only long/technical or commonly occurring words in your discipline.

• Second, be consistent with your abbreviations. This will prevent confusion.


Newspaper headline technique

If you scan any newspaper, you will notice that most headlines are not in complete sentences. Example: • Presby Men’s fellowship launches anniversary • DCE deplores sand winning in Ga West Expanded versions: • The 25th anniversary of the Presbyterian Church of Ghana Men’ Fellowship has

been launched in Accra. • The Ga West District Chief Executive, Mr. E.B. Quartey Papafio, has deplored sand

winning by residents. We can now see that the following strategies were adopted Omission of full names and titles: Mr E.B. Quartey Papafio, Omission of articles: the, a, an Preference for simple verb phrases: ‘deplores’ (instead of ‘has deplored’),

‘launches’ (instead of ‘has been launched’), Omission of prepositional phrases Abbreviation of common expressions e.g. ‘Presby’ (instead of ‘Presbyterian’)


Signs and symbols

• Signs and symbols work differently from abbreviations.

• Whereas we use abbreviations for single words and phrases, we use signs and symbols to represent ideas and concepts.

• Some of these symbols are known internationally, and you can use them conveniently in notes.

• Consistency is very important here as well.

Below are a few examples of such symbols:


Sign Concept Expression

→ RESULTS Leading to, resulting in, causes,

→ CAUSATION Stemming from, arising from, the result of

↑ INCREASE Expanding, increasing, inflating, enlarging rising

↓ DECREASE Reducing, lessening, decreasing, falling

= EQUALITY Equal to, the same as, identical

≠ INEQUALITY Unequal, not the same as, not identical

< COMPARISON Less/fewer/lower than

> COMPARISON More/greater/higher than

OUTLINING Topic two


Outlining

• An outline is a formal, detailed statement of the content and structure of a written or spoken communication.

• It is formal because it is constructed according to specific rules.

• It is detailed because it contains all the significant ideas of the communication.

• An outline presents the main ideas or facts about something in a graphical manner.

• It involves making a systematic list of ideas that reflects the basic structure of a text with major and minor points arranged on different levels.

• It is a very useful technique to use when dealing with lengthy or complex materials.

• It helps you to see the topic, the major divisions and further sub-divisions. Below is an example of a formal outline.


Standard Outline Format

1. First main topic a) First subtopic of I b) Second subtopic of I 1. First detail about I.B 2. Second detail about I.B c) Third subtopic of I 1. First detail about I.C 2. Second detail about I.C a) First example b) Second example 2. Second main topic • In the above outline, all items labelled with the same label are of equal

status. They must also be grammatically equal. The following are important techniques you need to write a good outline.


Using Appropriate Numbering Systems

• You are already familiar with some numbering systems. These are

Arabic Numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …….. Roman Numerals I(i), II(ii), III(iii), IV(iv), V(v), ……………….. The Greek Alphabet Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, …………….

• You can use any of these numbering systems in making your outline notes.

You can also mix them, in other words, you can use more than one system in your outlines.

• Combining them will help you highlight or identify main points from supporting details as well as examples. Remember outlines help you to show in a graphical form how points relate to each other.


Indenting Points

To indent is to move your writing further away from the margin. The purpose of indentation is to highlight main points from sub-headings and further sub-divisions. Example: The Versatile Sunflower 1. Historical information 2. Properties and Uses A. Properties i. protein ii. edible oil iii. calcium B. Uses i. margarine ii. fuel iii. animal feed • What I have above is an outline note of an extract. You will notice that the number 1 and 2 are

closer to the margin than the minor points labelled A and B. The specific examples given are further indented.

• The numbering system helps to differentiate the various categories of points. Observe that Arabic numeral are used for the main subheading. The sub-divisions under this subheading are labelled with the upper case (A, B) and for the specific details, small Roman numerals (i, ii) have been used.


Underlining Main Points

• It is useful to underline key terms and important ideas within the note to make them prominent for easy recollection.


Activity

Read the text below and make outline notes on it. Remember to create sub-headings, indent and number your points, and if necessary, underline key words and ideas.

The Uses of Outlining in University studies Outlining has many uses. An outline is a vital part of the organising and planning process that should precede all writing, and is therefore a necessary step in writing compositions and examination essays. The ability to make a good outline is useful for taking lecture notes, because it helps you to organise the ideas presented. The outlining of reading material not only helps your comprehension of the material but is also a useful device in helping you to remember better what you have read. Since an outline presents a visual representation of the ideas and their relationship contained in the written material, it serves as a kind of mnemonic device. Outline also helps your comprehension since it forces you to become actively involved in what you are reading through analysis and assimilation.

OTHER FORMATS Topic three


Using the Table Format

• In order to appropriately display the similarities and differences among things/concepts, you may use the table format.

• If two things are being compared in the text you are reading, create a table comprising two columns, each for one of the two things. Let us read the following paragraph and use this format to make brief notes from it.

Our task here is to capture the differences between the writer’s study habits in secondary school and his study habits in the university.

Ordinary studying during the term is another area where I’ve made changes. In secondary school, I let reading assignments go. I told myself that I would have no trouble catching up on two hundred pages in fifteen minutes. University courses have taught me to keep pace with the work. Otherwise, I feel as though I’m sinking into a sea of unread materials. When I finally read the secondary school reading assignment, my eyes would run over the words but my brain would be plotting how to manage to run away to jam on Saturday night. Now I use several techniques that force me to really concentrate on my reading.


Study Habits

• Notice that each habit listed under ‘secondary school’ is place in the same row as its corresponding habit under ‘university’, i.e. they appear side by side. This pattern allows us to see the difference between the corresponding habits easily.


Secondary school University

routinely skips reading assignments

hurriedly reads without concentrating

strictly keeps pace with reading

employs study techniques to concentrate on reading

Using Clustering or Webbing as note-making format

• Clustering/webbing is also known as mapping. It is a useful format for giving visual presentation of the relationship between various sub-ideas to a core idea.

• To begin, discover what the central idea of the passage is and, in the centre of the page, write it down as briefly as you would when composing a main heading to a passage (in webbing, you must capture points rather briefly else your notes would look crowded and difficult to understand).

• Circle this main idea. Now, draw another circle just away from the central circle and write in it one major supporting detail about the main idea.

• Link the two circles with a straight line. The line linking the two circles means that the major supporting detail relates directly to the main idea. You should create similar circles for each of the other major supporting details.

• With regard to minor supporting details about a given major supporting idea, all you need to do is draw circles for each of these minor supporting details and link each to the circle containing the major supporting idea. If you do this for each major supporting idea and its minor supporting details, what you see is a fine web of circles that depict a network of relationships.


Activity

1.Read the following passage and use webbing to capture your notes in the space provided overleaf:

Musical Instruments “There are many different kinds of musical instruments. They can be divided into two main classes according to the way that they are played. For example, some instruments are played by blowing air into them. These are called wind instruments. In some of these, the air is made to vibrate inside a wooden tube, and these are said to be of the woodwind family. Examples of the woodwind instruments are the flute, the clarinet and the bassoon among others. Other instruments are made of brass: the trumpet and the horn, for example. There are also various other wind instruments such as the mouth organ and the bagpipes. The last big groups of musical instruments are the ones which have strings. There are two main kinds of stringed instruments: those in which the music is made by plucking the strings, and those where the player draws a bow across the strings. Examples of the former are the harp and the guitar. Examples of the latter are the violin and the cello.”


Using a tree diagram

• A tree diagram may be useful for making notes from a discourse which reflects hierarchical relationships among the various points or items described.

• It is especially useful for capturing points made in classification and division texts. Example: MEDIA Responsible Media Irresponsible Media (targeting mainstream society) (targeting a readership which is isolated from mainstream soc) Times Newsweek New Republican Tabloid-style TV & Radio Talk Periodicals Shows * report facts accurately * frequently report inaccuracies * avoid ‘loaded’ wds * resort to sensational lang. • What this diagram offers is a straight-forward picture of the two categories of media according to the writer. As an

instrument of revision, it can constitute a mnemonic device to foster easy recollection


TAKING NOTES FROM LECTURES Topic four


Listen for the topic

• In the absence of a well prepared course outline, you must cultivate the habit of listening carefully and identifying the title or topic of a lecture.

• Most lecturers or speakers announce their topic right at the beginning or a few minutes later. (Sometimes, lecturers also simply write the topic on the board as a way of introducing it.)

• Whenever you are listening to a live or recorded lecture, write the topic boldly at the top of a fresh page in your note book.

• For example when you hear “Today we will discuss military regimes in Ghana”, you should write MILITARY REGIMES IN GHANA as your heading.

• After you have done this, wait to hear what is said next.


Listen for the organisation of the lecture

• Lecturers do not normally plunge into their topics. They frequently give background information or make introductory statements which shed light on the topic for discussion.

• For example, if a lecturer announces his topic as “our discussion today is on the proliferation of churches in Ghana”, he or she may go on to describe the religious scenario in the country now or give his/her own observation on the phenomenon.

• When you notice that a lecturer has not quite delved into his/her topic, label that as the introduction. While listening to the introduction, you may note down any interesting point if you so wish but if what is said is already familiar, you need not.


Paying attention to speaker’s voice modulation

• We normally vary the pitch or loudness of our voice to suit the importance of what we are saying. Nobody speaks at the same level of pitch, otherwise, one sounds either too loud or inaudible.

• The variation in the pitch of voice is what is called modulation. Usually, experienced speakers raise their voice a little, and dwell longer, on important words or information.

• Your duty then is to listen carefully and note how your lecturers modulate their voices. By this you will note when they are dealing with important matters, or emphasizing their points.


Follow the organisation of the lecture

• Now, after introducing his/her topic, a lecturer may then proceed to discuss or outline the factors which led to the situation he/she has described earlier. For example, still on “the proliferation of churches in Ghana”, he may signal a new direction in the discussion by using an introductory statement such as:

a) There are a number of reasons/factors… b) The social factors or causes… c) A major cause … • This is a cue to listen carefully in order to identify all the factors. As

soon as you hear such a statement, quickly create another sub-heading and give it a number in the right sequence.

• When the lecturer mentions a factor, you should place it under the sub-heading ‘Factors’. If he says there are three factors, listen carefully for the three and note them all down under the sub-heading.


How to deal with enumerated information

• Parts of a lecture like those which deal with Effects / Consequences / Causes / Results, may involve enumeration or spelling out of information bit by bit.

• This makes it easy for you to see at a glance how many issues have been raised and what they are.


How to deal with repetitions

• Speakers repeat themselves for emphasis and also to ensure that a point has been well understood. They do this to satisfy themselves that a class is following the lecture.

• For these reasons, you must expect some amount of repetition in any lecture. The important thing to do is to listen carefully, to spot a repetition and by so doing avoid writing the repeated points in your notes.

• Whenever you hear any of the statements below, expect a repetition: a) In other words … b) This is to say … c) What I said was … d) Alternatively …

• If you clearly understood it the first time that the point was made, just

listen. It is, however, possible that there may be fresh information in the repetition. When there is such new information, add it to what you already have.


Handling definitions

• Nearly all disciplines involve defining concepts although some need more definitions than others do.

• A lecturer may give one definition and then explain it. As the definition may be more technical or sophisticated, you may want to write it down word for word as quickly as possible so that you don’t miss out on any important information the lecturer provides later. This situation calls for the application of effective note-taking techniques to help reduce load of writing.

• You will therefore have to do the following:

Abbreviate, or shorten technical/commonly occurring words. Omit the verb ‘be’, articles, prepositions, and conjunctions.

• A lecturer would usually pause after giving a definition and then explain it.


Activity

Reduce the description below to note form by 1. creating suitable sub-headings 2. representing only the main ideas in sentences 3. shortening the forms of recurring words, and 4. omitting prepositions, articles, and auxiliary verbs

“We now turn to musical instruments. There are many different kinds of musical instruments. They can be divided into three main classes according to the way that they are played. For example, some instruments are played by blowing air into them. These are called wind instruments. In some of these, the air is made to vibrate inside a wooden tube, and these are said to be of the woodwind family. Examples of the woodwind instruments are the flute, the clarinet and the bassoon among others. Other instruments are made of brass: the trumpet and the horn, for example. There are also various other wind instruments such as the mouth organ and the bagpipes. The last big groups of musical instruments are the ones which have strings. There are two main kinds of stringed instruments: those in which the music is made by plucking the strings, and those where the player draws a bow across the strings. Examples of the former are the harp and the guitar. Examples of the latter are the violin and the cello.”


Documents

UGBS 302 Research Methods - WordPress.com · UGBS 302 Research Methods Session 11 – Extracting Information From Texts And Lectures ... Hogue, Ann (2008) First Steps In Academic