Ubuntu in African Traditional ReligionJohn S. Mbiti 2008. African Religions and Philosophy. Harlow: Heinemann. 106. 8 Desmond Tutu 2000. Ingen fremtid uten tilgivelse. Oslo: Pax. 42

UbuntuinAfricanTraditionalReligion

AnjaAgaUlvestad

Master’sThesisinHistoryofReligion(60)DepartmentofCulturalStudiesandOrientalLanguages

UNIVERSITYOFOSLO

SPRING2012

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III

UBUNTUINAFRICANTRADITIONALRELIGION

IV

©AnjaAgaUlvestad

Year:2012

Title:UbuntuinAfricanTraditionalReligion

Author:AnjaAgaUlvestad

http://www.duo.uio.no/

Print:Reprosentralen,UniversityofOslo

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ABSTRACT

Thisthesisproposestoprovetheauthenticityofubuntuthroughinvestigatingitsmeanings

andorigins,aswellaswhereubuntucanbelocated.Therehasbeensomeconfusioninthe

Westconcerningwhatubuntuis.Thewordhasbeentranslatedinto‘humanity’andhas

freelybeenusedfordifferentpurposes.Althoughunrestricteduseofthewordisofcourse

permissible,thiswayofunderstandingubuntuistoosimple.Therefore,thisthesiswill

presentdifferentinterpretationsofubuntu,aswellasprovideastapleunderstandingof

ubuntuinareligiouscontext.Thethesiswillmainlyproveubuntu’sauthenticitythrough

discoveringitwhereitcannotbeheard.Ubuntucanbelocatedinpeople’slivesandithasa

clearfunction.Thispresenceandfunctioncanalsobeseenspecificallyinpostapartheid

SouthAfrica,whereithasalsobeenvisiblyvocalised.Althoughithasbeenproposedby

othersthatthispresenceandfunctionisautopianacademicconstruct,thisthesiswillprove

otherwise.Onecannotexplainawaysomethingthatisalreadythere.

VI

VII

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

SigurdHjeldehasbeenmyeminentsupervisor,challengingandencouragingme.Without

yourhelpIdonotthinkIcouldhaveorganisedmythoughts.Ithankyouprofuselyforyour

excellentcommentsandsuggestions.

In2009ItookaclasscalledAfricanTraditionalReligionduringmysemesteratthe

UniversityofCapeTown.Myprofessor,Dr.SibusisoMasondo,sparkedthelingeringfireand

forthatIwillbeeternallygrateful.

Threemenhaveoccupiedaninspiringplaceinthebackofmymindmostofmylife.Icannot

hidetheirinfluenceonmychoices.NelsonMandela,DesmondTutuandKofiAnnan:Youare

wonderful.

Mostimportantly,themagnificentFredMartinhasstoodbymeandbeenpatientthrough

thickandthin,readpageafterpageandnotallowedmetogiveup.Iwouldmostcertainly

havebeenlostwithoutyourloveandsupport.Thankyou.

Andlastly:Nelson,myfriendandaccompliceinlife.Hewillneverlearntoread,asheisa

dog,buthisexistencehasmeantthatIcanstandbythisthesisandbeproud.

VIII

IX

TABLEOFCONTENTS

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….…..…..……1

1. AFRICANTRADITIONALRELIGION…………………………………………………..……………………..6

1.1 DEVELOPMENTANDCHANGE……………………………………………………………………………….7

1.2 MAINCHARACTERISTICS…………………………………………………………………………………….11

1.2.1 THESUPREMEBEING…………………………………………………………………………..............12

1.2.2 THEVITALFORCE…………………………………………………………………………………..........13

1.2.3 SPIRITS……………………………………………………………………………………………………..13

1.2.4 THECONCEPTOFTIME………………………………………………………………………………….13

1.3 SOUTHAFRICA……………………………………………………………………………………………………14

1.3.1 THEROLEOFCHRISTIANITY……………………………………………………………………..........15

1.3.2 THEAFRIKANER…………………………………………………………………………………….........16

1.3.3 ENDOFAPARTHEID……………………………………………………………………………………...17

2. UNDERSTANDINGUBUNTU………..……………………………………………………………………..…..20

2.1 ACADEMICAPPROACHES………………………………………………………………….…………………21

2.1.1 UBUNTUASARELIGIOUSCONCEPT…………………………………………………………………..22

2.1.2 ETYMOLOGY……………………………………………………………………………………………….24

2.1.3 UBUNTUANDPERSONHOOD…………………………………………………………………………...26

2.1.4 UBUNTU:ANAFRICANVALUE………………………………………………………………………….29

2.1.5 UBUNTUINSOUTHAFRICA……………………………………………………………………………..33

2.1.6 MORALTHEORYOFUBUNTU…………………………………………………………………………..34

3.2CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………38

3. PERFORMINGUBUNTU………………………..………………………………………………………..……….403.1 COMMUNITY…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…42

3.1.1 RITUALS……………………………………………………………………………………………….……44

3.1.2 PRAYER……………………………………………………………………………………………….…….45

3.1.3 SPECIALISTS………………………………………………………………………………………….……47

3.2 THEVITALFORCE……………………………………………………………………………………….………48

3.2.1 MARRIAGE………………………………………………………………………………………………....49

3.2.2 BRIDEWEALTH……………………………………………………………………………………………51

3.2.3 INITIATIONANDTABOOS………………………………………………………………………….……53

3.3 ANCESTORS………………………………………………………………………………………………………..55

3.3.1 NAMING…………………………………………………………………………………………………….56

X

3.4 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………58

4. UTILISINGUBUNTU………………….……………………………………………………………………..……..59

4.1 NATIONBUILDING……………………………………………………………………………………………...59

4.1.1 THENATION‐STATE…………………………………………………………………………………......61

4.1.2 THEIMAGINEDCOMMUNITY…………………………………………………………………………..62

4.1.3 PROCESSESINNATIONBUILDING…………………………………………………………………….63

4.1.4 UBUNTUANDHISTORICALNARRATIVE……………………………………………………………..65

4.2 TRUTHANDRECONCILIATIONCOMMISSION………………………………………………………68

4.2.1 THEMANDATE……………………………………………………………………………………………68

4.2.2 WHYRECONCILIATION,NOTRETRIBUTION?………………………………………………………70

4.2.3 RELIGIONANDTHETRC………………………………………………………………………………...72

4.2.4 RECONCILIATIONASNATIONBUILDING…………………………………………………………….74

4.2.5 INTERCONNECTEDNESS‐TOWARDS‐WHOLENESS…………………………………………………75

4.2.6 ANEXAMPLEOFRECONCILIATIONTODAY………………………………………………………….78

4.3 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………79

CONCLUSIONS…………...……………………………………………………………………………….………….…………...81

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..82

XI

1

INTRODUCTIONUbuntuisawordoutofAfrica.IthasincreasinglybecomeatruthintheWestthatthisword

means‘humanity,’andisespeciallylinkedtoforgivenessandreconciliationduetotheSouth

AfricanTruthandReconciliationCommission.Thewordcanbeseenonfairtradegoodsin

one’slocalsupermarket1,asthenameofaverysuccessfulcomputeroperatingsystem2or

heardduringbasketballorhandballgamesinbothNorthAmericaandEurope.3However,

thereismoretoubuntuthanbeingaslogan,abusinessideaoralifecoachingphilosophyfor

thestrengthofforgiveness.Therefore,thisthesisisbuiltonthreequestions:

Whatisubuntu?

Wheredoesubuntucomefrom?

Howcanubuntubelocated?

Withinthesequestionsliesthedebateonwhetherornotubuntuisanauthentic,historical

andrelevantelementofAfricanTraditionalReligion,orindeedAfricanlife.Therefore,this

thesiswilllookathowubuntuisunderstood,performedandutilised.Throughanswering

thesequestions,awideronewillalsobeanswered:

Isubuntuauthentic?

Inaskingthesequestions,whatdoIhopetoachieve?AccordingtoLeonhardPraeg,4

expectingaconstantiveresponseisnotgoingtoprovideuswithanythingusable.Ubuntuis

oftenexplainedthroughshowinganexaggerateddifference,mainlyfromtheWest,orby

whatPraegreferstoasa‘collapseddifference’,whichmeansequatingubuntutoalready

familiarphilosophies,suchassocialismorcommunalism.Inordertoachievesomething

representativewiththesequestionsthefocusneedsrathertobeontheperformativeor

politicalfunctionofubuntu.Praeginsistsweask:‘Whataretheconditionsofits

possibility?’5Thisthesiswilllocatetheconditionsthatmakeubuntupossible.Ratherthan

givingupexplainingtheinexplicable,whichubuntuoftenissaidtobe,orsideliningit

completelywithcommunitarianism,socialismorhumanism,Iwillexplainubuntuthrough

action.Whereisubuntuseen,heardanddone?Themainfocusofthisthesiswillbetosee

1TheUbuntuTradingCompany2011.2CanonicalGroupLtd.2012.3WilliamC.Rhoden2008.‘CelticsWearingtheBannerofUnity,’inTheNewYorkTimes,TormodBrenna2012.’Derforroperhåndballgutta’ubuntu!’ettertimeout.’Dagbladet.4LeonhardPraeg2008.’AnAnswertotheQuestion:Whatis[ubuntu]?’SouthAfricanJournalofPhilosophy.5Ibid:370‐371.

2

ubuntuthroughSouthAfricanpoliticalandeverydaylife,aswellasawiderAfrican

approach.Thisthesiswillalsofocusonthearrayofacademicdefinitionsand

understandingsofubuntu.Thisisimportantinunderstandingwhatubuntuisandwhat

pretextithasforexistenceinpeople’slives.Aswellasthis,ubuntuisplacedwithina

religiouscontextastherootofAfricanTraditionalReligion.Thisthesiswilloperatewiththe

followingdefinitionofAfricanTraditionalReligion,putforwardbyJuliusMutugiGathogo:

‘…it[is]anindigenoussystemofbeliefsandpracticesthatareintegratedintocultureandtheworldviewsoftheAfricanpeoples.Likeinotherprimalreligions,oneisbornintoitasawayoflifewithitsculturalmanifestationsandreligiousimplications.AfricanReligionisthusanintegralpartoftheAfricanethosandculture.’6

Idonotwishtoreduceubuntutooneparticularessence.Ubuntuisnotrestrictedtothe

communityandmyintentionistotreatubuntuinthecontextofSouthAfrica,aswellas

amongmanyothercountriesofAfrica.AlthoughmyculturalbackgroundisEuro‐Christian,I

havenodesiretouniversaliseubuntu.Iamattemptingtoexplainubuntuasaphenomenon

aswellasareligiouselementinAfricanTraditionalReligionthroughaperformative

approach.ThroughthisIwillproveubuntu’sauthenticityandrelevance.Ibelievethatno

phenomenonexistswithoutacontext.Thephenomenonofubuntucannot,anddoesnot,

existsolitarily.Asubuntuspeakstointerconnectedness,sodothechaptersofthisthesis.

Interconnectednessisanimportantcontextinwhichtounderstandubuntu,anditiswithin

thisthatubuntumanagestoexist.

‘Iam,becauseweare;andsinceweare,thereforeIam.’7‘IamhumanbecauseIbelong.’8‘Peoplearepeoplethroughotherpeople.’9

Thesethreequotesdonotspecificallysayubuntu,yetubuntuiswhattheyrepresent.

Therefore,thisthesiswillinvestigatethemeaningsandusesofubuntubyitselfandin

relationtoitssurroundings.Inordertoaccomplishthis,Idrawonphenomenology.Asfaras

itispossibleIwillattempttosidelinemyculturalbiasanddesiretocompare.Toachieve

whatthisthesissetsoutto,Iwillmakeuseofbothmorphologicalphenomenology,aswellas

hermeneuticalphenomenology.10Through‘eideticvision’11thisthesiswillclassifythe

6JuliusMutugiGathogo2007.’TheRelevanceandInfluenceofAfricanReligioninPostApartheidSouthAfricaandBeyond–Part1.’Churchman.164.7JohnS.Mbiti2008.AfricanReligionsandPhilosophy.Harlow:Heinemann.106.8DesmondTutu2000.Ingenfremtidutentilgivelse.Oslo:Pax.429Gathogo2007:170.10JacobK.Olupona1991.’MajorIssuesintheStudyofAfricanTraditionalReligion,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.29‐30.

3

essencesandthestructuresofubuntuinlinewithmorphologicalphenomenology.The

hermeneuticalphenomenologywilllocatetheessencesofmeaninginsidethephenomenon.

Thisthesiswillconsistofasystematic,historicalanddescriptiveapproach,12through

comparingthescholarlywork,maintainingthespecifichistoricalandculturalcontextsas

wellasdescribingthereligiousphenomenon.

Thesourcesusedtoanswerthesequestionsaremainlyamixbetweenjournalarticlesand

books.ThereisabalancedmixbetweenAfricanandEuropeanauthorsandscholars,also

includingsomefromNorthAmerica.Themostimportantauthorsforchapteroneandthree

havebeenKenyanscholarandpriestJohnS.MbitiandTanzanianscholarandpriest

LaurentiMagesa.Thereisawiderangeofsourcesusedinchaptertwo,wherethemost

widelyusedarearticlesbySouthAfricanscholarMogobeRamose,Dutchanthropologist

WimvanBinsbergen,AmericanphilosophyprofessorThaddeusMetzandGhanaian

philosopherKwameGyekye,aswellasNigerian‐AmericanscholarMichaelOnyebuchiEze’s

bookIntellectualHistoryofContemporarySouthAfrica.Thefinalchaptermakesmostuseof

thepreviouslymentionedbook,inadditiontoKwameGyekye’sbookTraditionand

Modernity,andCanadianscholarKennethChristie’sbookontheSouthAfricantruth

commission,alsoincludingSouthAfricanwriterAntjieKrog’sarticleaboutreconciliation

andforgiveness.Thiswidearrayofacademicbackgroundsandnationalitieswillprovidea

balancedportrayalofubuntu.

Thefirstchapterisdescriptiveincharacter.Forawholesomeunderstandingofubuntuone

needstounderstandAfricanTraditionalReligion(ATR),asubuntuisareligious

phenomenon.IchoosetodiscussthechangeanddevelopmentofATRfirst,asitprovestobe

anaturalstartingpointforafieldofstudythathasseenmanyinfluencesanddevelopments.

Themainfocushereishowcommonfeaturescanbelocatedinsuchalargeanddiverse

continent;thereligiousaspects;thepluralityofATR;andtheimpactofglobalpowerson

AfricanTraditionalReligion.FollowedbythemaincharacteristicsofATR.Iwillalsogivea

briefsummaryofthehistoryofSouthAfrica,andtheinfluencesthathasprovenimportant

forthepresentday.Allcountriesofsub‐SaharanAfricahaveacolonialpast,althoughthey

allpossessuniqueelementstotheirhistory.ThehistoryofSouthAfricawillnotserveasa

generaltaleofcolonialismandoppressioninAfrica,althoughitisareminderofthecontext

inwhichATRhassurvived.ThehistoryofSouthAfricamainlybenefitsthelastchapter, 11DouglasAllen2010.’PhenomenologyofReligion,’inJohnR.Hinnells(ed.):TheRoutledgeCompaniontotheStudyofReligion.NewYork:Routledge.209.12Ibid:215.

4

whichdiscussesubuntuinpostapartheidSouthAfrica.Itwillprovevaluableinthe

understandingoftheproblemsfacingSouthAfricaaftertheendofapartheid,andhow

ubuntuhasbecomeapartofthepublicimaginary.

Chaptertwowilldescribeanddiscussdiverseunderstandingsofubuntu,mainlybyscholars.

Thispartofthethesisisinmanywaysthecoreofunderstandingthemeaninginherentin

ubuntu.Thechapterwillstartbyplacingubuntuintotworeligiouscontextswhereubuntu

canbelocated.OneisinAfricanTraditionalReligionandtheotherisinformerArchbishop

DesmondTutu’sownubuntutheology.Thisfocusesonthemeaningsandvaluesofubuntu

withinTutu’sAnglicanChristianity.Includingthisviewisimportantbecauseitshows

differentaspectsofubuntu,aswellasexplainingTutu’svaluebasisduringhisparticipation

intheTruthandReconciliationCommission(TRC).Followingthis,theetymologyofthe

wordubuntuwillbepresented,mainlythroughaphilosophicalapproachoftheAfrican

scholarMogobeRamose.Presentingthiscreatesafoundationforthefurtherdiscussionof

ubuntu.Chaptertwoalsocontainsasalientdebateontheselfinrelationtotheapparent

communalnatureofubuntu,whichwillleadusclosertowardsafullunderstandingof

ubuntu.Anotherimportantpathtowardsanunderstandingofubuntuisthedebateon

whetherornotubuntuisaninventedconcept.CanonesaythatubuntuisanAfricanvalue?

Orisitalostvalue,erodedbyglobalisationand/orcolonialism?Somescholarsproposethat

ubuntuhasbeeninventedbycontemporaryacademicsforthebenefitofthenewly

globalisedAfricancountries.EspeciallyinthecontextofSouthAfrica,itisarguedthat

ubuntuhasbeenusedtosuppressfeelingsofangerandresentmentintheirpostapartheid

society.Thisleadsusfurther,wherethefocusisSouthAfricaandtheappearanceofubuntu

inapreandpostapartheidsociety.Thechapterwillconcludebyfocusingonsixtheoretical

interpretationsofubuntu,putforwardbyAmerican‐bornphilosophyprofessorThaddeus

Metz.13Thisfinalexerciseofthechapterwillhelpusdifferentiatebetweenthevarious

availableandmostrelevantdefinitionsofubuntu.Theseinterpretationsfocusonhuman

rights,utilitarianism,communitarianismandpersonhood.Thiswillleaveuswithaviewof

ubuntutocarryfurtherintothenextchapter.

Thethirdchapterwillprovetheexistenceofubuntuinpeople’slivesandinthecommunity.

Inpurportingtheauthenticityandrelevanceofubuntu,thischapterpresentsvital

information.TheexamplespresentedinthischapteraretakenfrompeoplesinSouthAfrica,

butalsofromdifferentcommunitiesinAfrica.Thereasonforthiswiderreachisthatthe

13ThaddeusMetz2007.’TowardanAfricanMoralTheory.’JournalofPoliticalPhilosophy.

5

understandingandinterpretationofubuntuisnotonlyfoundinSouthAfrica.Incorporating

examplesfromseveralcommunitiesprovidesuswithawiderimageofubuntu.Thisserves

twopurposes,whereoneexpandsthegeneralviewofhowubuntucanbeunderstood,

whereubuntucomesfromandhowitcanbelocated.Theotherpurposeistobenefitthelast

chapterinparticular.InexplainingtheAfrican,intricateandsocio‐religiousnatureof

ubuntu,onecanmoreeasilyseehowithasbecomesuchanapparentpartofSouthAfrica’s

publicimaginary.ThechapterwillfocusonthreemainelementsofAfricanTraditional

Religion.Theexamplesofstructuresandprocessesinthecommunityherewillprovethe

immediacyofubuntu,aswellasitsprominenceandauthenticity.Itdoesthisthrough

showinguswhereandhowubuntucanbelocatedinthecommunity.

ThefinalchapterdealswithubuntuinthecontextofSouthAfricannationbuildingafterthe

endofapartheid.AnimportantquestionhereishowSouthAfricahasmanagedtheproject

ofnationbuilding,andwhereubuntucanbefoundinthisendeavour.Thischapterwillfocus

ondefiningthebordersofthenation‐state,theprocessesofnationbuildingandwhatis

requiredforachievingunity.Further,therewillbeafocusonhowubuntuhasfeaturedin

thehistoricalnarrativethatSouthAfricalackedpostapartheid.Thefinalpartofthischapter

isconcernedwiththeTruthandReconciliationCommission(TRC)ofSouthAfrica.This

commissionwasgivenamandatebythegovernmentinordertoworktowardsnational

unity.Themandateandthechoiceofreconciliationoveramnestyorretributionwillbe

discussedinitially.Ubuntucanbetracedinthechoices,responsesandthestructureofthe

commission.Therewillalsobeafocusontheimportanceofreligiousacknowledgementin

theproceedingsoftheTRC.Manyofthosewhodiedduringapartheidwerelocatedasa

directresultoftheTRCproceedings,providingtheirfamilywiththeopportunitytobury

theirkinproperly.Aswellasthis,thefollowingquestionsneedtobeaddresses:whenand

howcanreconciliationbeanelementofnationbuilding;andwhenisthereconciliation

expectedtooccur?Finally,thischapterfocusesonhowubuntuwasexpressedduringthe

proceedingsoftheTRC,aswellasonhowthoseparticipatingintheproceedingsactedin

relationtoreligionandubuntu.Finally,toillustratethatubuntuispresenttodayinSouth

Africa,althoughnotspokenoutloud,Iwillpresentanexamplefromrecentyearsfeaturinga

universityprofessorinordertoshowthatubuntuexistsamongordinarypeopleinmodern

daySouthAfrica,furtherprovingubuntu’sauthenticityandrelevance.

6

1 AFRICANTRADITIONALRELIGIONDescribingwhatAfricanTraditionalReligionisprovesaprecarioustask.Sincethemid

1900stherehasbeenatugofwarbetweenWesternandAfricanrepresentations,andeven

betweenAfricanscholars:whograspstheauthenticAfricanreligion?Atthesametime,elite

Africanscouldnotwaituntilthecolonialdusthadsettledbeforeattemptingtoprovethat

AfricawasjustasgoodasEurope.TherewasadesirebyAfricansfromtheelitetocorrect

thefalseimagetheWesthadcreatedofAfrica,butaccordingtoRosalindShaw‘…endedup

reinforcingtheinterlopingtradition.’14BothansweringbacktotheWesternscholarsand

provingAfricathroughtheirwordswilldetractfromthetopicathand,whichisAfrican

TraditionalReligion.AccordingtoChidesteret.al.,onlywhenoneturnsawayfromthe

attentionoftheWestaltogetherwilltheAfricancometotheforefront.Now,this‘African’is

notsupposedtobeanuntouchedentity,freefromalloutsideinfluences,suchas

Christianity,Islamormodernity.Takingthehistoricalcontextintoconsiderationwill

promotetherealityofthe‘African’.15WellawarethatIamaWesternacademicIcando

nothingbutmyutmostinordertonotfallintothistrap.Mywishisnottonecessarilymake

thistopicmoreunderstandabletothereaderthroughtheacademiccontext,butastrulyasis

possibleIwishtopresentAfricanTraditionalReligiononitsownterms.ThereligionIam

presentingisnotafixedbeing,neverhavingdevelopedorevolved.Itis,however,a

representationofonlythereligiouspartsofthisbeliefsystem,asitshouldbe.Politicsdo

factorin,especiallyinthiscontextwhentalkingofcolonialismandapartheid,butitdoesnot

infuseeverything.AsIampresentingubuntuasareligiousconceptIwillattempttostripthe

religiondowntothebareboneinordertomoreclearlyshowhowubuntufitsin.Iwillof

coursediscussthevariousareasofcontention,likethepluralnatureofthereligion,the

religion’snameandwhatadefinitioncouldsoundlike.Inadditiontothis,howthereligious

pictureofSouthAfricaispresentedtodayisofgreatinterest,andwillbeaddressedbriefly.

ThereafterIwilllookatthemaincharacteristicsofAfricanTraditionalReligion.Infocusing

onthesimilaritiesfoundalloversub‐SaharanAfrica,whataretheimportantpartsofthe

religionandhowcanweseethem?Thelastsectionofthischapterwillfocusonthehistory

ofchurchstaterelationsinSouthAfrica,colonialmissionariesandabriefhistoryofSouth

Africafromwhenthefirstsettlersarriveduntiltoday,includinganoverviewofthediverse

groupsandlanguagesinhabitingSouthAfricatoday.

14DavidChidester,ChirevoKwenda,RobertPetty,JudyToblerandDarrelWratten1997.AfricanTraditionalReligioninSouthAfrica:AnAnnotatedBibliography.Westport/London:Greenwood.2.15Ibid.

7

2.1DEVELOPMENTANDCHANGE

AfricanTraditionalReligiondoesnothavewrittenrules,orasetofdogmastoacceptand

adhereto.ThetraditionsthatmakeupAfricanreligionhavebeenpasseddownfor

generationsthroughtheforbearsofeachcommunity.Eachgenerationencountersdifferent

challengesandexperiences,whichaltersthewayofpractisingtheirreligioninsuchaway

thatitisalwaysmovingforwardandevolving.16Overtimecommunitieshavecrossedpaths,

forinstancethroughmarriageorasthecauseofadisaster.Thishasseemedtocreate

commoncharacteristicsofreligiouspracticesacrossthecountriesofsub‐SaharanAfrica.

Thishasbeenanorganicprocesswhereeachcommunityisuniqueatthesametimeas

believingandviewingtheworldinmuchasimilarway.Sosimilarinfactthatonecanuse

thesingularwhenaddressingAfricanreligion.17Otherreligionsoftheworld,whichhavea

singularname,alsopossessuniquenessintheirmanydifferentgroupsofpeoplepractising

thatreligion.OtherAfricanscholarsechothisbelief,inasingularfocus.NokuzulaMndende

stressesthatpeoplecanlookatcommonfeaturesofreligion,withoutsayingthatreligionis

monolithic.ThishasbeendonewithChristianity,Islam,Hinduism,sowhyshouldAfrican

religionbepluralwhenoneneverhearstalkofChristianities,andsoforth.Hestressesthat

theunderlyingprincipleofAfricanReligionremainsthesame,eventhoughcustomsand

objectsdonot.18

LaurentiMagesaarguesthatAfricanreligionisaworthyworldreligion.Tohim,African

religionfulfilsallthecriterianeededinordertobecharacterisedasaworldreligion,

includinguniversality.Hedoes,however,pointoutthattoanAfrican,religionismuchmore

thana’believingwayoflife’,or’anapproachtolife’leadbythewritingsofbooks.Itisa‘way

oflife’,orindeedlifeitself.Thereisnodistinctionorseparationbetweenreligionandother

areasofhumanexistence.Further,Magesastatesthatwhentalkingofinspirationand

revelationthesecannotbelocatedinabook,normainlyintheoraltraditionsofthepeopleit

concerns.Itwillbelocatedinthepeoples’lives.19Thisiswhereonecanfindthecoreof

Africanreligion:fortheAfrican,religionisquiteliterallylifeandlifeisreligion.20African

religionbelongstowhatMbiticallstribalornationalplaces.Therearenomissionaries,and

onecannotconverttoAfricanreligion,asitispartoflifeineachcommunity.Africanreligion

16Mbiti2008:2‐3.17Ibid:4.18Gathogo2007:166.19LaurentiMagesa1997.AfricanReligion:TheMoralTraditionsofAbundantLife.Maryknoll:OrbisBooks.24‐26.20Ibid:26.

8

hasnofounders,noreformers,exceptsomehighlythoughtofhistoricalpersons,suchas

formerkingsorpoliticalleaders.21

LouisBrennerarguesthatthereislittleevidenceleadingonetobelievethattheparticipants

inreligiouspracticeinAfricahavethemselvesperceivedtheirreligionasexclusiveand

autonomous.Infact,hestresses,theredoesnotappeartobeawordinanyAfricanlanguage

thatistranslatableto‘religion’.22Othersclaimtherearenoequivalentsatallinother

culturesfortheword‘religion’.Someproposetogetridofthewordaltogetherwhen

researchingnon‐Westernreligions.23ThephraseAfricanTraditionalReligion(ATR)is

debatedandcontested.Formany,theinclusionof‘traditional’linksthephraseto

ChristianityandtheWest.ThosewhoprofessthisbelieveitwillportrayAfricanreligionas

beingarchaicandoutdated,whichtranslatestoitbeingirrelevant.Othersfavourleavingthe

wordoutasitdoesnotappearinanyoftheotherworldreligions,andshouldthereforejust

becalledAfricanreligion.However,theproblemwiththisisthatAfricanReligioninmodern

Africaisnotstraightforward.ChristianityhasbecomeasignificantAfricanreligion,which

invitesconfusionastowhatconstitutesAfricanreligionbyitself.Thesamecanbesaidof

Islam,whichisalsoasubstantialreligioninAfrica.Thequestion,successfullyposedby

JuliusGathogoisthen;howdowedecideanddevisethedifferencesbetweenthepresent

andthepre‐Christianorpre‐MuslimreligiousdiscoursesofAfrica?24AccordingtoRobin

Horton,ChristianityandIslamweremerecatalystsforchangeinAfricanreligion.African

religionwasalreadyrespondingtosocialchangeatthetimeofnewreligiousinfluencesin

thecommunities.ThistheorydebunkspreviousclaimsthatChristianityandIslam

themselveschangedAfricanreligionproposingthatthechangetheywereinvolvedinwas

alreadyinprogress.ThisprovesthestrengthinherentinAfricanreligionanditsabilityto

changebyitself.AsJacobOluponapointsout:‘…Africantraditionalreligionwasnotjusta

houseofcardsthatcollapsedattheinstanceofchange.’25Thisisnottosaythatchangehas

notproducedChristianproductsinAfricancommunities.TheadventofIndependentAfrican

Churchesisproofofthis.26AccordingtoBennettaWashingtonJules‐Rosette,therearemore

thanseventhousandnewreligiousmovementsinsub‐SaharanAfrica.Morethan32million

adherentsfollowtheseseventhousandplusmovements,whichamountsto15percentof

thetotalsub‐SaharanChristianpopulation.Jules‐Rosettearguesthatthesenewreligious 21Mbiti2008:4.22LouisBrenner2000.‘HistoriesofReligioninAfrica.’JournalofReligioninAfrica.143‐44.23JacobBeyers2010.‘WhatisReligion?AnAfricanUnderstanding.’HTSTeologieseStudies.1.24Gathogo2007:164.25Olupona1991:32.26Ibid:32.

9

movementsprimarilyexistinplaceswheretherehasbeenintensivecontactwith

Christianitythroughmissionaries.However,thesemovements,markedbybeingprophetic

andrevitalistic,didexistpriortoEuropeancontact,althoughtherewasastronger

emergenceafterthewidespreadEuropeancontact.27AccordingtoJules‐Rosettethereare

threemajortypesofnewreligiousmovementsinsub‐SaharanAfrica:‘(1)indigenous,or

independentchurches;(2)separatistchurches;and(3)neotraditionalmovements.’28They

alltakeondifferentformsdependingonwhereonthecontinenttheybelong,buttheyall

blendtraditionalreligionwithinfluencesofbothhistoricalandmodernchurches.The

reasonfortheiremergenceandcontinuedgrowthhasdifferentsources.Itmayhavebeen

convertswhoweredisappointedwiththepremisesandoutcomesofChristianity,

translationoftheBibleintolocalAfricanlanguages,failurebyChristiandenominationsto

meetlocalneeds,influenceofWesternmedicineinfavourofspiritualhealing,orthefailure

ofChristianitytocreatestrongandnecessarycommunitybonds.AccordingtoJules‐Rosette,

thenewchurchesnowemergefromandremainingrowthduetothelossofsenseof

communityinurbanareas.29ThesenseofcommunityisofvitalimportancetotheAfrican,

andthesesocialstructurestendtobreakapartinurbansituations.Althoughthelevelof

urbanpopulationinAfricaislow,therateatwhichitistakingplaceisamongthehighestin

theworld.AccordingtoOosthuizen,urbanisationinAfricantodayismoreextensivethan

bothinChinaandIndia.30Hedoes,however,stressthatbothmodernandtraditional

worldviewsareprevalentinAfricatoday,withChristianityandIslaminfluencedbythe

traditionalAfricanreligion,andallthreeinfluencedbysecularisation.Thisbeingsaid,

OosthuizenpointsoutthatthemodernistworldviewoftheWesthasnotaffectedAfricaina

significantway.HecallsthisWesternworldview‘…closed,essentiallycompleteand

unchangeable,basicallysubstantiveandfundamentallynon‐mysterious…’,whichisforeign

toAfricawherereligionstillisanimportantpartofpeopleslives.31

InaddressingchangeinAfricanreligion,RosalindHackettarguesthatitisnotthewhole

religioussystemwhichchangesbutratherconcepts,practicesandsymbols.CitingRobin

Horton,shecontinuesbysayingthatwhentheenormityoftheworldentersintothesmall

27BennettaWashingtonJules‐Rosette1991.’TraditionandContinuityinAfricanReligions:TheCaseofNewReligiousMovements,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.150,151.28Ibid:150.29Ibid:151.30GehardusCornelisOosthuizen1991.‘ThePlaceofTraditionalReligioninContemporarySouthAfrica,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.36.31Ibid:36.

10

communitythelocalspiritsarethefirsttobedevalued.Insteadthecommunityfocuses

moreontheSupremeBeingandplacesmoreimportanceinoneplace.Othersclaimthatitis

the‘…cultic,collective,orcalendricalaspects’32thatdiminishfirst.Thisisbecausethe

communitysuffersalossofidentityandalsoofpower.However,accordingtothesewriters

importantriteslikehealing,divinationandmagickeeptheirimportanceastheycontinueto

behelpfulinthechallengesofachangingworld.AccordingtoHackett,themainwaves

affectingthechangeofAfricanreligionare:universalisation,modernisation,politicisation,

commercialisationandindividualisation.Thereisanattemptofscholarsandothersto

universaliseAfricanreligionsoastoequateittootherWorldreligions.Tothem,making

Africanreligionavailablearoundtheworldwilltherebylegitimateitsexistence.33This

contradictswhatMbitisaysofAfricanreligionhavingnomissionaries,andoutsidersnot

beingabletoconverttoAfricanreligion,asitishighlylocal.34ModernisationofAfrican

religionisresultinginsmallerchurchesusingChristianformsinexpressingthemselves,at

thesametimeastheyclaimtobeauthenticallyAfrican,accordingtoHackett’sresearchin

Nigeria.Inadditiontothis,modernisationiscreatingencountersbetweenAfricanreligious

sitesorspiritsthatneedtobeincorporatedintocorporatesituations.Thisincludescreating

staticshrineswithopeninghoursforworship,aswellasperformingritualstopleasethe

spiritsofaplacewhereacementcompanyisbeingconstructed.Politiciansandgovernment

officialspourlibationattheopeningofhospitalsorotherbuildingsormonuments.35This

doesprovethoughthatAfricanTraditionalReligionfeatures,sometimesmore

predominantlythannot,inAfricanurbancommunitiesandcities.Thisiscontrarytowhat

WimvanBinsbergenclaims.Hearguesthatvaluesfoundinruralvillagelifearelostwhen

peoplemovetowardsthecities.36

Theageoftechnologyalongwithheavyurbanisation,Westernstylepoliticsandtradeareall

veryimportantandverymuchapartofdailylifeinmanyAfricancountries.Although

ChristianityisthelargestreligioninSouthAfrica,researchshowsthatboththoseaffiliated

witheitherChristianityorIslamstillrefertoelementsofAfricanreligionaspartoftheirlife,

forinstancethecommunicationwithancestors.37DavidAdamoarguesthatAfrican

TraditionalReligionhasexperiencedresurgenceinpostapartheidSouthAfrica.Hemainly

32RosalindI.J.Hackett1991.’RevitalizationinAfricanTraditionalReligion,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.136.33Ibid:136‐38.34Mbiti2008:4.35Hackett1991:139‐142.36WimvanBinsbergen2001.‘UbuntuandtheGlobalisationofSouthernAfricanThoughtandSociety.’Quest.62.37TheEconomist2010.’Islam,ChristianityandAfrica:ABeaconofFaiths.’

11

creditsthistoATRpracticallybeingoutlawedduringapartheid,andnowcanbepractices

freely.HementionshealthworkersapproachingtheSouthAfricanParliamentinorderto

giverecognitiontoAfricanhealers.HealsonotesthatChristianchurcheshavebeenmore

thanopenfordialoguewiththosepracticingAfricanTraditionalReligion.38Accordingtothe

WorldReligionDatabase,thedeclineinadherentstoAfricanTraditionalReligionseemsto

havestopped,justastheriseofChristianityseemstobeonasimilarpause.Ithereforethink

wecansaythatAdamo’suseofthewordresurgenceisoverlyoptimistic.However,asis

pointedoutbytheresearchfromWorldReligionDatabase,peopleregisteredasChristians

dostillturntotheirAfricanTraditionalReligion,whichhasinallprobabilityplayedamajor

roleintheirupbringing,whetherurbanornot.AsacompromisebetweensayingATRis

experiencingaresurgenceandATRisexchangedforChristianity,wecansaythatChristian

churchesregistertheirfollowersbutdonotlaydownsetrulesofhowtopersonallyrelateto

thepreachedChristianity.AfricanTraditionalReligioncanthereforestillbeapartoflife.

2.2MAINCHARACTERISTICS

ManisatthecentreofAfricanreligioneventhoughthereligiondoesnotexistprimarilyfor

theindividual,butratherforthewholecommunitytheindividualisapartof.JohnMbiti

statesthattobehumanistobelongtoacommunity.Inbelongingtothecommunityone

takespartintherituals,ceremonies,festivalsandbeliefsofthatcommunity.Thiswaya

personwillalwaysbereligious,astheywillalwaysbelongtotheircommunity,atleastthisis

trueintheory.Butalsointheory,severingoneselffromthecommunitywillentailuprooting

oneselftothefullest.Acommunityisinasenseasetof‘others’;theymakethepersonaware

oftheirownexistence.Inseparatingoneselffromthecommunity,the‘others’willnolonger

beavailableinordertomakethepersonawareofhisownexistence,andthereforebecomea

fullerhumanbeing.Thismeansthatavitalpartofthepicturewillbemissingasthisperson

navigatesthroughlife.ThiswouldbenearimpossibletodoasMbitistresses;beingwithout

religionisakinto’selfexcommunication’fromsociety.AndaccordingtoMbiti,African

peoplesdonotknowhowtoexistwithoutreligion.Evenso,education,urbanisationand

industrialisationareallchangingthefaceofAfricanreligion,asmoreandmorepeopleare

beingdetachedfromtheirtraditionalbackgroundsandenvironments.39

38DavidT.Adamo2008.’ChristianityandtheAfricanTraditionalReligion(s):ThePostcolonialRoundofEngagement.’VerbumetEcclesia.2.39Mbiti2008:4.

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2.2.1THESUPREMEBEING

AnimportantelementinAfricanReligionisthe‘incomprehensibleandmysterious’40

SupremeBeing.Theentitythatdidordidnotcreatetheworld,dependingonwhatscholars

oneagreewith,41doesnotusuallyhaveaname.Ifithasaname,itisseldomspoken.Naming

meansassertingcontrol,andleavingthedeitywithoutanamemaintainsitsdignity.This

alsohelpswithseparatingtheSupremeBeingfromhumanity.ContactwiththeSupreme

Beingcanonlybedonethroughcouncillorsandmediators.However,theSupremeBeingis

‘intheorytranscendent,butinpracticeimmanent.’42EmefieIkenga‐Metuhattemptsto

explainAfricanreligiouscosmogonyinfocusingontheessentialdifferencebetweena

WesternGodandanAfricanSupremeBeing.WestAfricansystemsofbeliefdonotseethe

SupremeBeingascreator,eventhoughthereexistsanimageofasuperiorbeing.Despite

believinginaSupremeBeing,Africanreligioncannotbereferredtoasamonotheistic

religion.Itcannotbecalledapolytheisticreligioneither,asotherdivinitiesarenotequalin

positiontotheSupremeBeing.ThereforetherearenowordsinWesternphilosophythat

cancorrectlyexplainAfricanreligion.43ProfessorGloriaEmeagwaliarguesthatAfrican

religionreflectsmonotheisticorientationsinapolytheisticform.Sheexplainsthisthrough

OrisaandIfa,deitiesoftheYoruba,whicharecharacterisedbypayinghomagetoancestors

andconstructingshrines,atthesametimeassubmittingthemselvestothedifferent

manifestationsoftheSupremeBeing.44TheancestorscancommunicatewiththeSupreme

Beingonbehalfofpersonsinthestill‐livingfamilyoftheancestor(s).JuliusGathogouses

examplesfromSouthernandEasternAfricatoexplainhowcommoncharacteristicsof

AfricanReligioncanbefoundacrossAfrica.TheXhosaofSouthAfricacalltheirSupreme

BeingQamataandtheancestorsmediatebetweenQamataandthehumanbeings.Thissame

worldviewimageryisfoundamongtheKikuyuofEastAfrica,wheretheancestorsmediate

betweenthehumansandNgai.45

40Mbiti2008:4.41Mbiti2008:4,EmefieIkenga‐Metuh1982.’ReligiousConceptsinWestAfricanCosmogonies:AProblemofInterpretation.’JournalofReligioninAfrica.21.42MbitiquotedinBeyers2010:4.43SandraE.Greene1996.’Religion,HistoryandtheSupremeGodsofAfrica:AContributiontothedebate.’JournalofReligioninAfrica.123‐124,Ikenga‐Metuh1982:21‐23.44GloriaEmeagwali2006.’AfricaandtheTextbooks,’inGloriaEmeagwali(ed.):AfricaandtheAcademy:ChallengingHegemonicDiscoursesonAfrica.Trenton/Asmara:AfricaWorldPress.8.45Gathogo2007:166.

13

2.2.2THEVITALFORCE

MbitidividesAfricanontologyintofivecategories:God,spirit,man,animalsandplants,and

phenomenaandobjectswithoutbiologicallife.This‘anthropocentric’ontologyisin

completeunitywhereallelementsareequallyco‐dependent.Keepingthesecategoriesin

continuedbalancetooneanother,noonegrowingbiggerorsmallerthantheother,isavery

importantactofmaintainingharmony.Thiswillmakeitpossibletogainasmuchoutoflife

inthepresent.AccordingtoMbiti,thereisaforcepermeatingtheuniverse.TheSupreme

Beingcontrolsthisforce,allowingsomespiritsandancestorsaccesstoit,althoughnottoall

ofit.46Thevitalforce47iscrucialinAfricanTraditionalReligion.Alllivingthingsaregiven

theirlifeforcebytheSupremeBeingtosustainlife.Alllivingthingsareconnectedthrough

thisvitalforce,andlifeisallaboutcaringforitandpassingiton.Thisvitalforceisimportant

inmaintainingthebalanceandharmonybetweenthevisibleandtheinvisibleworld,which

isagreatethicalobligationdeterminingqualityoflife.48

2.2.3SPIRITS

AccordingtoKrüger,threecategoriescanbeidentifiedaspartofthespiritworld;theyare

thespiritsoftheancestors,naturespiritsanddeities.Spiritsbelongontheearth,whereas

thedeitiesresidemostlyawayfromearth.TheancestorsarevitalinAfricanTraditional

Religion,andisdirectlylinkedtothepreservationandpassingonofthevitalforce.

Ancestorshavepersonalrelationshipswiththeirdescendants,andcanactasmediators

betweenhumansandtheSupremeBeing.Becominganancestorisaprivilegenoteveryone

canobtainastheyareconsiderededucatorsforpropersocialbehaviour.Theunified

communitypointedoutasacharacteristicbyKrügerreferstoa‘…naturalbondbetweenthe

individual,theextendedfamily,theclanorthetribe,andtheancestors,natureandGod.’49

2.2.4THECONCEPTOFTIME

AccordingtoMbiti,theAfricanconceptoftimeisatwo‐dimensionalphenomenon.Thereisa

longpast,apresent,andnofuture.Healsodifferentiatesbetweenpotentialandactualtime.

Theremightbeaninevitableeventtotakeplaceinthefuture,partofthe‘rhythmofnatural

phenomena’,whichwillbeplacedwithinpotentialtime,notactualtime.Eventsthathave

46Mbiti2008:15‐16.47Magesa1997:39.Itisalsoknownbythenameoflifeforce,lifeessence,dynamismormana.AlthoughMbitistatesthatmanadoesnotrelatetothevitalforceinthisdefinition.Mbiti2008:16.48Magesa1997:73‐74.49Beyers2010:5.

14

notyetoccurredcannotconstitutetime.Oncethefutureeventshavepassed,itisnolonger

inthefuture,butalreadyinthepresentorpast.Mbitiarguesthattimemovesbackward

ratherthanforward.Oneismindfulofthepastinordertoincorporateitintothepresent,

ratherthanthefuture.Theexperienceoftimecomespartlythroughtheindividualand

partlythroughtheadherentcommunity.Thereisanawarenessofallthepastgenerations.

Thepastgenerationsarere‐experiencedinthepresentbythoselivinginthecommunityin

ordertomakethebestonecanoutofthepresent.50Thisviewoftimeisusefulforuswhen

talkingabouttheimmanenceinherentintheAfricanworldview.Thisimmediacyaffectsall

partsoflife,andthereforereligiouslife,explainingtoadegreewhytheharmonyinthe

statusquoisofsuchimportance.Thefocusonthehereandnowdoesnottakeawayfrom

thebiggerpicture.ThisbiggerpictureispartoftheAfricanworldview,asthevitalforceisof

greatimportanceinordertocontinuethebloodlineandmaintaintheforce,whichisalong‐

termproject.However,neglectingtodosowillaffectthehereandnowagreatdeal,which

willnotmakepossibleafuture.In1969,whenJohnMbitipublishedhisbookonAfrican

religionhewrotethatAfricanpeoplesarediscoveringthefuturedimensionoftimethrough

‘…Christianmissionaryteaching,…western‐typeeducation,…[and]theinvasionofmodern

technologywithallitinvolves.’51Invariouscountriesthesecularlevelsofgovernmentare

affectedastheyplanforeconomicgrowth,politicalindependenceandextensionof

educationalfacilities,amongotherthings.Mbitiarguesthatthischangecouldbeattheroot

ofmuchoftheinstabilityseeninAfrica’scountries.Heseespotentialinextendingthefuture

dimensionoftimeasmuchasheseespossibletragedyifthisdiscoveryisnotharnessedand

channelledproductively.52

2.3SOUTHAFRICA

AccountingforthehistoryofSouthAfricaisaformidabletask.WhichiswhyIwillfocuson

threewaysoftalkingaboutthehistoryofSouthAfricathatwillbenefitthisthesis.Firstofall

Iwillbrieflyandsuperficiallytalkabouttheroleofthechurchinstaterelationssincethe

firstDutchEuropeansarrivedontheshoresoftheCapein1652,andhowthisbecamea

usefultoolduringtheapartheidyears.Iwillalso,brieflyandsuperficiallyaddresshow

colonialmissionariesactedinthefaceofAfricanTraditionalReligion,andhowthey

underminedthepoliticalorderamongtheTshidioftheTswanapeople.FollowingthisIwill

50Mbiti2008:17.51Ibid:27.52Ibid:27.

15

sketchoutabroaderhistoryofSouthAfrica,fromthearrivalofthecolonists,totheGreat

Trek,ontoapartheidupuntiltoday,focusingonhowthecolonistsmanagedtocontrolthe

wholeofthecountry.ThemainfocusofthelastchapterofthisthesisisSouthAfrica.The

otherchaptersdolookatSouthAfricaaswellbuttheyalsohaveawiderfocus.Whentalking

oftheunderstandingofubuntuandthepracticingofubuntu,abroaderapproachis

necessaryandusefulinproperlyexplainingubuntuintheroleofAfricanTraditional

Religion.Thelastchapterfocusesonhowubuntuhasbeenutilisedinpost‐apartheidSouth

Africa.Therefore,asummaryofthehistoryofthecountryisessentialinordertofully

understandhowubuntuhasenteredandimpactedtheprocessestobediscussedinchapter

four.ThisviewofhistoryincludeslookingattheroleofChristianityfromwhentheCape

Provincewasfirstcolonised,thehistoricalreasoningforapartheid,aswellastheendofthe

apartheidregime.

2.3.1THEROLEOFCHRISTIANITY

TherehasalwaysbeenacloserelationshipbetweenthechurchandthestateinSouthAfrica.

FromthetimetheDutchEuropeansarrivedin1652therewasnocleardistinctionbetween

politicsandreligion.Thisrelationshiponlygrewstrongerduringthe1700s,andmirrored

whatwasthecaseintheNetherlandsfromwhencetheycame:protectionandcontrolofthe

church.WiththeCapeProvincegoingbackandforthbetweentheDutchandtheBritish,

whoarrivedforthefirsttimein1795,thereweremadelittlechangestotheclosebond

betweenchurchandstate.Theyinsteadattemptedtoanglicisetheexistingmajoritychurch.

WhentheNationalPartytookpowerin1948thechurchesseemedanaturalplaceinwhich

toteachtheapartheidworldview.TheDutchReformedChurch(DRC)wasalreadyinvolved

inspreadingteachingsofseparatismbeforetheapartheidgovernmentwasareality,but

nowtheyreceivedofficialactstodecreeinthechurchrooms,suchastheProhibitionof

MixedMarriagesAct55of1949.TheDRCprovedanindispensibleaffiliateoftheapartheid

government.53AfterbeingdeemedhereticalbytheWorldAllianceofReformedChurchesin

1982,theDutchReformedChurchcounterfiredbysayingthatapartheidwasthewillof

God.54Duringtheapartheidyearstherewasnoconstitutionalrightforfreedomofreligion,

howeversomeChristiandenominationsandsomereligionsweretoleratedbythestate.But

53PieterCoertzen2008.’FreedomofReligioninSouthAfrica:ThenandNow1652‐2008.’VerbumetEcclesia.350‐354.54MichaelOnyebuchiEze2009.IntellectualHistoryinContemporarySouthAfrica.NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan.55.

16

accordingtotheapartheidstateandtheDRC,theonlycorrectformofChristianity,and

indeedreligion,waswhatwaspracticedofficially.55

TheBritish,amongmanyothers,broughtmissionariestotheAfricancontinentasthey

expandedtheirempire.UnlikewhattheBritishmetintheCapeProvince,aDutchChristian

church,otherpartsofSouthernAfricaproveddifferent.Incommunitieswheretherewasno

Christianitytherewasperceivedtobenothing,andthemissionariesstartedtheworkof

convertingpeopletothisEuropeanreligion.Inmostinstancesthelocalreligionwas

suppressed,asitwasconsideredworthless,ignorantanddevilish.AccordingtoJeanand

JohnComaroff,whatattractedthenativepeoplestothemissionariesweretheirtechnical

skillsandtheirweaponrymorethantheirreligion.TheComaroff’sstatethatthe

missionariesbecameaprizedresourceandthedifferentcommunitiesclosetoamission

stationtriedtoattractthemissionariestothem.OntheborderbetweenSouthAfricaand

BotswanatheTshidioftheTswanapeoplewereconfrontedwithMethodistmissionariesin

themid1800s.AstheChristianfaithattractedsomemembers,tensionanddisagreement

startedaffectingthetribe.Themissionariessawthatthechiefswiththeirritualsuccessheld

themostauthority.Inordertoadoptthisauthority,themissionariesneededtotakeastand

againsttherituals.HereamongtheTshidi,asthroughoutSouthernAfrica,thecommunity

brokeapart.AccordingtotheComaroffs,byadvancingChristianitythemissionaries

attemptedtoweakenorerasethespiritualaspectsofwhattheyhadencountered,andended

uperodingtheentirefoundationofthe‘chiefship’andwhattheTswanasawasthe

inseparabledimensionsofpowerandlegitimacy.Authoritybecamesplit,wherethechief

wasnolongerthecentreofthesocialandsymbolicworld,theChristianchurchclaimed

authoritativespaceaswell.Thisdivisionofpower,includingthechurchtakingonapolitical

position,createdmanytroublesforthecommunitiesthemissionariesactedin.56

2.3.2THEAFRIKANER

WhentheDutchEuropeansarrivedinthemid1600´s,SouthAfricawasacountrymainly

madeupofhunter‐gathererslivingoffandwiththeland.TheDutchcolonisedtheCapeand

importedslavesfromWestAfrica,MadagascarandSouthEastAsia.Thereweremoreslaves

thancolonisedcitizensontheCape.TheDutchpaidlittleattentiontothenativesoutsidethe

bordersoftheCape,andexertedpressureandcontrolwhereneededinsidetheCape.

55Coertzen2008:358.56JeanComaroffandJohnComaroff1986.’ChristianityandColonialisminSouthAfrica’.AmericanEthnologist.2‐6.

17

Towardstheendofthe1700´sallslaveswererequiredtowearpasses,sotheywouldbe

abletoidentifythemselveswheneverneeded.Thiswasalsoagoodwayofcontrollingwho

wentwhereanddidwhat.Inthebeginningofthe1800´sthegreatscrambleforAfrica

commenced.ThisbroughttheBritishtotheCape,makingtheAfrikanersfightforwhatthey

hadmadetheirland.TheAfrikanersweremadetofleefromtheCapeby1836.Theysetout

acrossSouthAfricaonwhatwastobecomeknownastheirGreatTrek.57Whentheyarrived

ontheothercoastofthecountry,theyencounterednativeSouthAfricansthere.The

Afrikanersawitastheirdutytoeducateandtakecareofthenatives,astheywere

consideredtoounintelligenttoliveuptothestandardsoftheEuropeans.Despitebeing

chasedofftheCapebytheBritish,fellowEuropeans,theAfrikanerrefusedtorelinquish

theirviewofthemselvesasEuropean.DuringtheGreatTrek,mythhasitthattheonlybook

thetravellershadtoreadwastheChristianbible.Thishelpedfermenttheirideasof

themselvesasakintoGod’schosenpeople,alsostrugglingthroughharshandunwanted

times,onlytocomeoutstrongerontheotherside.Thisiswhatdrovethemonacrossthe

difficultterrainofSouthAfrica,anddrovethemtomakethedecisionstheymadeoncethey

startedmakingahomeforthemselvesinNatal.Later,theAfrikanergovernmentswere

enforcingandstrengtheningtheideaofraceinordertosecurethemassivewealthpresent

inSouthAfrica.Theblackworkerswereslowlymarginalisedbeforeitturnedinto

systematicgovernmentalexclusionoftheAfricanfromallspheresofbusinessandpublic

life.Controllingthenaturalresourcesandallthewealthinthecountryaidedthe

developmentofaracialsegregationideology.Thewhitestateworkedtediouslyfortheblack

mantorealisehisstanceinlife,andhisfuture.Afterfailedattemptsatfreedomtowardsthe

endofthe19thCentury,theblackAfricansassignedtoneverbeingabletofightthepower,

andbegunconsideringthemselvesstupidandlesserthantheirwhitecounterparts.This

startedchanginginthe20thCentury.58

2.3.3ENDOFAPARTHEID

Inthebeginningofthe1990’snegotiationsforanewgovernmentcommenced.This

followedaftertheunbanningofalloppositionpartiesandthereleaseofNelsonMandela,as

wellasotherpoliticalprisoners.Thenegotiationswereprimarilyleadbytheleaderofthe

liberationgrouptheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC),NelsonMandelaandtheleaderofthe

apartheidrulingpartytheNationalParty(NP),F.W.deKlerk.Thenegotiationsspanneda 57AllAfrikanersdidnottraveltogetherinonesingleGreatTrek,anddidnotarriveinoneplaceatthesametime,althoughtheuseoftheword’trek’inthesingularmaycreateconfusionaboutthis.58Eze2009:14‐34.

18

longperiodoftime,andtheNPwasreluctanttorelinquishasmuchpowerastheANC

craved,anddidnotwanttostepdownwithoutcertainconditions.Oneofthebest‐known

conditionsforparticipatinginthetransitionofpowerwasamnesty.Initially,theNational

Partwantedtoleavethepastinthepastandmoveforward.TheANCdidnotfeelthiswasan

adequatesolutiongiventheseverityofthedecadesofoppression.Thecompromisebecame

theTruthandReconciliationCommission,whereamnestywouldbegrantedinreturnfor

fullhonestyandresponsibilityforcrimescommittedinthenameofthepoliticalagendaof

apartheid.59Upuntiltheelectionof1994,NelsonMandelaandF.W.deKlerkservedina

jointgovernment.AfterMandelabecamepresident,deKlerkservedasdeputypresident

alongsideThaboMbeki.Throughactionslikethis,theyshowedtheywerewillingtojoin

forcesinordertomoveforward.Morethanthis,itshowedblackandcolouredSouth

Africansamanwhohadbeentreatedsounjustlyriseaboveandforgive.In1994South

Africaheldtheirfirstfreeanddemocraticelection,withtheANCwinningthevote.Nelson

MandelawaselectedpresidentastheleaderoftheANC,andhewasthefirstblackpresident

ofSouthAfrica.Otherparties,includingtheNPwererepresentedinthegovernmentaswell,

althoughtheANCpossessedaclearmajority.60Amassivetaskawaited,andthecountryhad

totackletheseveresituationsofviolence,seriousfinancialtroublesandthegrosssocial

inequalitiescreatedovermanydecadesbytheapartheidgovernment,andevenearlier.

MandelawasveryconsciousofthemajordividesofSouthAfricansocietyandworkedto

bridgethesegapsandbringallthepeoplestogethertofacethefutureinunity.61Inessence,

allthosethatlivedinthecountrybelongedthere;nomatterwhattheylookedlikeorwhat

languagetheyspoke.WhiteSouthAfricansshouldnotfearthechangeinleadership,and

blackandcolouredSouthAfricansshouldnotfearthewhiteman.Itisnowondertheworld

thoughtitmiraculous,62whattookplaceinSouthAfrica.Withtherealityofan

uncompromisingandsystematicallyunjustruleforahighnumberofyears,colonialismand

theviolentturmoiloftheearly1990s63,whathappenednextmusthaveappearednearly

unbelievable.TherewasnocivilwarinSouthAfrica.Todaytherepublicisoneofthemost

successfulandeconomicallysoundcountriesoftheAfricancontinent.Althoughthereare

stillmajortobeaddressed,andthepoliciesoftheapartheidregimearestillvisible.

59KennethChristie2000.TheSouthAfricanTruthCommission.Basingstoke:Macmillan.16‐17,68‐80.60Ibid:18.61AfricanNationalCongress2012,TinyikoSamMaluleke1997.’Truth,NationalUnityandReconciliationinSouthAfrica:Aspectsoftheemergingagenda.’Missionalia.3.62JonathanAllen2001.’BetweenRetributionandRestoration:JusticeandtheTRC.’SouthAfricanJournalofPhilosophy.22.63JamesL.Gibson2006.’TheContributionsofTruthtoReconciliation:LessonsfromSouthAfrica.’JournalofConflictResolution.413.

19

Afterapartheid,allgroupsofpeopleweretobeequallyrecognisedwithequalrights.

EveryonewastoberepresentedbytheTruthandReconciliationCommission,andtakepart

innationbuildinginSouthAfrica.Withsuchawiderarrayofdifferentviewpointsand

memories,thiswasamassivetask.Thislastpartofthischapterexplainssomethingthatis

neededinfullyunderstandingthechallengesposedinthefinalchapter.Howdoesone

addressthenewSouthAfrica?TodaySouthAfricaisanationthatrecognisestheplural

realities,andtoaccountforthemthisnextpartfocusesonexactnumbers.TheRepublicof

SouthAfricahasapopulationofroughly50,5millionpeople.Ofthese79,5%,are

categorisedasAfrican.9%arewhite,andcoloureds,meaningpeopleofmixedheritage,64

similarlyamountto9%.TheIndian/Asianpopulationconstitute2,5%,or1,2millionofthe

totalof50,5.TheblackAfricanpopulationcanbedividedintofourgroupings.Thisincludes

theNguni,theSotho‐Tswana,theTsongaandtheVenda.TheNgunipopulationgroup

includestheZulu,Xhosa,NdebeleandSwazi.Theidiommostusedwhentalkingofubuntu,

‘ubuntuungamntungabanyeabantu’,hailsfromtheNgunilanguagegroup.Thisidiomis

herewritteninisiXhosa.65

TheSotho‐TswanapopulationgroupiscomprisedoftheSouthern,NorthernandWestern

Sotho.OfWhiteSouthAfricanstherearedescendantsofDutch,GermanandFrench

Huguenots,descendantsfromtheBritishandotherimmigrantsanddescendantsfromother

Europeancountries.InthecreationofthenewSouthAfrica,oftenreferredtoasthe

RainbowNation,11languageswererecognisedasofficialtotheRepublicofSouthAfrica.

TheseareisiNdebele,isiXhosa,isiZulu,SesothosaLeboa,Sesotho,Setswana,Tshivenda,

Xitsonga,AfrikaansandEnglish.OfthesethewideuseofisiZulurevealsthattheZuluarethe

largestpopulationgroup,followedbytheXhosa.Afrikaansisthethirdmostcommon

language,asitisusedbothbytheWhitedescendantsfromDutch,GermanandFrenchas

wellasthecolouredpopulation.66

64’Coloured’isacontestedcategory.TheyaremainlydescendedfromslavesbroughtfromeastandcentralAfrica,aswellastheindigenousKhoisan,andothers.TheymostlyspeakAfrikaans.SouthAfrica.info2012.65SouthAfrica.info2012.’SouthAfrica’sPopulation.’66Ibid.

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2 UNDERSTANDINGUBUNTUInvestigatingthecontentofthemanydefinitionsofubuntuisacrucialsteptowards

discoveringwhatubuntuisandwhetherornotitislegitimate.Thedefinitionsaremany,

andtheyfocusondifferentaspectsofubuntu.Whatothersleaveout,someadd,what

contextubuntuisplacedinchanges,andwhatthefocusisdiffers.Thisbeingsaid,thefact

thatubuntulivesoutsidetheacademicspheredoesneedtobeaddressed,whetherornot

theycoincidewiththedefinitionsanddescriptionsofscholars.Thespreadofubuntu

globallydoescoincidewithitbeingusedactivelyinpost‐apartheidSouthAfrica.What

happenedinSouthAfricaaftertheapartheidregimewasset‐asidewasviewedbymanyasa

miracle,bothatthetimeandyearslater.67Theprospectsforthewell‐beingofthecountry

andthepeopleinitwerebleak.Notonlyweretheregravefinancialtroubles,violencewas

alsorapidlyescalating.68Whatensuedinformofpoliticalnegotiationtowardsanewagenda

andfairelectionsalongsidetheproceedingsoftheTruthandReconciliationCommission,

showedtheattentiveworldsomethingoutoftheordinary,andindeed,quitemiraculous.

Therewasturmoilallaroundtheworld,andinothercountriesinAfricaaswellduringthe

timewhenSouthAfricastartedrebuilding.Ilieuofthis,thefocusonexactlyhowSouth

Africamanagedwhattheydidwasmassive.Ubuntuispresentedassomethinginfinitely

goodandhelpful,aswellasrepresentingallwhatpeoplewishtheyhadandhowtheworld

ideallyshouldbe.Ubuntu,inthisuniversalform,representsthebestofhumansandthe

humansituation.Wewouldallwanttobekind,generous,patient,considerateandforgiving.

Ubuntuhasessentiallybecomefreetobeusedbyallinwhatevercontextpeoplewish,

whetherasasportscryorafreeeasy‐to‐sharecomputersoftware,evenifitmeans

capitalisingonit.

Thischapterwillfocusmainlyonthedifferentacademicdefinitionsofubuntu.Theacademic

definitionsaretrulyatthecoreofdiscoveringubuntu,anditsdefinition.Scholars,and

especiallyAfricanscholars,ofubuntuhaveelaboratedonubuntusignificantlysincethestart

ofthe1990s.Scholarshaveelaboratedonthequestionsofwherethewordcomesfrom,

whatitmeans,whyitmeansthesethings,whyitisrelevantandhowitcanbeanaidinthe

newSouthAfrica,orindeedglobally.Allofwhichhavebeenpertinentissuesinpost‐

apartheidSouthAfricaandotherAfricancountriesexploringtheirheritageandtheirfuture

outsidethecolonialhegemony.Thisisnottosaythatscholarsonlydiscussubuntuforthe

67Tutu2000:34,Allen2001:22.68Gibson2006:413.

21

benefitofpost‐colonialdevelopment.Thereisalsoanattempttodescribewhatubuntuisfor

theWestinparticular.Especiallyaftertherewasincreasingattentiondrawntothisword

anditsmeaningintheprocessofre‐buildingSouthAfrica.Inadditiontotheacademic

definitionsofubuntuIhavealsoincludedformerArchbishopDesmondTutu’sown

definitionofubuntuasapartofhisChristiantheology.Hehasbeeninstrumentalininsisting

onubuntuasbeingavitalpartofrebuildingorindeedjustbuildingthenewSouthAfrica.

Tutuhasadeepseededbeliefthatrecoveringallwhatubuntuentailswillbeaninvaluable

assetingoingforward.Healsobelievesthattheentireworldwillbenefitfromembracing

ubuntu,andhasattemptedtoexportubuntu.TutuarguesthatAfricaisfinallyinaposition

toexportsomethingpositiveandlifeenhancingandnotonlythedeath,famineand

destructionofthepastdecades.Heisessentiallyworkingonre‐brandingsub‐Saharan

Africa,andusingubuntutodoso.Thispartofthetextwillnot,however,focusonthis,but

ratheronthecontentofhistheologyandhowhefusesubuntuandChristianity.

3.1ACADEMICAPPROACHES

Therearemanywaysofunderstandingubuntu.Academics,AfricanandEuropean,have

beenattemptingtodefinethisconceptforthepast30years.Toillustratethediversity

initially,Iwillputforwardseveraldefinitionsandviewsacademicsonwhatubuntuisor

whatitrepresents.MulekiMnyakacallsubuntuanoldphilosophyoflife,whichhasbeen

presentandsustaininglifeinAfricaforcenturies.Blankenberglinksubuntuto

contemporarySouthAfricansociety,asitsuseinrebuildingthecountryshowshowopen

ubuntuistointerpretation.Ofubuntuitself,heseesitasaphilosophyandanideallong

beingcirculatedinAfricanhistoryoftradition,primarilyorally.Broodrykcallsubuntua‘…

comprehensiveancientAfricanworldview.’Thisworldviewisbasedonvaluestryingto

ensurea‘…happyandqualitativehumancommunitylife.’Thecommunitywillbebasedon

family,focusingonhumanness,caring,sharing,respectandcompassion.Broodrykgoeson

tosaythateverythingapersonsays,thinksanddoesisinfluencedifnotdeterminedby

ubuntu.Thisis,accordingtoBroodryk,becausethenormsofubuntuhavebeenorally

transferredacrossgenerations.Saulekeepstothistoneinsayingthatubuntuisstillaround

becauseofestablishedtraditionalinstitutions.Heseesubuntuas‘…somethingthatsprings

fromwithinoneselforbetterstill,withinsociety.’69Teffogoesinadifferentdirection,

arguingthatubuntuisnotatalluniquetoAfrica,andthatsuchaclaimwouldbe

69Eze2009:91‐92.

22

ethnocentric.Hecontinuesinsayingthatthephilosophyofubuntuisfoundinallthe

philosophiesoftheworld,however,notcalledthesame.70Nyanthuviewsubuntuasthe

backboneofmanyAfricansocieties,referringtoitasa‘…statementofbeingthat

encapsulatesthefundamentalelementsthatqualifyanypersontobehuman.’71Murithi

viewsseesubuntuasawayofviewingtheworldwhichistryingtocapturetheessenceof

whatitistobehuman.Dandalacallsubuntuacosmology.‘Itdefinesthe‘harmonic

intelligence’thatisanintrinsicpartoflocalSouthernAfricancommunities,’anditisan

AfricanhumannessindirectoppositiontotheWesternhumanness.72Thereareclaimsof

universalitybyTeffo,andAfricanownershipbyBroodryk,Mnyaka,DandalaandNyathu.

Thereareclaimsofcosmologyandphilosophy,andofubuntubeingacontemporarytoolfor

rebuildingSouthAfrica.However,beforethischaptercanmoveforwardonedistinctionhas

tobemade.Thecommonwordubuntuderivesfromthefollowingproverb,intwodifferent

languages:

isiZulu:Umuntungumuntungabanye.

isiXhosa:Ubuntuungamntungabanyeabantu.

Thistranslatesinto‘peoplearepeoplethroughotherpeople.’73Thisisthestartingpointfor

thischapter’ssearchforanunderstandingofubuntu.

3.1.1UBUNTUASARELIGIOUSCONCEPT

IagreewithJuliusGathogothattheWesternermightnotseethereligiousaspectofthe

saying‘apersonisapersonthroughotherpersons’;however,thisdoesnotmeanthatthere

isnone.IntheAfricancontextthismaximhasadeepreligiousmeaning.Ubuntuisfoundin

manyAfricancommunities,liketheKikuyuwhohaveasimilaridiomtotheonealready

mentioned;MunduniMunduniunduwaandu,or‘ahumanbeingisapersonbecauseofthe

otherpeople.’TheSothosayMothekemothokabatho,whichcanbetranslatedinasimilar

way.74Mnyanduexplainsubuntuasnotonlyapackageofpositivequalities,butalsothe

essenceitself,whichenablespeopletobecomeabantu,whichinshortmeansbecominga

humanisedbeing.AboutbecomingahumanisedbeingMnyanduwritesthatpeopleliveina

70Eze2009:92‐93.71JohnHailey2008.’Ubuntu:ALiteratureReview.’TheTutuFoundation.3.72Ibid:3‐4.73Gathogo2007:170,MichaelBattle2009.Reconciliation:TheUbuntuTheologyofDesmondTutu.Cleveland:ThePilgrimPress.39.Theword‘people’issometimesexchangedwith‘person’or‘human’,oracombinationofthese.74Gathogo2007:170.

23

worldofself‐expressioninordertocreateharmoniousrelationshipsintheircommunity,

andtheworldbeyond.WhereasMichaelEzeclaimsthisisanessentialistdefinition,75

becauseitisplacingubuntuintoareligiousframe.Thoughthereareelementsherethatcan

beused.Ubuntuistheessenceitself;itisthebasisforareligiousexpressioninAfrican

societies.Itispartofthatwhichwishestoenablethehumanbeingtotakeresponsibilityfor

thewell‐beingofothersoutsideofoneself.Thehealthandprosperityofone’sfamilyand

surroundingsarethemostimportantthingsinatraditionalAfricanhome.Ubuntudoesnot

actalone,andispartofamuchmorecomplexsetofrulesoflife,ifyouwill.76

Dutchanthropologist,withakeenandlonginterestinAfrica,WimvanBinsbergenprofesses

thatubuntuisirrelevantintheday‐to‐daylifeofAfricanpeople.Itisonlydrawnon,

accordingtovanBinsbergen,whenperformingritesoraspartofconflictsettlement,orin

divination.77Thetroublewiththisviewisthatheisseparatingtheobviouslyreligiousparts

ofthecommunityfromtheeveryday.InallmajorwritingsonAfricanreligionthereis

consensusinthefactthatreligionpermeatesallspheresoflifeinAfricansocieties.Religion

islife,andlifeisreligion.Bydividingthesetwo,vanBinsbergeniseffectivelyunderscoring

theimportanceofreligioninAfrica,aswellasattemptingtobringWesternunderstandingof

religionintoanAfricanmindset.Onecannotseparatetheritessurroundingawedding,

initiation,namingordeathfromtheworkingsofthecommunity.

DesmondTutuapproachesubuntudifferently.Tutustrivestolegitimiseubuntuthrough

Christianity.Hehascreatedanubuntutheology,whereGodfeaturesprominently.This

theologywasthebackdropforhisworkwiththeTruthandReconciliationCommission,

promotinginterconnectednessandtogethernessinthewakeofthefalloftheapartheid

regimeinSouthAfrica.AlthoughChristianitywasnotaprominentfactorintheproceedings.

Aspartofhistheology,TutupreachesthatJesustaughthumansfriendship,towhichthe

basisisamutualunderstandingofeachother.ToTutu,ubuntucanbesidelinedwiththis

teaching.Ubuntubreakstheracialclassificationofpeoples,whichinturnbreaksthe

relationshipofoppressorandoppressed.78TutuexplainsubuntuastherootoftheAfrican

worldview,whichheusedtointroducetheconceptofracialreconciliationinSouthAfrica.In

orderforthecommissiontosucceedheneededtocommunicatethatnohumancanbe

75Eze2009:91.76Ibid:91.77vanBinsbergen2001:65,68.78Battle2009:5.

24

fulfilledwithouttheircommunity,whetherblackorwhite.79Tutu’subuntutheologyhas

evolvedsidebysidewithapartheidinSouthAfrica.Hisviewisthatlosingthefoundational

thoughtthathumansarecreatedinGod’simageaswellasfindingwhatweneedinGod,

turnsinto‘secularprosperity’.Onaccountofthislosswejudgeothersasiftheylackthe

inherenthumanvalue.Thismaterialistunderstandingcreatesasocietywhereracial

differencetranslatestofear.MichaelBattlestatesthatinordertounderstandTutu’s

theologyonemustviewitthroughubuntu,ashebelieveswecanonlybehumanin

community.80

Tutusaysthatbeinga‘self‐sufficienthumanbeingissubhuman…Godhasmadeussothat

wewillneedeachother…tobeistoparticipate…personsareendsinthemselvesonly

throughthediscoveryofwhotheyareinothers.’81TutuusesthegenesisoftheOld

Testamenttoexplainhowwehumans,fromthebeginning,weremeanttolivein

communitieswitheachother.Inhisview,GodfeltAdammustbelonelyandtherefore

createdEve,anotherhumanbeing,forthemtoexistandlivetogether.82WhatmakesTutu’s

viewpointuniqueisthemeldingtogetheroftheChristianfaith,andtraditionalAfrican

beliefs.HeisattemptingtobringtheWest,particularlyEurope,andAfricatogether.Tutu

focusesontheinterdependentcommunity,whichiscommoninallwritingsonAfrican

religion.Healsofocusesonaperson’sdistinctiveidentity,releasingthepersonfromarigid

viewofcommunity,commoninmanywritingsonAfricancommunitarianism.Allthis

togetherwasgoingtooverthrowapartheid.83Tutuprovedindispensableinthestruggle

againstapartheid,spreadingthewordandplacinghimselfinharmsway.Heprovedequally

importantafterapartheidended,andhasbeencalledthemoralconscienceofSouthAfrica.84

3.1.2ETYMOLOGY

UbuntuhailsfromtheNgunilanguagegroup,whichincludesisiXhosaandisiZulu,already

seeninthebeginningofthischapter.InSesothoitisknownasbotho.85AccordingtoDion

Forster,thewordubuntu‘…qualifiesthenounumuntu.’86Umuntutranslatestothehuman

personinisiZulu.Inthisfamilyof–ntu,onealsofindsuluntu–thevitalforceandisintu–

79Battle2009:40.80Ibid:581DesmondTutuquotedinMichaelBattle2009:35,39,43.82Battle2009:67‐68,41‐42.83Ibid:40.84TheElders2011.85Tutu2000:42.86DionA.Forster2010.’AGenerousOntology:IdentityasaProcessofIntersubjectiveDiscover:AnAfricanTheologicalContribution.’HTSTeologieseStudies.8.

25

humanity.87Kamwangamalustatestheseotherphonologicalvariantsofubuntuinseveral

Africanlanguages:

‘…umunduinKiyukuandumuntuinKimeru,bothlanguagesspokeninKenya;bumuntuinkiSukumaandkiHaya,bothspokeninTanzania;vumuntuinshiTsongaandshiTswaofMozambique;bomotoinBobangi,spokenintheDemocraticRepublicofCongoandAngolarespectively.’88

AccordingtoDeTejada,recountedbyAugustineShutte,ubuntu’sgeographicaldemarcation

stretchesfromtheNubianDesert,totheCapeofGoodHopeandfromSenegaltoZanzibar,

includingtheareaoftheSaharabeforethedesertdeveloped.Inanefforttoexplainthe

inherentqualitiesofthewordubuntuandtherelevancetothelargeraspectofAfrican

ontologyandepistemology,MogobeRamosebreakstheworddown.Ramoseargues

philosophicallyforhyphenatingubuntu,intoubu‐ntu.Thiswillshedlightontheword,and

howweachieveitfrom‘umuntungumuntungabantu’,whichdoesnotfeaturetheword

ubuntu,butstillisseenastherootfromwhencethetermhascome.FollowingRamose,ubu‐

istheprefixand–ntuisthestemoftheword.Ramosecontendsthatumuntuandubu‐

belongtogether,‘…thespeechofumuntuisthusanchoredin,revolvesaround,andis

ineluctablyorientedtowardsubu‐.’Umuntufocusestheepistemologicaltowardsthe

ontologicalubu‐through‘umuntungumuntungabantu’.89

Whileubu‐denotesageneralsenseofbe‐ing,‐nturepresentsthepointwherethegeneral

senseofbeingtakesonconcreteform.Orrepresentsaprocessof‘continualunfoldment’.

Ubu‐isalwaysdirectedtowards–ntu,asubu‐wantstounfoldintoconcretemanifestations.

Ubu‐and–ntuareawholeandinseparableoneness.FromthisRamoseseesubu‐as

ontologicaland–ntuasepistemological,togethertheyrepresentthefoundationsofAfrican

thoughtamongtheBantuspeakingpeoples.Ramoseinsiststhatumu‐sharesanidentical

ontologicalfeaturewithubu‐,althoughumu‐ismorespecificthanthegeneralubu‐.Umu‐

ntutranslatesintohumanbeing,andshowsheretheconcretemanifestationsofumu‐.This

isbecausethereismovement,notageneralviewofahumanbeing.Itisratherthe

emergenceofthehumanasthemakerofpolitics,religionandthelaw.Thismakesitan

entity‘…whichcontinuestoconductaninquiryintobeing,experience,knowledge,andtruth’

87MfuniselwaJohnBhengu1996.Ubuntu:TheEssenceofDemocracy.CapeTown:NovalisPress.2.88Eze2009:91.89MogobeRamose2003.’ThePhilosophyofubuntuandubuntuasaPhilosophy,’inP.H.CoetzeeandA.P.JRoux(eds.):TheAfricanPhilosophyReader.NewYork/Abingdon:Routledge.230,231.

26

whichconstitutesanactivity.Ramosearguesthatthisallmeansthatubu‐canbeviewedas

be‐ingbecoming.90

Ubuntuisunderstoodasbeinghumaninakindrelationtoothers.Ubu‐ntuthen,Ramose

stresses,isasmuchaconditionofbe‐ingasitisarecognitionofbe‐ingbecoming.However,

throughthemaxim‘umunutungumunungabantu’,Ramoseclaimsthat‘ngabantu’reveals

thatjustbeinghumanisnotsufficient;onehastobecomeahumanbeing.Onehastoprove

thatoneistheembodimentofubu‐ntu.Hebasesthisonthetermskemothoandgasemotho,

whichtranslatesliterallyinto‘he/sheisahumanbeing’,orthenegationofthis,whichgoes

beyondthebiologyofthehumantothe‘…ethical,social,andlegaljudgementofhuman

worthandhumanconduct.’91ThisleadsustothedebateofpersonhoodinAfricanthought.

3.1.3UBUNTUANDPERSONHOOD

Themainquestionstodealwithherearewhetherubuntuisstrictlycommunitarian?Does

thiscommunalnaturebelittletheautonomyandidentityoftheindividual?Canonefailat

personhood,andthereforeloseornevergainubuntu?Ifnot;whendoesonebecomea

person?However,intalkingofpersonhoodinAfricanthought,wefirstneedtodifferentiate

betweencommunalismandcommunitarianism,astheycoincidewitheachother.The

differencebetweenthetwoisthedegreeofpoliticsandorganisation.Thedefinitionof

communalismisbasedonfederatecommunesinapoliticalorganisation,whichdictateshow

peoplelivesuccessfullytogetherinsharing.Itcanalsobecentredonthe‘ethnic’group,

whereallegiancelieswiththemratherthanthewidercommunity.Communitarianismon

theotherhandisatheoryofsocialorganisationinsmallself‐governingcommunities,andit

canalsobedescribedasanideologywheretheresponsibilityoftheindividualinregardsto

thecommunityandthefamilyisemphasised.Onthebasisofthis,communitarianismiswhat

candescribetheAfricancommunity,whereascommunalismcanatbestbeattributedtothe

politicalleadersinAfricawhooftenpurportedAfricansocialismwhenfirstindependent.92

Themaincontentioninthedebateonpersonhoodiswhetherornotthecommunalfocusof

Africansocietybelittlestheautonomyandidentityoftheindividualperson.Bothpolitical

leadersSenghorandKenyattaobservedandreiteratedtheinherentcommunalstructureof

Africanlifeandsociety.Kenyattawentevenfurtherinsayingthat‘…individualismandself‐

90Ramose2003:230‐231.91Ibid:232.92NewOxfordAmericanDictionary2005,KwameGyekye2003.’PersonandcommunityinAfricanthought,’inP.H.CoetzeeandA.P.JRoux(eds.):TheAfricanPhilosophyReader.NewYork/Abingdon:Routledge.299.

27

seekingwasruledout.’93Thisstatementdoesappeartoostrictinitsunderstandingof

communitarianism.Fromacommunitarianstartingpoint,thepersonisintrinsicallysocial

orcommunal,notanisolatedindividual.Thecommunitythereforeconsistsofpeoplewho

areinterconnectedthroughcommonvalues,goalsandinterests.‘Theyhaveintellectualand

ideological,aswellasemotional,attachmentstothosegoalsandvalues;aslongasthey

cherishthem,theyareeverreadytopursueanddefendthem.’94DesmondTutuhaswarned

againstglorifyingAfricancommunitarianism.Heviewsitasabreedinggroundforboth

conservatismandconformity.TutuarguesthatthetraditionofcommunalisminAfrica,

especiallyamongnewlyemancipatedstatesparticularlyfrommid‐1900s,isthebasisfor

dictatorship.ThisformofgovernmenthasravagedmanyAfricancountriesoverthepast60

years.AccordingtoTutu,thistraditionallowspowerfulmembersofsocietytoeasilytake

controlofthepublicsphereandexercisetheirownwillinsteadofthatofthepeople.Tutu

claimstheWesthaslawstocombatpitfallslikethis,andinthiswayensuresthewillofthe

peopletobeexercisedbythegoverningforces.Ontheotherhandhealsocriticisesthe

West’soverlyindividualisticworldview,wheretheperson’sultimatewayofviewinghimself

orherselfcomesfromwithin.InAfrica,Tutuargues,onelearnsbesttoknowoneself

throughothers.However,hepromotesbalancingAfricancommunalismwiththethoughtof

thehumanbeing’s‘inalienableuniqueness’,ashewantstheWest’sviewtobebalancedwith

thehuman’sneedtoconnect.95

Menkitiassertsthatthecommunitydefinestheperson,butthepersonhastoacquireand

achievepersonhoodanditispossibleforapersontofailatgainingpersonhood.Withouta

processofincorporationthedescriptionofpersondoesnotapply.Whenapersonis

incorporatedandearnstheirpersonhoodtheybecomemoreandmoreofapersontheolder

theygrow.96Thisiscontested.KwameGyekyearguesthatthepersoncanbeanindividualin

Africancommunitarianism,orsimplyintheAfricancommunity.Thepersoncanalsobe

helpfultoothersoutofmoralresponsibility,notjustoutofduty.ThismakestheAfricanan

individual,whomakeschoicesaboutmoralresponsibilityandawareness.Thismeans

Africansarecapableofmakingotherchoicesintheirownlife.Hence,thehumanisnota

dutifulrobot,butapersonwithcapabilitiesofthinkingindividuallyforthecommongood.97

MbitigoesdownamiddleroadinsayingthatmanyAfricansocietiesdonotbelievethe 93Gyekye2003:298.94Ibid:299.95Battle2009:38,144.96Gyekye2003:298,IfeanyiA.Menkiti1984.’PersonandCommunityinAfricanTraditionalThought,’inR.A.Wright(ed.):AfricanPhilosophy:AnIntroduction.Washington:UniversityPressofAmerica.172,173.97Gyekye2003:308‐311.

28

personisafullhumanuntilheorshehasundergonetheprocessesofbecominghuman,

throughbirth,namingceremonies,initiationrites,marriageandmaybeevenprocreation.In

thesecases,onlyaftertheseprocessesisthepersonfullyborn,andisthereforeconsidereda

completeperson.98Mbitihasalsostated:‘Iambecauseweare;andsinceweare,thereforeI

am’,whichisbeingimposedasabasisforargumentationbybothMenkiti,asmentioned,and

ChukwudumB.Okolo.99Inthis,anAfricanversionofDecartes’cogitoergosum,Mbiti

explainshowapersonisneveraloneandpassesthroughdifferentstagesofincorporationin

life,evenafterthepersondiestheyareincorporatedintotheextendedfamilyofthedead.100

Here,Mbitidivertsfromthemiddleroadhewasonearlierintobelievingthatapersonhas

toprovetheirhumanityandpersonhoodthroughouttheirlife.Thisisthewayinwhichthe

personbestbenefitsthecommunity,alsoaftertheydie.HepostulatesthatinAfrican

traditionallife:

‘…theindividualdoesnotandcannotexistaloneexceptcorporately.Heowesthisexistencetootherpeople,includingthoseofpastgenerationsandhiscontemporaries.Heissimplypartofthewhole.Thecommunitymustthereforemake,create,orproducetheindividual;fortheindividualdependsonthecorporategroup…whateverhappenstotheindividualhappenstothewholegroup…’101

OkolostatesthatselfinAfricanthoughtisviewedfromtheoutside,asinrelationtothe

other,andnotinrelationtoitself,thusfromtheinside.OkologoesontocriticisetheAfrican

philosophyforignoringornotadequatelyincludingthehumanvaluesof‘…personal

initiative,responsibility,subjectivity,independence,etc.’Okoloviewsthesevaluesasthe

waytodeterminethehumanbeingasasubject,notanobject.Byunderminingtheseaspects

ofthehuman,Okolocontendsthattherootsofhumanfreedomandautonomyarebeing

forgotten,whichgivesAfricanphilosophyablindspot.102KwameGyekyepurportsa

differentview.Heseesthewholeasafunctionofitsparts.Relationshipsbetweenpersonsin

acommunityarecontingent,voluntaryandoptionalmadesobytheontological

derivativenessofthecommunity.AccordingtoGyekye,thecommunityequalsthecontext

forwherethepossibilitiesoftheindividualcanbeactedout.Thecommunityismerelythe

socialorculturalspacewherethepersoncanexpresstheirindividuality.Thefunctionofthe

communitystructureistopassonthevaluesandgoalsofthecommunitytotheonewho

entersintoit.Thismakesthepersonaproductofthecommunity.Gyekyeisawarethatthis 98Mbiti2008:24.99ChukwudumB.Okolo2003.’SelfasaprobleminAfricanphilosophy,’inP.H.CoetzeeandA.P.JRoux(eds.):TheAfricanPhilosophyReader.NewYork/Abingdon:Routledge.100Mbiti2008:106.101Ibid:106.102Okolo2003:215.

29

viewofthecommunitymayleadtoanextremeunderstandingofhowthepersonand

communityfunctiontogether.Inordertoexplainthatanindividualstillhasthepossibilityof

havingtheirownpersonalityandthereforeindividualityistoacknowledgethemanyassets

ofaperson.Thepersonisbynaturesocial,buttheyarealsocarryingotherattributesaspart

ofwhotheyare.Withouttakingthisintoconsideration,Gyekyewarnsonemightsuccumbto

anexaggerationofthecommunalnatureofAfricansociety,somethinghefeelsMenkiti

specificallyhasdone.103ThesamecanbesaidofOkolointhisinstance,ashehasprovided

Africanphilosophy,andtherebyAfricanTraditionalReligion,withamajorflawthatisnot

necessarilybasedinreality.Gyekye’sargumentationisverypersuasive,althoughoverly

eagerinexpressingtheindividualityofthehuman.Wewillnonethelesscontinuewiththis

understandingofpersonhoodinmind.

3.1.4UBUNTU:ANAFRICANVALUE

JuliusGathogoasksthequestionifwecanhaveanAfricanhomogeneity,mainlyintermsof

religion,withoutforeignattachment.Ifwecan,Gathogoviewsubuntuasthebest

descriptionofanAfricanhomogeneity.Ubunturepresentsareligio‐culturalunity,which

oftenhasbeenover‐poweredbytheinsistenceoftheAfricanreligio‐culturaldiversity.

QuotingAugustineShutte,Gathogoexplainsthatubuntuasaconcepthasdevelopedover

manycenturiesfromapre‐literate,pre‐scientificandpre‐industrialAfricanculture.104This

supportsmyownargumentthatubuntuisnotana‐historicalconcept,althoughnotall

scholarsagreeonthis.Someseeubuntuasinvented,andclaimthereisnohistorical

authenticitytoubuntu.Theyarguesthisonthebasisthatubuntuisaninventedpieceofthe

newSouthAfricandiscourseondemocracyandhumanrights.WimvanBinsbergenisoneof

thosescholars.Hisessay105ontheutopianandpropheticnatureofubuntuisamatterof

agreeinganddisagreeing.IdisagreeinhisfuturepremonitionthatubuntuwillharmSouth

Africansociety,106andIdisagreethatubuntulacksafactualbasis.107Iagreethatubuntuis

notexplicitlystatedinthecommunity;ratheritisanimplicitpartofthelocalsociety.108Ido,

however,disagreeinthatthevaluesofthelocalcommunityhavedisappearedinthefaceof

globalisationandurbanisation,ashestatesveryclearlyinhisessay.vanBinsbergenviews

ubuntuasaproductofglobalisation,createdforthesolepurposeofrebuildingSouthAfrica.

103Gyekye2003:300‐301.104Gathogo2007:168‐169.105WimvanBinsbergen2001.‘UbuntuandtheGlobalisationofSouthernAfricanThoughtandSociety.’Quest.106Ibid:57.107Ibid:60.108Ibid:61.

30

HecitesMogobeRamoseashisopposition,whobelievesthatglobalisationisaphenomenon

comingfromoutsidetobecounteredbyubuntu.vanBinsbergenarguesthattheurbanand

ruralpeopleinSouthAfricadonotallhavethesameculturalbackground.Becausesomeare

nowurban,concernedwithlifeasitisrelevantincities,theyhavenoconnectiontothe

villagelife,exceptforwhentheyphysicallygothere.109Idonotagreethatthevaluespeople

carrywiththemarenotmeasurable,andcertainlynotmeasurablebywhatpeopledoin

theirdailylives.Itisproblematictosaythatonceweleavethephysicalplacewherethe

valuesstillexistvisibly,inpractice,wenolongerhavethemasapartofus.Itisgiving

Africansatraitthatisneitherherenorthere.ItisnotevensomethingfamilialintheWest,

thatChristianscarrythevaluesgiventhroughtheirreligiononlywheninchurch.van

Binsbergenmustnotviewubuntuasapartofareligiousreality,andviewsitmerelyasa

culturaltraitwhicherodesawayuponothercultures.Idonotcontestthatthevaluesof

ubuntuareknownbyeveryone,orcanbeseeneverywhere.Thereislittledoubtthatinthe

contextofSouthAfrica,apartheidinparticularhasbrokenthecommunityupintosomany

piecesandcreatedanewanddifficultreality.However,tosaythatallurbanisedSouth

Africansundertheageoffortyhavenoconceptofwhatisinherentinubuntu,110thevalues

ofhowtoleadlife,isagrossexaggeration.

Thisbeingsaid,donotallthetroublesplaguingthecountriesofAfricatellusthatubuntu

musthavebeenlost?DespiteAfricancountriesbeingsomuchmorethantheir‘rape,pillage,

death’reputation,therehavebeenandstillareongoingbloodyconflictsaswellasextreme

poverty,withadheringproblems.Howcanonethenexplainubuntuandplaceitattheheart

androotofAfricanworldviews?Didubuntudisappearwhenthecolonistsarrived,orleave

withthemperhaps?Idonotbelievethisisthecase.Firstly,believingthatubuntuexisted

beforeAfrica’spost‐colonialtimebutnotafterputsubuntuinapositionwhereitdoesnot

standuptoadversity;beitwarorchangingtimes.ThiswouldimplythatAfricaalwayshas

beenapeacefulcontinentwithnorivalriesorwars.Asacontinentwiththeearliestknown

empiresoftheworld,thiswouldbeunthinkable.NottosaythatIcanplaceubuntuthisfar

backintime,butthecontinentisknowntohavehadinternaldifferencesbeforethecolonists

arrivedonthecontinent.PhillipIya111pointsoutthatsomeAfricansfeelasenseoflossof

ubuntu,aswellascolonialrulesuppressingandinsomecasesobliteratingAfricantradition.

109vanBinsbergen2001:62.110Ibid:63.111PhillipF.Iya2009.’UbuntuandHumanDignity:AnalysingConceptsandExploringRelationshipforin‐depthUnderstandingandApplicationDirectedTowardsImprovingtheQualityofLifeinAfrica,’inDrucillaCornellandNyokoMuvanga(eds.):LawintheubuntuofSouthAfrica.

31

Thestrainofmodernlivinghasseenubuntudisappearfromthepublicandprivatespheres

ofpeople.ThosearguingthispointclaimthatWesternvalueshaveaidedAfricaingoing

forward,butatthesametimemakingtraditionacasualty.Theyalsoclaimthatinmany

communitiesubuntuisbounduptotriballawsandwhatissometimeslookedatasancient

‘undemocraticpractices’.Iyainsiststhatubuntuisnotlostbutsometimeshindered,

especiallyintheurbanareaswherecapitalistvaluesoftenreign.Thefamilydynamicis

importantformaintainingubuntu,andwhenthisentityisbrokendown,ubuntusuffers.He

arguesthatlearningubuntuvaluesinone’supbringingwillprovideasenseofself‐worth.It

isthisthatushersapersonforwardtopassontheubuntuvaluesintheirlife.Ifaperson’s

upbringinglacksafocusonubuntuvalues,chancesaretheywillbedestructivetotheir

surroundings.112Thesepointsareveryvalid,andmakeuseofhumanpsychologytoexplain

howtaughtandexperiencedvaluesaffectrelationships.Circumstances,familiesand

communitiesallchange,anditisnosecretthatmostAfricancountrieshavehadaroughand

unforgivinghistorywhichissuretochangepeople,societies,statesandareasforthelong

term.Urbanareasarenaturallymorestressedandmaysoonerloseagrasponvaluesthat

onegrewupwith.

Further,vanBinsbergencontendsthatubuntuisnotawordhehasseenusedinthe

communitiesinwhichhehasworkedandvisitedinhislife.Hetooexplainsthelinguisticsof

theword,withtherootof–ntufromtheNgunilanguagegroup,113ashasbeenmentioned

previously.114DesmondTutu,MogobeRamoseandMfuniselwaBhengucontestthatubuntu,

asaword,isexpressed.115Whetherthewordisinpartaninvention,asvanBinsbergen

argues,116mightbeso,butthisdoesnotdelegitimisewhatubuntuactuallyembodies.One

couldcontendthatthewordubuntuisaneasywayofconveyingwhatisintended,and

thereforethishasbeenthewordchosentoexpresstomanywhatisinfinitelymorecomplex

atcloserinspection.DesmondTutusaysinhisbookNoFutureWithoutForgiveness,andto

RichardBransoninthetelevisionprogrammeIconoclasts117whereBransonhelpedteach

Tutuhowtoswim,thatwherehecomesfromonecancomplimentanotherpersonbysaying

theyhaveubuntu.Bysayingthisoneissayingthatthispersonisopen,friendly,giving,

selfless,whichistrulyasuperbcomplimenttoanother.InthisinstanceTutuisusingubuntu

inasentence,morespecificallyinacompliment:‘Yu,unobuntu’,or‘Yes,he/shehas 112Iya2009:390‐391.113vanBinsbergen2001:54.114In3.1.2.115Tutu2000:42,Ramose2003:230‐231,Bhengu1996:2.116vanBinsbergen2001:20.117Iconoclasts2008.

32

ubuntu.’118Thisparticularuseofthewordubuntubegsthequestion,whydoesvan

Binsbergencallubuntua‘…deceptivelyvernaculartermforaneticconceptformulatedina

globallycirculatingformat’?119vanBinsbergen’smaincontentionwithubuntuisthathe

viewsithasinventedbyelitescholarsofAfricaclaiminganunadulteratedpastfromwhich

ubuntuemanates.VanBinsbergenarguesthatscholarscannotrightlyclaimthispristine,

traditional,pre‐colonialAfricanlife.Ubuntuismerelyas‘…contemporaryacademic

construct.’120InorderforthemodernSouthAfricatoacceptthismodelofthought,ubuntu

hadtobeglobalised.However,thisglobalisedformatistobeseenasapropheticideology

thatmasksthesocialillsofSouthAfricatoday.121

vanBinsbergen’sforemostcounterpart,MogobeRamose,callsubuntutheunequivocalroot

ofAfricanphilosophy.AnAfrican’splaceintheuniverseisinterconnectedtoubuntu.

Therebymakingubuntuanall‐encompassingentity.Ramoseconnectsubuntuinextricably

towhathereferstoasthe‘Africantreeofknowledge.’Hegoesontoclaimthatifontology

andepistemologyarethebasisofphilosophy,ubuntumakesAfricanphilosophyalong

existingfranchise.Inarguingfortheimportanceofubuntuhecallsforphilosophicalgoggles

throughwhichtoseethe‘familyatmosphere’amongsttheindigenouspeopleofAfrica.

Ramoseacceptsdifferencesbetweenthefamilymembersinquestion,butreaffirmsthat

thereisabasisforaffinity.ThroughthisdefinitionRamoseisoneofthescholarswhouses

proverbsandaphorismsfromtheNgunilanguagesasanargumentfortheAfrican

universalityofubuntu.122

Mothokemothokabatho;Umuntungumuntungabantu–Apersonisapersonthroughother

people.Thisindicatesthateachpersonisinextricablyandintricatelyinterwovenwiththe

nextperson.Tobehumanistorecogniseothers’humanity.

FetaKgomootshwaremotho–Ignorethecowandsavethepersonbecauselifeisgreater

thanwealth.Lifeistobeprioritisedoverwealth,becausepreservationofhumanlifeisthe

highesthumangoal.

Kgosikekgosikabatho–Thesovereigntyofthekingderivesfromandbelongstohis

subjects.ThisisasymbolofAfricancommunitarianism.

118Tutu2000:42.119vanBinsbergen2001:69.120Eze2009:135,vanBinsbergen2001:62.121Eze2009:136‐137.122Ibid:93‐94.

33

MothogasempshegaatsheweSesotho–Nosinglehumancanbethoroughlyandcompletely

useless.Thisisagainanemphasisonhumanlifeasthebeallandendall.123

3.1.5UBUNTUINSOUTHAFRICA

AlthoughIagreethatubuntuisincapableofshowingunbrokencontinuity,itisasmuchvan

Binsbergen’sguessasanybodyelse’swhetherornotthisistrue.Whatcanbecertainisthat

ubuntuhasevolved.Thereislittledoubt,fromvanBinsbergenoranyotherscholaron

ubuntu,thatubuntuhasbeenalegitimate,ifunspoken,partofAfricanlife.124Thisincludes

thetimebeforecolonialism.Itislikelytothinkthatthepiecesofnativecultureandtradition

noteradicatedbymissionariesorcolonists,indeedexistedbeforethealienforcesceased

power.Itisnotubuntuthatisunfamiliar,itisthewayitisnowspokenofandreferredto.

Thisisnotsimilartoadvocatingithasbeeninvented.Theformat,contextandtheusesare

invented.JustbecauseanAfricantraditionorconcepthistoricallyhasbeenthesilentbasis

forlife,doesnotmeanthatitisitseternalfate.Onemaysayubuntuisre‐invented,ormore

accuratelyre‐introducedinadifferentcontext.Thevillageandthelocalcommunityisan

entitythathasmoreorlessforciblychangedoverthepastcenturies.Themodernformof

governmentinSouthAfricatodayisalongwayawayfromthetribalchiefsofhistory.

However,certainvaluesarepassedondownthroughgenerations,andwhenrealityshifts

therearenewwaysinwhichtopassthevalueson.InSouthAfricathisbecameapparent

afterapartheid.

Ezearguesthatubuntu,asanationalSouthAfricandiscourse,isanessentialbuildingblock

ofthepost‐apartheidnation.AccordingtoEze,SouthAfricaduringapartheidwasastate

withoutanation.Thecommunitywasdominatedbyaminority‐createddiscourse,aswellas

afear‐relatedidentity.ThemajoritySouthAfricanexperiencedaunitythroughstruggle

duringapartheid.Whatwouldhappenwhenthatstrugglewasover?Afterpoliticalparties

wereunbannedandpoliticalprisonersfreedin1990,theintra‐communalconflictinNatal

developedintoacivilwar.Thenumberofpeople,mostlyblackAfricans,killedbetween

1990and1994wasnearlytripletheamountofthosekilledinthefiveyearspriorto1990.

TherewasanongoingbloodyconflictbetweentheAfricanNationalCongressandthe

InkathaFreedomParty.AccordingtoBrandonHambertherewasashiftinthecharacterof

violenceinthe1990sfromvertical,stateagainstcitizenandviceversa,tohorizontal,

123Eze2009:94.124vanBinsbergen2001:69

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citizensagainsteachother.AlthoughsomeofthiswasThirdForceactivity,meaningstate

sponsoredconflict;therewasgreatturmoilintheperiodofgovernmentalnegotiations.125

AlthoughubuntuwasnotusedorexploitedbytheANCduringthestruggle,thewordturned

upinthenewlyformedSouthAfricaninterimconstitutionof1993.Ezepointsoutclear

evidencethatubuntuappearedintextspriortotheendofapartheid,provingitsexistenceas

awordandconceptbeforebeingpopularisedandfactoringintothenewnationaldiscourse.

Ezepointsoutthatubuntufirstsawthelightofdayasapoliticisedculturalmemoryin1975.

TheInkathaFreedomPartymovementuseditinitsconstitutionasaguidingprincipleofthe

movement.Theconstitutionstatethatbesidewhattheyhavetocopyfromsuccessful

economic,politicalandeducationalplansoftheWest,theAfricanhumanismofubuntu

shouldbepromotedtomaintainandprotecthumandignity.Aswellasprotecting

‘…personalgrowthandfulfilment,andtheindividualpursuitofhappiness.’126Thisshows

thatonecanarguethatthelackofdefinitionofubuntuinthisconstitutionmustmeanthat

thegeneralpublicmusthaveknownthedefinitionforthemselves.Thisinturnmeansthat

ubuntuismorethanonlyapostapartheidphenomenon.

3.1.6MORALTHEORYOFUBUNTU

IndiscussingthedifferentdefinitionsofubuntufurtherIwillmakeuseofThaddeusMetz’s

formulainhisessay‘TowardanAfricanMoralTheory’127,whereheexploressixtheoretical

interpretationsofubuntu.Thiswillhelpusdifferentiateallthevariousdefinitionsavailable

andcreatethelargerpictureofhowubuntuisviewedbyscholars.

Metz’stheoreticalinterpretationsaredividedbyaskingtowhatextentanact,specificallyin

thecommunity,isrightorwrong.Thefirstfourinterpretationsrelatemoralitytosomething

internalinthehumanindividual,whichMetzinsistsmakesthecommonseparationof

Westernmoralsas‘individualistic’andAfricanmoralsas‘communitarian’wrong.128The

firstofthesixinterpretationsfocusesonhumandignity.Intheseinterpretationsaright

actionisconstitutedbythefactthatitrespectsaperson’sdignity.Onehasdonesomething

wrongifonedegradeshumanity.Thebasisforthisinterpretationisthatvalueisintrinsicin

humannatureandshouldbehonoured.Thistheoryfindsitsfoundationinthelegalworld,

125BrandonHamber1999.’„Havenodoubtitisfearintheland”.AnExplorationoftheContinuingCyclesofViolenceinSouthAfrica.’ZeitschriftfûrPolitischePsychologie.114‐115.126Eze2009:103.127ThaddeusMetz2007.’TowardanAfricanMoralTheory.’JournalofPoliticalPhilosophy.128Ibid:333.

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andMetzmakesuseofthestatementsofJusticeYvonneMokgorotoexplainthewishto

appealtoubuntuindecision‐makinginlaw.Humanrightsspeaktotheinherentdignityof

thehuman,whichMokgorolinksdirectlytoubuntu.AccordingtoMetz,thisviewofhuman

dignitycanclearlybetracedbacktoKant.ItisaclassicallyWesterntheorythatmaybe

troublesomeinthecontextofdefiningubuntu.Metzassertsthatahuman’scapacityof

autonomydoesnotgoalongwithhisthreemoraldutiesofAfricansociety:reconciliation

overretribution,traditionandritualsincivilsocietyorprocreation.129Metzarguesthatin

ordertoaccountforthislargerarrayofdutiesinthecommunity,thistheoryneedstobe

broadenedbeyondthevalueofhumanlife.130However,hedoesconcedethatfromthe

aspectofhonouringthehumanlife,theJustice’sremarkscanbehelpful.Thepromotionof

lifeisaprimefactoroftheAfricancommunityandAfricanTraditionalReligion,asIwill

returntolater.Theharmonyrequiredbyandinthecommunityisnecessaryforthevital

force,theforceoflife,tobepromoted.131

AlthoughIdoagreewithMetztoacertaindegree,itseemshemayhaveomittedcertain

Mokgorothoughts.JusticeYvonneMokgoroexplainsthemaxim,whichshereiteratesas‘a

humanbeingisahumanbeingbecauseofotherhumanbeings’,asimplyingthatonewillbe

challengedbyothersinordertoachieveself‐fulfilment.Thistakesplacethroughcollective

socialideals.Shefurtherexplainsubuntuthroughtheeverydaylifeofthepeopleitconcerns.

ShecontendsthatAfricanmaximssuchas‘[m]othokemotholobathobabangwe,’meaning

‘peoplelivethroughthehelpofothers’,and‘abothobagagoennebothoseshabeng’whichis

translatedto‘letyourwelfarebethewelfareofthenation,’speakstothestrongcommunity

emphasisonfamilyandtheobligationssurroundingit.Mokgoroarguesthatpeopleina

communityarewillingtojointheirresourcestogetherinordertohelpanindividualin

need.132ItseemsclearthatMokgorodoesnothaveasnarrowaunderstandingor

interpretationofubuntuasMetzportraysinhisessay.Sheindeedviewsubuntuinabroad

spectrum,asoneshould,andisnotblindtotheimportanceofubuntuinthecommunity,

eveniftheKantianviewofubuntuinlawisnotnecessarilyagoodfitinthiscontext.

ThesecondinterpretationMetzputsforwardismoreutilitarianbasedwherethe

improvementofthequalityoflifeisthemainfocus.Here,gainingharmonyinthe

communityisthemeanstoanendofhumanwell‐being.However,Metzprofessesthata 129Metz2007:328.130Ibid:340.131Metz2007:328‐329.132YvonneMokgoro.’UbuntuandLawinSouthAfrica’,inDrucillaCornellandNyokoMuvangua(eds.):LawintheubuntuofSouthAfrica.364‐365.

36

utilitarianviewofubuntuhasnopossibilityofcontrollingactssuchasstealingor

discrimination,astheycanbeviewedasnecessaryforthegreatergood.Thisinterpretation

bearsresemblancetothethirdinterpretation,whichfocusesoncommunitarianism.

AccordingtoMetz,ifoneaddshumanrightstotheutilitarianinterpretation,

communitarianismistheendresult.133Metzfurtherclaimsthatthegroundofmoral

rightnesscanonlycomefromcaringrelationships,andnot‘welfarist’well‐beingalone.134

Metzquitecontroversiallystatesthattruequalityoflifecannothappeninthecontextofa

communitywhichpracticesconsensus,cooperationortowhomtraditionweighsheavily.135

Bycitingsocialsciencesresearch,Metzclaimsthat‘…majoritarianisminpolitics,labour‐and

consumer‐marketsineconomics,andinnovativeandunconventionalbehaviourincivil

society’136areprovenwaystohumanqualityoflife.WhatMetzappearstobesayingisthatif

AfricancountriesdonotfollowtheWesterntemplateofpolitics,economicsorcivilsociety,

humanwell‐beingisnotinthecardsforthem,eveniftheirrightsinthecommunitysetting

ofcooperationareconsidered.Thefourthinterpretationpurportsthatself‐realisationinthe

communityandthepositiverelationtoothersmakeanactionright,whereastheactis

wrongifittakesawayfromourvalueasasocialbeing.137Metzassertsthatthis

interpretationfocuseson‘…firmmoraljudgementsaboutwhen,howandwhytohelp

others.’138AccordingtoMetz,manyAfricanthinkersusethemaxim‘apersonisaperson

throughotherpersons’tomeanthatoneshoulddevelopone’sownpersonhood.According

toAugustineShutteour‘…deepestmoralobligationistobecomemorefullyhuman.’139

Shuttealsoinsiststhatselfishnessisnotanoption,althoughitcouldseemtobeonewhen

personalfulfilmentisthegoal.Therealisationofoneselfwillbenefitthecommunityasone

isestablishedasabeinginacommunity,whereoneengagesincommunalrelationships.

Metzinterpretsthisunderstandingofubuntu,asaddressedbybothAugustineShutteand

MogobeRamose,tomeanthatifoneneededtokillanotherpersoninordertoacquirea

livingorganoneneededtolive,itcouldbedefendedbythisinterpretation.Itwould

maximisetheperson’sself‐realisationandsupporttheothersurroundingpeopleinthe

long‐term.Similarly,whenthisisthegoalMetzpointsoutaproblemintheselflessactof

givingupone’slifeforsomeoneelse,includingone’sownchildren.Asdyingwouldendself‐

133Metz2007:331.134Ibid:340.135Ibid:331.136Ibid.137Ibid.138Ibid:340.139Ibid:331.

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realisation,thisactofselflessnesswouldnotbeanoption.140Thisexamplemayseem

frivolous,however,Metzputsforwardagoodpointhere.Thereisaneedtoexpandthe

definitionofubuntu.However,ininterpretingShutteandRamose,self‐realisationwithout

thoughtofothersdoesnotseementirelycorrect.Bothclaimthatindevelopingone’s

personhoodandself,onewillbecomemoreofanassettothecommunity.Bothscholars

establishthataffirmingotherpeople’shumanityisawaytoexpandone’sselfandbenefitthe

community.InMetz’sinterpretationthisdoesnotseemtobepresent,whichisafault.141The

communityisstillanimportantfactor.Self‐realisationforthesakeofself‐realisationisnot

anadequateinterpretationofthesetwoscholars’work.

ThelasttwointerpretationspresentedbyThaddeusMetzhecalls‘properlycommunitarian’

intheirinterpretationofubuntu.Thefirstofthesetworelatesbacktothefirstbook

publishedonubuntu,whichfocusesonsolidarity,especiallyinfacingthepoorand

disadvantagedgroupsofacommunity.Metzcontendsthatthisviewistoonarrowto

constituteamoraltheoryforAfrica,asubuntunecessarilyshouldstretchbeyondthepoorin

acommunity.Ubuntushouldberelevantforeveryone.142Metzviewsthisasonewayof

promotingsharedidentitybutbynomeanstheonlyone.143Metz’sfinalinterpretationof

ubuntuishisfavourite,aswellasmine:‘Anactionisrightinsofarasitproducesharmony

andreducesdiscord;anactiswrongtotheextentthatitfailstodevelopcommunity.’144This

beingsaid,ubuntuexistsonmanylevelsandisusefulintheotherinterpretations

mentionedabove,althoughtheymaynotbeasfullandfundamentalinterpretationsof

ubuntu.Ubuntu,inmyview,canbeofuseinmanyspheresoflifeandforthepromotionof

differentactionsandthoughtsinthehumanbeing.Forthesakeofthewholenessofubuntu,

andthisthesis,thislastinterpretationplacesubuntuatthebasisofthecommunityandthe

harmonywithinit,whichistheplacewhereubuntuisrightlytobefound.Tounderstand

whyharmonyortogethernessistheultimategreatergoodfortheAfricanoneneedsto

understandwhatconstitutesharmony,whichMetzisattemptingtodo.Withacombination

ofsharedidentityandgoodwill,wheresharedidentitymeansbeingtogetherinagroup

workingtowardsthesameendsandgoodwilltalksofcreatingcaringandsupportive

relationships,wehavethebasisforharmony.145Thepathtowardsharmonyiscontingenton

afewfactors,suchas:consensus,reconciliation,communityeconomics,spreadwealth, 140Ibid:233.141Metz2007:331‐332.142Ibid:334.143Ibid:340.144Ibid:334.145Ibid:337.

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inclusionincommunityandprocreation.Consensusisunanimouswithsharedidentity,

accordingtoMetz.Decision‐makingwithunanimousresultspromotesbothgoodwilland

sharedidentityinthelongrun,morethan‘majoritanianism’astheminorityfeelsincluded.

Punishmentdoesnotpromotegoodwillorsharedidentity.Retribution,unlike

reconciliation,isnotbasedonoutcome,accordingtoMetz.Economicallycompetingagainst

oneanothertomaximiseself‐interestsdoesnotfitwithcommunalgoodwillasgoodsand

wealthshouldbesharedforall.Theupholdingoftraditionsandritualsareanimportant

wayinthecommunityforpeopletoidentifywithothers,whichmaintainstheshared

identityandthereforegoodwill.Lastly,procreation‘…enablesonetoexpandtherangeofa

commonsenseofself,toenlargethescopeofa‘we’.’146MymaincontentionisthatMetz

claimsthattherearesignificantaccountsofubuntuthatmakenoreferencetoreligion.147

Thisiseasilyunderstood,especiallyfromaWesternstand,butleavingoutthereligious

aspectofAfricanlifemakeslittlesenseinordertoproduceacompletepicture.Particularly

whentherearesoundargumentstoplaceubuntuinthefoundationsofAfricanTraditional

Religion,andtherebyAfricanlife,tryingtoseparatethetwoseemsunproductiveand

misunderstood.

3.2CONCLUSION

Fromallofthiswecandeducesomekeyelementsofimportanceinadefinitionofubuntu.

Thereisarelativeconsensusamongthescholarswhostudyubuntuthatthecommunityis

animportantpartofunderstandingubuntu.Ahumancanexisttotheirfullabilityonlyina

community,onlyinrelationtootherpeople.Whichbringsustothenextvitalpointof

understanding:theself.Thecommunityisthecentralthemeforwhereone’sselfis

developed.Aswehaveseen,somescholarsarguethatapersonhastoearntheir

personhood.Thetraditionsofthecommunitybringthepersontothepointwhereoneisa

humanbeingreadytobefurtherfulfilledasacompletehumanbeing.Othersclaimthata

personisbornahumanbeing,andthetraditionsofthecommunityhelpthemtocreate

inter‐communalrelationshipsbasedonandtopromoteharmony.Therefore,aperson’s

valueasahumanisinherentinthem,notsomethingthatcaneludethemoratwhichthey

canfail.Thisbeingsaid,noteveryonebecomesanancestororaspiritindeath.Onlyifthe

deceasedhasleadanexemplarylifecantheyguideothersintheirlifethroughbeingan

ancestor.Thiswillbeaddressedinthenextchapter.Tocontinueinourdefinitionofubuntu,

146Metz2007:339.147Ibid:328.

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thereareseveralscholarswhoviewubuntuasanunderlyingessenceofcommunitylifeand

humanity.Theaimofthisunderlyingelementistohelpcreateharmoniousrelationships

andhelphumansinmaintainingrelationshipswithothers.DesmondTutuhasstated:‘Tobe

istoparticipate.’148Allactionscomebacktoubuntu,whichwillalwayspromoteasenseofa

sharedidentitybetweenthepeoplerelatingtoeachotherinacommunity.Thiswillinturn

leadtoageneralwishforwell‐beinginsidethecommunity.Itistheharmonyinthe

communitythatistheultimategoal,anditisherethatwecanlocateubuntu.Ubuntuisinall

peopleandallactionsandthoughts.Ubuntuistomaintainharmonyinthecommunity.This

isaninherentlyreligiousenterprise.Asmentionedinthepreviouschapter,lifeandreligion

isoneandthesamethingintheAfricancontext.InthecontextofAfricanTraditional

Religionubuntuisthebasisforthepurposeofthereligion,whichisharmony.Thiswillbe

furtherdiscussedinthefollowingchapter.

148Battle2009:39.

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3 PERFORMINGUBUNTUIntheviewofVincentMulago,thecentraltenetsofAfricanreligionare:unityoflifeand

participation;beliefintheenhancementordiminutionofbeingsandtheinteractionof

beings;symbolastheprincipalmeansofcontactandunion;andanethicthatflowsfrom

ontology.Firstonhislististhepointofunityoflifeandparticipation,whichismostrelevant

here.Healsoreferstounionoflifeasavitalunion.Thisunionentailsaperson’sbeingand

lifewithalltheimportantpeoplenearby,participatingintheunion.Thelivinganddeadare

beingjoinedinaverticalandhorizontalbond,representingalife‐givingprinciple.Mulago

goesontostatethatthelifeofthe‘…individualisunderstoodasparticipatedlife.’Allthe

membersofasocietyknowthattheylivebythecommunity.Thetribe,theclan,thefamily

allbelievethattheywouldnothavethemeanstosurviveoutsidethecommunity.Alllifeis

sacred,andexistingintheheartofthecommunitymeansparticipatinginthesacredlifeof

theancestors.Inadditiontothis,theconservationandenhancementoftheancestors

dependonthemembersofthetribe,theclan,andthefamily.Thelifebeforeandbeyondthe

graveisinseparableandexistsdependentlyononeanother.Mulagopointsoutthatthereis

abeliefthattheindividualsurvivesafterdeath,andthatthereisaninterchanging

relationshipbetweenthelivingandthedead.Thishastobemaintained.149

GerhardusCornelisOosthuizenarguesthatthinkingintraditionalAfricaissynthetic,rather

thananalytical.Thismeansthateverythingisseenasbeinginterdependent,whichinturn

meansthateverythinghasreligiousvalue,asnothingtraditionallyorientedcanbe

religiouslyneutral,accordingtoOosthuizen.InthisreligiouslyloadedtraditionalAfrican

beliefthereisanorientationtowardstotality.Itisthisorientationthatlaysthegroundwork

fortheintensesenseofcommunity.Notonlythis,butnatureisfreefrombeingobjectified,

whichstrengthensthefeelingofcommunityasoneisnotbeingalienatedbynature.‘An

individualisneveramereindividual,butisalsotheother(whoisnotmerelyanother).’150

Hearguesfurtherthataperson’spersonalityhasthehighestprioritybecausethis

personalitypresupposesrelationship.Andrelationshipsarethemeaningofexistence.

Everythingdonefrombirthuntildeathand‘…thereafterbindthepersonasacommunal

beingtoeveryonearoundthemselves…’151Hegoesontopointoutthatthepersonisthe

centreofexistence,however,notasapersonbyherself,butasafamilyandcommunity.

149VincentMulago1991.‘TraditionalAfricanReligionandChristianity,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.120‐121.150Oosthuizen1991:41.151Ibid:41.

41

Blessingsinlife,likechildren,arenothingunlessthewholeofthecommunityshareinitall.

Themetaphysicalforcesarethesustainersoftheworldinwhichthehumanisatthecentre,

insteadofmatter.Theessenceofthingsiswhatisimportantasreligionembraces

everything.152

Thefamily,forAfricanpeoples,includemanygenerationsandbranches.Thecircleiswide,

andmayincludeextendedfamilieswherebrothersorsistersestablishfamiliesclosetoone

another.Beyondthelivinginfamiliesbetween10andonehundredmembers,thefamily

alsoincludestheliving‐dead.Theyexistinthememoriesofthestillliving.Ifoneis

remembered,oneisnotcompletelydead.Althoughtheyarenotwalkingontheearththey

stillhaveasayinwhathappensinthefamily,aswellasbeingavailableforadviceor

reprimands.Forgettingthedeadwillleadtogravemisfortuneforthesurvivingmembersof

thefamily.Thevaluesinherentinmosteverycommunity,likefellowship,hospitalityand

respectarestillimportantafterdeath.Oneistorecognisethevalueofthelivingdeadwho

haveservedaspillarsofthefamily,andnow,afterdeath,bindthefamilytogether.In

additiontoconsideringthelivingdeadasapartofthefamily,thosewhoareyettobeborn

arealsoconsideredasmembers.Thisisbecausetheyarealreadyintheloinsoftheliving.If

membersofthefamilydonotfindsomeonetomarry,theunbornwilldieandthelifeforce

ofthefamilywillbediminished.Thisisanimportantpoint,asitgivesclearmeaningto

initiationritesandritualssurroundingmarriageinparticular.Botharetoensurethatthe

lifeforceofthefamilywillbestrengthenedandcontinued.153Themembersmustbefully

integratedintothesocietyandbeabletocarrythelifeforceforward.

Theexamplesputforwardinthischapterarebynomeansanexhaustive,completeorfull

portrayalofcasesavailabletobeusedforthepurposeofthischapter.Thisissimplyarough

overviewofafewcasesfromamongdifferentpeoplesinAfricainordertosupportthegoal

ofthischapter.Thereisaneedtoclarifythecontextofthischapter,asIdonotcontendthat

Africanpeoples,suchasthosementionedinthischapter,necessarilyarethesamenowas

theywerewhentheseexampleswereputintowriting.KenyanbornscholarJohnMbiti

mainlyusessourcesfromthebeginningofthe1900supuntilthe1960s,154whereas

LaurentiMagesa’ssourcesdatefromthemid‐1960supuntilthe1980s.155Whatthischapter

willshowisthatthereisnoseparationbetweenubuntu,religionandcommunitylife.Itwill

152Oosthuizen1991:41,39.153Mbiti2008:104‐105.154Ibid:Seeindex.155Magesa1997:Seeindex.

42

alsoshowthatubuntuhistoricallyhasbeenapartofAfricansocieties.Itis,however,

importanttonotethatIdonotproposethattheexamplesusedbelowareunchanged

illustrationsofAfricancommunitylife.Theseexampleshavebeenrecordedatonepointin

history,andportraythecommunitylifeofthatparticularpeopleinaparticularyear.The

importanceofthemisnonethelessthattheydoinallinstancesportraysomethingthatis

trueofthewidersocietyofpeoplesinAfrica:thefocusonthevalueoflifeforthepurposeof

harmony.Thisisthereasontheseillustrationswillexplainthehistoryofubuntutobe

longerthanroughly20years,whichispurportedbyvanBinsbergen.Allpartsoflifeare

focusedtowardsmaintainingharmony,andallsocietalactionsreturntotheupholdingand

transferenceofthevitalforce;life,whichisthemostimportantelementofmaintaining

harmonyinthecommunity.AsAfricanTraditionalReligionisfar‐reachingandexists

outsideofSouthAfrica,thischapterwillmakeuseofcasesfromseveraldifferentpeoples

locatedinsub‐SaharanAfrica.FirstlyIwilltalkabouttheimportanceofcommunitylifein

Africansocieties.Therearestructuresinthecommunitythatarefocusedtowards

maintainingthewell‐beingandharmonyinthatcommunity.ThereafterIwillfocusonthe

importanceofthevitalforceofthecommunity,alsoreferredtoasthelifeforce.Theconcern

willbepracticesmaintainingandensuringthetransferenceofthevitalforceinthe

community.Lastly,theemphasiswillbeonthesignificanceofancestors,alsoreferredtoas

theliving‐dead,intheupholdingofharmonyinthecommunity.Allthreepartsofthis

chapterconcentrateontheimportanceoflifeandhowtobestpreserveit.Ubuntuisfoundin

allthreepartsofthischapter.ThaddeusMetzlocatesthecentreofubuntuinthework

towardscommunalwell‐beingandsharedidentity,andthisiswhatcanbeseenbelow.In

4.1.2Iusethewordprayer,whichcanbesaidtopossessEuro‐Christianconnotations,ascan

thelanguageinwhichtheprayersarepresented.However,Ichoosetomakeuseofthe

originalquotesandtheword‘prayer’inordertomosteasilydealwiththedata.

4.1COMMUNITY

FridayMbonarguesthatAfricantraditionalsocietiesvaluethewelfareoftheindividual

person,asitisaconsequenceofwelfareinthesociety.Andthesocietyisthemostimportant

aspectoflife.InAfricantraditionalsocieties,hecontinues,nomanliveduntohimself.Asthe

actionsofanypersonwilldirectlyorindirectlyaffectanotherpersonorpersons,orthe

entiresociety.Mbonusestheword‘eudaemonistic’whenexplainingtheAfricansocietal

systemassystemsofhappiness.Thedictionarycallsita‘…systemofethicsthatbasesmoral

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valueonthelikelihoodthatgoodactionswillproducehappiness.’156LaurentiMagesaviews

sociabilityandcreationofrelationshipsinthecourseofdailylivingbytheindividualand

communityasthecentralmoralandethicalimperativeinAfricanreligion.Thereisastrong

focusontheformationandexecutionofrelationshipsastheserelationshipskeepthe

universegoing.Atthesametime,inAfricanreligionthereisaninherentfocusonthe

present.Livinginthenowconcentratingonhavingagoodlifenow,iscrucial.Theemphasis

onrelationshipshereandnowistoemphasisetheimportanceoflivinginthepresent.In

thistypeofrelationship,whereeveryoneunderstandstheimportanceof

interconnectedness,thefocusisthehealthofthecommunity,aswellasthecirculationoflife

sothatlifeiskeptmoving.Arelationshipmeansonehastoshare.Notsharingis

counterproductivetothewellbeingofthecommunity.Sharingcreatesandcementsbonds

requiredtoformandsustainthecommunity.Ifonerefusestoshareitislikelytothinkthis

persondoesnothavethebestinterestofthecommunityatheart.157Thesetwofollowing

quotesdescribetheimportanceandrelevanceofthecommunity:‘Theunityofthe

community[…]aunitythatisthecommunity’slifeinitsfullestsense,istheparamount

good.Theoppositeconstitutestheparamountdestruction.’158‘Participation‐sharingisthus

acentralprincipleorimperativeforhumanexistenceinAfricanreligion,the“quintessence

ofauthentichumanity(Obuntu)”.’159

Infocusingoncommunitywewilllookatpartsofthecommunitywherethewhole

communityisengagedinmaintaining,upholdingorrestoringthevitalforce,andwiththat:

harmony.Allofthecommunityisengagedinthewellbeingofeveryonewhoispartofthe

community.Ritualsrepresentaphysicalcommunicationwithancestors,spiritsorthe

SupremeBeingthatmostofteninvolvesthewholecommunity.Sacrificesandofferingsare

madetopreventdifficultsituations,turndifficultsituationsaround,andrestoreharmony

afterwrongdoing,tothankortoremember.Thecommunitycomestogetherwiththe

worriesortheirhappinessandshareproblemsolvingorthanksgiving.Prayerandrituals

mayormaynothappensimultaneously.Prayerisacommonwayofcommunicatingwith

ancestors,spiritsortheSupremeBeingwhereitismostcommontopetitionthoseforces

relevantforsomethingthatisneededforharmonyinthehomesteadorthecommunity.

Prayerscanbeutteredinprivate,butprayeralsobringsthemembersofthecommunity 156FridayM.Mbon1991.‘AfricanTraditionalSocio‐ReligiousEthicsandNationalDevelopment:TheNigerianCase,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.102.157Magesa1997:64‐65.158Ibid:65.159Ibid:66.

44

together.Finally,Iwillmainlyfocusonthepartplayedbythemedicine‐doctorforthe

promotionofsocietalwell‐being.Therearemedicine‐doctorsandotherspecialistsinevery

communitywholocateailments,illnessorevilandoffercures,orpreventativemedicine.

Theyfunctionasimportantupholdersofharmony,andmembersofthecommunitycanturn

tothemwhentheyareworriedorill.

4.1.1RITUALS

Ritualsarecentralinthecommunityandareusedfortherestoringandmaintainingoflife.

AccordingtoMagesa,themostcommonritualsinthisrespectaresacrificeandoffering.He

differentiatesbetweensacrificeandofferingbyfocusingonwhetherthereisseparationby

destructionordedication.Whenthereisasacrifice,anitem,mostoftenafood,iskilledor

destroyedmostpossiblybyfire,orthroughabandonment.Theitemsacrificedneedstobe

connectedwithhumanuseandofvalueinthecommunity.Thecommunityorthepersonis

separatedfromtheitemofvaluethroughthedestructionoftheitem,suchasfoodstuffs,

waterorhoney,160whichnowbelongstotheancestororspirititwassacrificedto.In

offeringstheitemsconnectedwithhumanusearenotdirectlydestroyed,butseparated

fromthecommunityorthepersonthroughdedicationtotheancestororspiritinquestion.

Theitemcanstillappearinthecommunity,butdoesnolongerbelongtothem.Thisisa

symbolicexercise,wherenobloodisshed.Insomeinstancesofoffering,theitemcannotbe

usedagainasitisinhabitedbythemysticalpowers,however,thisisnotalways.161Asis

explainedthroughsacrificebytheTurkana,theburning,dissection,roastingandeatingof

theanimalcreatesa‘…newentityorsuper‐entityofinterrelationshipswithcoolnessand

happiness.’162Thespiritsandancestors,manandanimalhavethroughsacrificebecomea

totality,whichfostersharmonyinthecommunity.Thisisthefundamentalmeaningof

sacrifices,accordingtoMagesa,therestorationofwholeness.Wrongdoingcancreatea

distancebetweentheelementsoftheuniverse,andthisneedstoberectified.163However,it

isnotonlyspecificallyhumanwrongdoingthatneedssacrificesandofferings.Droughts,

epidemics,floods,warorotherdiresituationsalsocallforcommunicationbetweenpersons

inthecommunityandthemysticalpowers.Communities,suchastheAkambaandthe

Gikuyu,sacrificeinordertopreventpotentialdiresituations,suchasbeforeplanting,before

160EmekaC.Ekeke2011.‘AfricanTraditionalReligion:AConceptualandPhilosophicalAnalysis.’Lumina.9.161Magesa1997:201.162Ibid:203.163Ibid:203.

45

ripeningofcrops,beforeharvest,oraspartofritesofpassageinthecommunity.164Sacrifice

maybeperformedinunisonwithprayers,asawomanoftheBachwawhobringsaportion

ofthefoodshehascookedtotheforest.WhenofferingthemtotheSupremeBeingas

appreciationforbecomingpregnantsheutters:‘God,fromWhomIhavereceivedthischills,

takeThouandeat!’165AmongtheTaitaofKenyareconciliationpermeatestheirwhole

religioussystem.TheTaitaperformreconciliationritesinordertore‐establishtiesinthe

community,whichaccordingtoMagesa,isimportanttoanydivinationprocedure.Asthe

pointofsacrifices,offeringsaswellasdivinationistorestoreharmonyinthecommunity,

thereneedstobecertaintythatattheendofsuchundertakingsthecommunityistied

together.ThisisofmajorimportanceamongtheTaita,whereonehastobehonestand

recogniseangerorresentmentonehasinsideandcastthemaway.Thisamountstothesame

ascastingawaytheangerorresentmentofthemysticalpowers.Theyhavearitual

specificallyfortheriddanceofanger,wherethepersoncarryingouttheritualmustbeclear

ofangerintheirheart.166

4.1.2PRAYER

Therearemanywaysinwhichthecommunityinworksinuniontowardsmaintaining

harmony.AccordingtoMagesa,prayerisoneofthewaysbywhichtoachieveharmony.The

focusofprayeristoremoveallthatisbadfromacommunityandrestorewhatisgood.

Prayer,connectingthevisibleandtheinvisibleworld,enhancesthemutualinterdependent

relationships.AccordingtoAdeyemo,MagesaandMbiti,prayeristhemostcommonactof

worshipinAfricanreligion.167Itisacommunication,apetitionbetweenthevisibleandthe

invisibleworld.Themaingoalisthemaintenanceofharmonybetweenpersonsinthe

visibleworldandbetweenthemandtheinvisibleworld.Therearetypicallynostandardised

prayersinAfricanreligionbecausethesituationhereandnowneedstoberespected.This

meansthetoneoftheprayercanchangealldependingonthesituation.Angerand

frustrationispermitted,especiallyastheoneprayingalwayswillhaveafeelingofbeing

humblewhencommunicatingwithancestors,spiritsortheSupremeBeing.Thisleadsusto

wheretheprayersgo,wheretheyaredirected.Theydonotonlyhaveoneplacetogo,and

canbeaddressedtoancestors,spiritsortheSupremeBeing.Magesastressesthatonehasto

becompletelyhonestinthiscommunicationwiththespiritualbeingsinordertobeproperly

164Mbiti2008:59.165Ibid:60.166Magesa1997:234‐236.167Magesa1997:195,Mbiti2008:61.

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heard.Thisprerequisitereliesontrustbetweenthelivinghumansandthespiritsand

ancestors.Magesaalsorecognisesthatthereispragmatismintheprayerinthatoneoften

asksforwhatisneededtocontinueaffirminglife.168Oneexampleofprayerisfromthe

BambutiPgymiesoftheDemocraticRepublicofCongo.Iftheyfindthemselvesintheforest

whenathunderstormarises:‘Father,Thychildrenareafraid;andbehold,weshalldie!’169

Thegoalisthewellbeingofthosewhofindthemselvesintheforesttonotdieoflightning,in

ordertomaintainthefamilyandthevitalforce,andthereforeharmony.Thisisapetition

andawarningforthecontrollersofthethunderstorm,aswellastotheancestorsinposition

ofcommunicatingdirectlywiththeSupremeBeing.Anotherprayerthatisrecordedcomes

fromtheMeruinKenyaandilluminateslifeinaprayerforthewellbeingofthehomestead,

thecommunity,andbeyond:

‘Kirinyaga…,ownerofallthings,IpraytoThee,givemewhatIneed,becauseIamsuffering,andalsomychildren,andallthethingsthatareinthiscountryofmine.IbegThee,thegoodone,forlife,healthypeoplewithnodisease.Maytheybearhealthychildren.Andalsotowomenwhosufferbecausetheyarebarren,openthewaybywhichtheymayseechildren.Givegoats,cattle,food,honey.AndalsothetroubleoftheotherlandthatIdonotknow,remove.’170

Thefocusofthisprayeriswhatisneededfortherecoveringofharmonyinthecommunity.

TheMeruarepetitioningforhealthandfood,whichisneededforasuccessfultransmittance

ofthevitalforce.Thefocusoftheoneutteringtheprayeristhechildren,bornandnotyet

born.Evenwhenthereiscleardistress,theoneprayingisaskingthatbarrenwomenshould

beabletobearchildren.Thisinitselfshowstheimportanceofwhatwilloccupythenext

partofthischapter;thevitalforce.Themaingoalistomakethesituationhealthyinorder

forthevitalforcetobepreserved.Mostcommonstartingpointsforprayersarepetitioning,

thanksgivingandmemorialising,whichareallimportantinordertonotonlyuphold

harmonyinthecommunityoftheliving,butalsotoupholdharmonyinthecommunitythat

involvestheancestorsandspirits.Recognisingtheeffortsandworkoftheancestorsand

spiritsfurtherincludethesebeingsintothecommunity,andtheywillinturnassistin

affirminglifeandharmony.However,whenoneisaskingsomethingoftheancestorsor

spiritsitisusuallylinkedtoprotectionfromevilinwhateverform,andtheflourishingof

life.Iftheseprayersareheard,thanksgivingisinorder.171

168Magesa1997:196‐198.169Ekeke2011:10‐11.170Magesa1997:197‐198.171Ibid:199.

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4.1.3SPECIALISTS

Themedicine‐doctorrepresentsapositioninthecommunitywhosesolepurposeisto

protectorrestorethevitalforce.AsunderlinedbyMagesa,theworkingsofthemedicine‐

doctorshowthe‘…interconnectednessof,andinterdependencebetween,humanityandthe

restofcreation.’172Themedicine‐doctorsymbolisesthe‘…hopesofsociety:hopesofgood

health,protectionandsecurityfromevilforces,prosperityandgoodfortune,andritual

cleansingwhenharmorimpuritieshavebeencontracted.’173Theymakeuseofthewholeof

natureintheirworktoprotect,restoreorprevent.Harmonyinthecommunityisnot

restrictedtoharmonyamongpersonsbutitalsoincludesnature.Allthatsurroundsthe

communityisrelevantandimportant,andabalancedrelationshipwithnaturewillalsohelp

maintainthevitalforce,andthereforeupholdharmony.AccordingtoMbiti,themedicine‐

doctorsbelievespiritsorancestorsarecallingthemintobecomingamedicine‐doctor.This

canhappenwhentheyareyoungorwhentheyareolder,andtheirtrainingcanbeeither

formalorinformal,butthereisalwayssomekindofapprenticeshipforthemedicine‐doctor

to‐be.Theywilllearnhowtotreatailmentsmedicinally,throughallsortsofnature‐objects,

beitinsectsorfruit.Medicine‐doctorswillalsoknowhowtodeterminethecauseofillness

orsuffering,whichincludesbarrennessorpoorcrops,andhowtocurethesesufferings,or

howtopreventthem.Medicine‐doctorspossessknowledgeofhowtouseortocombatthe

useofmagic,witchcraftandsorcery.Theyalsohaveataskofunderstandingthespiritsand

ancestors,whattheymeanbytheirmessagesandothercommunications,withoutdealing

directlywiththem.174AccordingtoMagesa,thereisabeliefinAfricanreligionthatthetrue

reasonbehindallthingsthathappencanbeknown,175whichiswhytherearemembersof

thecommunityapttolocatethesourcesofevilandofferacureorpreventiontactics.For

instance,‘[a]mongtheNdebele176,themedicine‐mansuppliesmedicatedpegsforthegates

ofanewhomestead.Hecombatswitchcraftandmagicbypreventingtheiraction…’177The

medicine‐doctorisinthiscasecreatingasenseofstabilityandsafety,aswellasdoingwhat

isnecessaryforthemaintenanceofthevitalforce.

Communitieshaveseveral‘specialists’tolookoutfortheinterestsofthecommunityasa

whole.Therearemediumsthatarethemainintermediariesbetweenthelivingandthe

172Magesa1997:210.173Mbiti2008:166.174Ibid:162‐164,167.175Magesa1997:214.176OfSouthAfrica,ZimbabweandBotswana.177Mbiti2008:164.

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living‐deadandthespirits.Themediumsareregularpeoplemostofthetimebutwhena

spiritpossessesthem,theycanhelpthelivingreceivemessagestoguidethemwithlargeor

smallerthingsinlife.Anotherspecialististhediviner,whichisprimarilyconcernedwith

divination,mostoftenincorrelationwithmedicine.Mbitidescribesthemasfriendsofthe

communitythatactlikecounsellors,comfortersorproblemsolvers.Africancommunities

alsohavearainmakerinthecommunity,asrainisregardedasagreatblessing.Mbiti

regardsthemas‘…someofthemostimportantindividualsinalmostallAfricansocieties.’178

TheZuluofSouthAfricacallrainmakers‘shepherdsofheaven’.Theritualsandceremonies

connectedwithrainmakingisoftenaveryimportantcommunityevent,whichmakesit

importantforsolidarityandunity.179Theseareroughoverviewsofdifferentspecialistin

Africansocietiesandcommunitiesthatplayanimportantroleinthecommunity.Thereare

manyformsofmediums,diviners,medicine‐doctorsandrainmakers.Theyallhavemany

diversemethods,andtheyarefoundinallsocietiesinAfricaasapartofAfricanTraditional

Religion.Thereisanendlessamountofritualsandprayersaswell.However,inthisbrief

explanationofsomeaspectsoftheseformsofcommunityco‐existence,theyallshowcase

preciselythiscomingtogetherinthecommunityforthebenefitofcommunalharmonyand

thepreservationofthevitalforce;thelifeforce.

4.2THEVITALFORCE

Thevitalforceisthemostcentralpartofthecommunity.Thisforceispartofhumanbeings,

andisthebasicforceoftheuniverse.Withoutitthereisnolife.Thevitalforceiswhat

everybodyisworkingtowardspreserving.Aftergoingthroughritesofinitiationonecan

moveforwardtothenextstep,whichistheimportanttransmittingofthevitalforce.In

unitingtwocommunitiesinmarriage,theybecomeoneentity,onepeople.Marriageiswhat

thesurvivalofkinshipdependson.Amarriagewillestablishstrongbondsbetweenthetwo

peoplecomingfromdifferentfamiliesandclans.Allthisisnottosaythateachcommunityin

thesub‐Saharancountriessharethesame‘kinship‐relationshipterminologies’,asMagesa

putsit.Thekinshipstructurescanbepatrilineal,matrilineal,unilateralorbilateral.

However,theimportanceofmarriageandthecontinuingofthevitalforceremainslargely

thesamewhereveronegoes.Thus,thefamilyascreatedbymarriage‘…isthe“fundamental

element”andthe“basicsphereofaction”inAfricanrelationships.’180

178Mbiti2008:174.179Ibid:174,176.180Magesa1997:115‐116,119.

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Thewholeclanhasaresponsibilitytohonourtheobligationofreproducinginorderto

maintainthecommunity’swell‐being.Magesaarguesthatthisiswhysolidarityisthemost

importantfeaturewithinandbetweenfamilies.181Inthecommunitythereisputserious

emphasisontheneedtobecomemarried.Eachpersonhasamoralobligationtomarryand

havechildrensothatthesocialcommunity’slifecycleisnotinterrupted.Aninterruption

wouldbedevastatingforthecommunity.Marriagedoesnotonlyaffectthesocialfactorsina

community,italsoaffectstheeconomic,politicalandreligiousfactorsinthecommunity.

Marriagemorethananyotheraspectoflifeaffectsthesocietyasawhole.182Whenfocusing

onmarriage,Iwilllookatthesurroundingsofhowamarriagetakesplace,andhowit

preservesthevitalforce.Animportantpartpertainingtomarriageisbridewealth,which

willbethefollowingfocus.Itisanimportantceremonialundertakingtoensurethewell

beingofthebrideandthebridegroom’sclans,andalsothetwopeoplebecomingamarried

couple,whichisdonethroughbridewealth.Furthermore,thepreparationsforlifeinsociety

andmarriagethroughinitiationritesandtaboosareaspectsneededtocompletethepicture

ofhowimportantthevitalforceisinthecommunity.Allthesepartstogetheremphasisethe

crucialvalueofthevitalforce,andprovideguidelinesforitsmaintenance.

4.2.1MARRIAGE

InAfricanreligiontheprocessofmarriageisastep‐by‐stepdevelopment,whichintegrates

thecommunity,‘…itisnotanendinitself,itisameanstoanend.’183Thereareseveral

ceremoniesindifferentplaces;allvaryingfromcommunitytocommunity.However,as

BishopKasebaoftheDemocraticRepublicofCongostresses,thegradualprocessistaken

withtheutmostseriousness.Makingsureeveryoneisinvolvedinthemarriageprocess,

helpingthecoupletowardsalastingunionofmarriage.Thiswholeprocessiswhatmakesa

marriage.Twofamiliesarecomingtogether,atthesametimeasoneofthepartnersare

leavingtheirhomestead.Thegradualapproachtoacompletemarriageunionistakingevery

partyintoconsiderationallowingalliancestobeformedandagrowingtogetheroffamilies.

Thisgradualprocessalsoallowsforinterruptionifthepartiesproveincompatible.An

interruptionisnotregardedasadivorcewhentheprocessisnotcomplete,itisjust

recognisedandacceptedasanattemptedmarriagethatdidnotgointofruition.Whenthe

truemeaningandpurposeofmarriagehasbeenacceptedanddecided,achildisthelaststep

181Magesa1997:121.182Ibid:119‐121.183Ibid:125.

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towardsmarriage.‘…[W]ithoutchildren…marriagehasnomeaning.’184Thisisbecause

childrenarethesymbolofthetransmissionandpreservationoftheforceoflife.Without

children,thereisnofurtherlife.Whenachildisborn,amarriageshouldunderno

circumstancesend.Thisisbecausethedemandsofmarriageextendbeyondthepresentlife.

Inmanyinstances,incaseofdeathofaparent,asisterorbrothershouldreplacehimorher.

Whenachildisbornthehusbandandwifeareinextricablyboundtooneanother,asare

theirfamiliesandcommunities.Thiscausesthetwopeople,familiesandcommunitiesto

expand,andrealisetheirhumanity,astheyareabletolivein‘…alargercircleofhuman

beings.’185Themembersoftheexpandingcommunityattaintheirfullhumanityasaresultof

togetherness,whichisadirectconsequenceofmarriage.Notonlyforthecomingtogetherof

thetwopersonsandcommunities,butalsobecausetheancestralunioncanonlybeachieved

throughchildren.186

Withthepurposeofmaintainingthevitalforce,Africancommunitieshavedifferent

solutionstosituationsthatputthisinjeopardy.Themarriagebondissoprofoundlystrong

thatdeathdoesnotnecessarilyspellabrokenbond.Thereareunionspreparedtodealwith

theeventofdeath,orinfertility,tocontinuefosteringlifeinthecommunity.187Onesuch

solutionisalevirateunion,whereamanmarrieshisdeceasedbrother’swife.Thechildren

bornthroughthisunionbelongtothedeceasedmanandinheritfromhisestate.Similarly,

thewomanisnotmarriedagain,onlylivinginthesamehouseasher‘caretaker’.Itisthe

responsibilityofthedeceasedhusband’srelativestotakecareofhiswife,andsecuretheir

survivalthroughchildren.Iftherearenomentostepintothisrole,awidowmaybetreated

asamanandtakea‘wife’.Thiswifemayhavesexualrelationswithothermen,butthe

childrenarestillcountedasthewidow’s,whoistheir‘father’.Anothersolutiontoa

problematicsituationisawifehavinghersisterbeaco‐wife.Ifawomanismarriedand

discoverssheisbarrenthereisgreatshametobefallherfamilyandclan.Inthis‘sororate’

marriagethesisterwouldconceiveandgivebirthtothechildrenofhersisterandher

husband’sfamilyandclan.Inthiswaythevitalforceissecured.Inothercases,amanmay

diewithoutchildrenandawomanwillmarryhimafterhehasdiedandcarrybabiesintohis

name.Thisisknownasaghostmarriage.AccordingtoMagesa,sexualrelationsofanykind

aredeemedethical,asthepurposetheyserveisaboveallelse.188Themaintenanceand

184Magesa1997:126.185Ibid:128.186Ibid:127‐128.187Ibid:135.188Ibid:140‐141.

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transmittanceofthevitalforceinorderforcommunalharmonyisthemostimportantpart

ofAfricanTraditionalReligionandtheAfricancommunity.However,onecanassumethat

thesexualrelationsneedtobelegitimatedthroughthecommunity.Inmostinstances

homosexualrelationsarenotpermitted,whichmeansMagesa’sstatementisnotquite

correct.Thisis,however,notatopicthatwillbeaddressedinthisthesis.

Therearepreparationsformarriageandthetransmittanceofthevitalforcethrough

initiationrites.Theseritesthatcoincidewithpubertyteachesboysandgirlsaboutmaturity

andresponsibilities,butalsoaboutsexandfamilylife.AccordingtoMbiti,initiationcouldbe

characterisedasa‘…sanctificationandpreparationformarriage’,andwhentheseritesare

overtheboysandgirlshavebecomemenandwomen,readyandallowedtobecome

married.Afterbeingtaughtthewaysoftheadults,onecanchooseamarriagepartner.The

parentsofthewoman,ortheparentsofthemancanchooseapartneronbehalfoftheir

children.Preferablythechoicesaremadefromoutsideoftheclan,soastoassurehealthy

offspring.Relativescanalsobeinvolvedinchoosingapartner,andinsomeinstancesthe

youngwomenormenmaketheirownchoices,leavingthemarriagenegotiationsuptotheir

parentsandrelatives.Whenapartnerischosenthecourtshipcanbegin,wheregenerallyno

ritesareused.Althoughinsomesocietiestherearewaysofsymbolisingthependingunion

ofthefamilies.Ifthepartnersdecidetheywishtostaywitheachotheraftertheperiodof

courting,theycanmarry.ThereisnosetweddingceremonyinAfricanTraditionalReligion,

andthewaysinwhichmarriageisconsecratedareverydiverse.AccordingtoMbiti,some

societieshaveceremoniesoverseveraldaysfilledwithritualsfortheoccasion,whereas

somefightsymbolicallyinordertoincorporatethebrideintohernewclan.Althoughitis

notalwaysthewomanwhogoestolivewiththeman’sfamilyandclan,inmatrilocal

communitiesthemancomestolivewithhiswife’sfamily.Insomeinstancesthereisno

ceremonyuntilachildisunderway.Inthesecasesthewomanandmanlivetogetheruntil

thebabyisconceived.189Eitherway,mostcommonlytherearenegotiationssurroundingthe

unionoftwopeople,wherebridewealthisthemostimportanttopic.

4.2.2BRIDEWEALTH

Solidificationofunityinmarriagecomesthroughbridewealth.Itisnotamatterof

purchasingawife,butratherarecognitionofthewomen’sclan’sworkinraisingthebride.

Creatingthistypeofbondbetweentwofamiliesmakesforastableunion.Notpaying

189Mbiti2008:130‐135.

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bridewealthleavesthecoupletobemarriedinlimbo.Thereistheuncertaintyofwhichclan

achildbetweenthetwowillbelongto,whichancestorswillbethechild’sguides,andwhat

placewillthechild,aswellashis/herparentshaveintheclan.Themanwillforinstance

losehisrightstonaming,190whichmeansneitherheorhisfamilyhaveanyrightsconnected

withthechild.Thewomanmightalsohavetroublefittingintohernewhome,orinmaking

connectionstohisfamily,withouttheexchangeofbridewealth.Theinstabilityofthe

communityandunionwhenthereisnobridewealthispreciselywhatthecommunityin

generalisworkingagainst.Bridewealth,asothertraditions,areinplacetoensurethe

stabilityofthecommunity.Andstabilityissynonymouswithpreservingthevitalforce.

Bridewealthisawayofsolemnisingthefather‐motherstatus,aheadofthehusband‐wife

status,aspointedoutbyMagesa.Bridewealthmeansthatthesecurityofthechildis

prioritised,atthesametimeasoneishonouringtheparentsonbothsideswhohavealready

securedthevitalforcetobecarriedthroughintheirchildren.191Thebridewealthisdesigned

totaketheplaceofthebrideinherfamilyaftersheleaves.Italsosymbolisesthebride’s

valueinherfamily,andwhatalossitwillbewhensheleaves.Thefamilyofthebridedogive

giftstothegroom’sfamily,althoughsmallerinsize,asthanksgiving.192

AccordingtoSchapera‘…thebasicpointofbride‐wealthhastodowithlife,theproper

identificationoftheoffspringandtheirconfirmationintoandwithinacertainclanwhose

lifeisincreasedonaccountoftheirbirth.’193ThisviewisechoedamongtheAzandeof

Sudan,theGikuyuandtheKipsigisofKenya,theKwayaofTanzania,theAkanofGhanaand

theIvoryCoastandtheThongaofSouthAfrica.AccordingtoHenriJunod,thebridewealth

createssolidaritybetweenthetwocommunitiesastheexchangeofittakesplaceinpublic.

Duetobridewealththemarriageishardertobreakupon‘…accountofitssocial,

psychological,andritualsignificance.’194Andthechildrenbornintothisunionaregivenan

identityandlegitimacy.195Whenthemarriagehasbeensealedwithbridewealthand

realisedbyhavingchildren,thefourmostimportantthingsinhumanlifehavebeenenabled:

‘1)ithasre‐presented(madepresentamongtheliving)thelifeforceofdepartedancestorsbywayofnaming;2)ithasgiventheparentstheassuranceoflifewiththeancestorsinthattheywillinturnberememberedbybeingnamedafter;3)ithasensuredcontinuationofthelifeoftheclan

190Tobeexplainedin4.3.1.191Magesa1997:128‐135.192Mbiti2008:137.193SchaperainMagesa1997:130.194HenriJunodinMagesa1997:131.195Magesa1997:131.

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inthisworldbyincreasingvitalforcethroughnewmembers;and4)comprisingalltheabove,ithastiedthebondofcommunionbetweentheliving,theliving‐dead,andtheyet‐to‐be‐born.’196

JohnMbiticharacterisesmarriageasthefocusofexistenceforAfricanpeoples.Allmembers

ofacommunitycometogetheroveramarriage;thisincludesthelivingandtheyet‐to‐be‐

born.Asmuchasitisarhythmoflifeitisadutyforthegoodofthesocietyandcommunity.

Refusingtomarryisarejectionofsociety,andinreturnthesocietyrejectsthem.Mbitisees

procreationasameansofsealingthemarriage,asman’sattempttorecapturewhathe

referstoasthelostgiftofimmortality.Procreatingthenbecomesawayinwhichamancan

contributetheseedoflifetowardsthestruggleagainsttheoriginalimmortality.Oneisalso

perpetuatingthechainofhumanity.Withoutcreatingdescendantsthefireoflifeisputout

astheliving‐deadlosetheiropportunitytobereincarnated.Aslongasoneisremembered

oneisnotdead.Tonotberememberedistheworstpunishmentforanyperson,asitmeans

theyareutterlycutofffromsociety;oneisdisconnectedwithoutanylinkswithmankind.

Therefore,thegreatesthopeforapersonandthecommunityismarriage.197

4.2.3INITIATIONANDTABOOS

Anotheraspectoflife,whichconfirmstheimportanceandimpermeablecapacityofthevital

forceisariteofinitiation.Duringaperson’schildhoodoneisinstructedinthelifeofthe

clan,makingsurethemembersofthecommunitybecomereadytotakeonthemoral

responsibilitiesofbeingpartoftheclanandcommunity.AccordingtoMagesa,thesocietal

rightsandresponsibilitiesoftheindividualareachievedduringtheinitiationritesof

puberty.Thelifeforceoftheindividualisconfirmedformallyandbecomesimprintedinthe

rationalconsciousnessoftheindividual.198AccordingtoMagesa,therearefiveareasthatare

stressedduringtheinitiation.Theseare‘…religion,themysteryoflifeanddeath,domestic

andsocialvirtues,sexandsexuality,andformsofself‐identity.’199Initiationusuallyhasfive

stepsthatneedstobefollowed,whichare:‘…seclusion,instruction,physicalimpression

(eitheractualorsymbolic),integration,andcovenant.’200TheNdebeleofSouthAfrica,

ZimbabweandBotswanahaveashortceremonytocelebratethechangesofpubertyinboys

andgirls.Mbitidescribestheceremony.

‘Whenaboyhashisfirstnightemissionofsperms,hegetsupearlythenextmorning,beforeotherpeopleareup,andgoesnakedtotheriverwherehewasheshimself.Thenhereturnshomeand

196Magesa1997:135.197Mbiti2008:130‐131.198Magesa1997:95.199Ibid:97.200Ibid:96.

54

standsoutsidethehomesteadnearthegatewaythatleadstothecattleshed.Whenotherboysseehimthere,theycomeoverandbeathimwithsticks.Hefleesintothewoodsandremainstherefortwoorthreedays,beingcarefullywatchedbyotherboys.Duringthattimeheisnotallowedtoeatfoodinthedaytime,butonlyatnight.Whentheperiodisover,hereturnshomeandisgivenmedicatedfoodbythetraditionaldoctor.Thisisdoneceremoniously.Themedicine‐manputsmaizemealattheendofastickwhichhethrustsathimandtheboymusttakeholdofitwithhismouth.Whenhesucceedsindoingsothemedicine‐mangiveshimthreeorfourblowswithastick.Peoplesaythismakestheboyhard.Hisfatherandrelativesgivehimpresentsofcattle,sheepandgoats.’201

AccordingtoMbiti,thedaysintheforestsymbolisethedeathandresurrectionoftheboys,

andchildhoodisleftbehindthroughtheactofwashing.Thewholeriteisapreparationfor

lifeasanadult.Whentheboyisconsidered‘hard’itisseenasanapprovaloftheboythat

meanshecanbeincorporatedintothewidersociety.Onlywhenaboyisdeemedreadyto

takeontheresponsibilitiesofthewidersociety,canhetakepart.Washingsymbolisesthe

girls’initiationrite,whichtakesplaceaftertheirfirstmenstruation.Abigfeastisprepared

forthegirl,whoisnowallowedtobemarried.202

Averyimportantpartofinitiationritesistheemphasisonsexuality.Informationand

instructionaboutsexisvitalasthetransmittanceandpreservationofthelifeforceis

dependentonasoundunderstandingofsex.AccordingtoMagesa,thereisafocusonthe

pleasureofsex,butalsoontheresponsibilityofsexualinteraction.203Taboosserveasimilar

taskinAfricancommunities.Thereisemphasisonkeepingsexwithinthepracticesthat

promotelifeandthevitalforce.AccordingtoMagesa,manytaboosarecentredonblood.A

person’sbloodcanbeeitherhotorcold,wherehotrepresentsaconditionthatisdangerous

toothers.Forinstance,amongtheKgatlaofBotswana,peoplewhohavejusthadintercourse

areconsideredhotandcanthereforenotpartakeincertainrituals.Alsowidowsarehotfor

awholeyearaftertheirhusbandhasdied.Awomanissimilarlyhotduringmenstruation,

pregnancyandafterbirth.AmongtheMbutioftheD.R.Congoamanwhosewifeis

menstruatingcannottakepartinhunting.Heisalsobannedfromhuntingwhenhiswifeis

pregnantorhasjustgivenbirth.Herbloodneedscoolingdownbeforehecanhuntonce

again.SeveralpeoplesofAfricahaveforbiddenanycontactwithmenstrualblood.Ifthe

taboosarebrokentheconsequencescanbedire.Forinstance,amanwhohasintercourse

withamenstruatingwomancanbecomeimpotent.Moreseriousthanthetabooregarding

blood,istheincesttaboo.Thelistofkinonecannothavesexualrelationswithislarge,andis

soimportantbecauseoftheconfusionthatariseswhenincestiscommitted.Theyshare 201Mbiti2008:127‐128.202Ibid:128.203Magesa1997:98.

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theirvitalpowerwithoneanother,andifincesttakesplacethatclanrelationshipmustend

rightaway.Sexandsexuality,Magesastresses,aresacredwaysofpreservingand

transmittingthevitalforce.Taboosensurethecorrectuseofsexinthecommunity,soasnot

tojeopardisethecontinuationoflife.204

DuringinitiationritesamongtheThongaofSouthAfrica,therearenotonlythosebeing

initiatedwhoarenotallowedsex,butalsothoseguardingtheinitiates.Breakingtheserules

couldresultindeath.Peopleinthevillagewhoaremarriedmayhavesexualrelations,as

longasthereisnonoise,notevenfromquarrels.Impartingtheresponsibilitiesofsexand

theconcernforlifeisveryimportant.CircumcisionandscarificationinAfricancommunities

areprimarilycarriedoutasaphysicalreminderoftheimportanceoflife.Theoperationin

thiscaseisdeliberatelypainful,soastomakealastingimpressionoftheimportanceof

life.205Theseritesconfirmtheimportanceofthevitalforce,andhowvitalitisforthe

communitytosecureitswell‐being,whichinturnsecuresthewell‐beingoftheentire

community.Therearecomplicatedsocietalstructuresinplacetoalwaysensurethatthe

vitalforceisbeingtakencareof.Eachcommunity,eachclan,hastheirownwaysof

preservingandtransmittingthevitalforce,knowingthatwithoutthecontinuationofthelife

force,therewouldbenothingleft.AlthoughmoderndayAfricancountries’developmenthas

changedthefamilyandclanstructures,aswellasthehomesteaditself,thereisevidenceof

lifeenforcingstructuresinsocieties.Eventhoughitcannotbeprovenhowfarback

structureslikethisgo,theyarelinkedtoubuntuthroughthevaluingoflifeinorderto

maintainharmonybetweenpeople,aswellasnature.

4.3ANCESTORS

Ancestors,ortheliving‐dead,aretheclosestlinkbetweenhumansandthespiritworld.This

isbecausetheyarestillpartofthefamiliestheyuntilrecentlylivedwith,buttheyarealso

closetothespiritworld.Theancestorsareconsideredtobepeople,notspiritsorthings.

Generally,itistheoldestmemberofthefamilyofthelivingwhoiscontactedbythe

ancestor.Theycontactthestilllivingtoenquireaboutfamilyaffairs,butalsotowarnagainst

dangersaswellasdisapprovingofthosewhohavenotfollowedtheirinstructions.

Ancestorsareconsideredtheguardiansofthefamilytheyoncelivedamongst.Ifamember

ofthestilllivingfamilybreakstraditionorhasquestionableethics,thisisultimatelyan

offenceagainsttheancestors,astheyaretheonesupholdingrulesandthebestinterestof 204Magesa1997:143,149‐153.205Magesa1997:98.

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thefamily.Theirauthorityliesinthattheyhaveonefootineithercamp,thevisibleandthe

invisible.Theyhaverecentlybeenliving,andthereforeknowandunderstandtheneedsof

thefamily.Atthesametime,astheyhavedied,theyhaveopenchannelstothespiritsand

theSupremeBeing.AccordingtoJohnMbititheancestorsarewantedandnotwanted.Even

thoughtheyarethelinkbetweenthelivingandthespiritworld,iftheyvisittoofrequently

peoplearelikelytoresentthem.Atthesametime,theancestorscanactrevengeuponthe

familyiftheywerenotburiedproperly,oriftheywereoffendedneartheirdeath.Ifthe

familydoesnotsharefoodwiththeancestors,asoneissupposedtoinordertosay

‘welcome’aswellas‘goodbye’,theancestorscanshowtheirangerbywayofmisfortuneor

illness.206

4.3.1NAMING

ThesignificanceofnamesinAfricansocietiesisnottobeunderestimated.Apersonusually

bearsmorethanonename.Anamecancomefromcircumstancessurroundinghisorher

birth,orasimilaritywithancestorsoreldersdiscovereduponbirth,aswellasanancestor’s

wish.Apersonmaybearanamerecallinghardtimesthatwereafactwhentheywereborn.

AccordingtoMagesa,thiswillremindthefamilyofthesetimesandthattheydonotwant

thattohappenagain.Apersoncanbenamedafterdesirableevents,physicalormoral

qualities,likeforinstance‘luck’or‘charity’.Havingnameslikethiswillfunctionasa

remindertooneselfandthesurroundingshowimportantthesequalitiesoreventsare,allin

anattempttopreservethevitalforce.Thisisalsowhyancestorstakesuchaninterestinthe

namingofachild.AccordingtoMagesa,inmostcasesofbirthitisanancestor’svitalforce

returningtoearthandthefamily.Oftenthismeansthattheancestorwillwantthechild

namedafterhimorher.Thiswillimbuethechildtoliveuptothecharacteristicsandmoral

qualitiesoftheancestor.Beingraisedthiswaystrengthenstheconnectionbetweenthe

ancestorsandthestillliving.Rememberingancestorsthroughnamingmeansthewholeclan

willbenefitfromthevitalforcebeingbroughtbackasitistransmittedtothewholeclan.Not

namingchildrenafterancestors,butratherafterevents,things,seasonsandsoonpreserve

thelinkbetweencreationandhumanityremindingtheclanthatthelifeforceofhumanity

andnatureareinseparable.207

Anancestorisarolemodel,aguideinlifeandanadvisorforthosestillliving.Their

existencereliesonbeingrememberedbythestillliving.Aperson’schildrenarethefirst 206Mbiti2008:82‐83.207Magesa1997:90‐91.

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whocanmakethishappen.Ifonehaslivedamorallygoodlife,one’schildrenwilldothe

same.Thismeansthattheywillfulfiltheirobligationtotheclan,tobemarriedandgive

birthtochildren,andthesechildrenwillinturndothesame.Thesechildrenmightbe

namedaftertheancestormostdirectlyconnectedtothem,mostoftenagrandparent.Ifthat

isnotpossible,thenextinlinewillbethenextchoice.208‘Naminginvolvestheincarnationor

actualisationofaperson(anancestor),acertaindesiredmoralqualityorvalue,aphysical

traitorpower,oranoccasionorevent.’209Anamehasdeepermeaningbecauseoneasksfor

apersonality,statusordestiny.Thisisaformofreincarnationwherethelifeforceofa

personnolongerlivinginhabits,protectsandshapesthecharacterofthenewlyborn.Thisis

howthedeceasedkeeponlivinginthecommunity;theybecomeacentralbeholderand

distributorofthevitalforce.AccordingtoMagesa,themorechildrenwhoareconnectedto

oneancestorthemorepowertheirvitalforcegains,whichwillcontributepositivelytothe

family,clanorlineage.Theriteofnamingcompletesthetransmissionoflife,ofthevital

force.210

AmongtheLuoofKenya,TanzaniaandUganda,thebabywillbegivenanamewhilstcrying.

Ifthecryingendswhenaparticularnameofanancestorisnamed,thatnamewillbegiven

tothenewbornbaby.ThenewbornbabiesamongtheAkambaofKenyareceivetheirname

onthethirddayoftheirlife.Thisisanoccasionmarkedbyafeast,followedthenextdayby

thefatherofthechildhanginganironnecklacearoundthebaby’sneck.Thissymbolisesthat

thebabyhaslosttouchwiththespritworldandisnowfullyhuman.Boththeseactsof

namingshowtheimportanceofanameandhowitischosen,aswellaswhatitmeansfor

thenewbabybeingbornintoacommunity.211‘Thephysicalaspectsofbirthandthe

ceremoniesthatmightaccompanypregnancy,birthandchildhood,areregardedwith

religiousfeelingandexperience–thatanotherreligiousbeinghasbeenbornintoa

profoundlyreligiouscommunityandreligiousworld.’212Notonlydotheseexamplesofthe

importanceofnamingandbringingchildrenintotheworldprovethereligiousnatureof

Africancommunities,italsoshowsactsofubuntuandconfirmsubuntu’sreligious

grounding.

208Magesa1997:76‐79.209Magesa1997:89,Mbiti2008:115.210Magesa1997:89.211Mbiti2008:116.212Ibid:117.

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4.4CONCLUSION

Throughtheprocessesthatrestoreormaintainthevitalforce,ubuntucanbesaidtoexistin

theeverydaylivesofpeople,ingrainedinthesocialstructuresthatpromotethewell‐being,

sharedidentityandharmonyofthecommunity.Ubuntucanbefoundinthepreservationof

thebalancebetweenallthingsandallforcesintheuniverse,whichdirectlyaffectsthe

community.Ubuntucanbeconnectedtogooddeeds,selflessnessandgenerosity.However,

thequestionofubuntuismorecomplexthanactsofkindness.Ubuntuisfoundinevery

aspectoflife,andistherootofthestructures,functionsandrelationshipsthatmakethe

community.Thischapterhasshownwhereubuntucanbelocated.Althoughthewordisnot

vocallyexpressed,theactionsofpeoplearestillconnectedwithubuntu.Throughthese

structuresandprocessesinthecommunityubuntugainshistory,authenticityandrelevance.

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4 UTILISINGUBUNTUThischapterwillfocusonubuntuasapartofnationbuildinginSouthAfrica.Ubuntu

featuresprominentlyinthediscussionofhowthisworkofnationbuildinghasdeveloped.

UbuntuhasprovedtobeacornerstoneinmakingoutwhatSouthAfricashouldbe,although

thisisnotunanimouslyagreedupon.Themainthemeofthischapterisnationbuilding;

thereforethechapterwillstartbyfocusingondiscussingwhatconstitutesthebuildingofa

nation,whichpreconditionsSouthAfricahasforthisendeavour.Furthertherewillbefocus

onwhatprocessesareincludedinthebuildingofanation,inanAfricanandaSouthAfrican

context.ThelargestobstaclefacedbySouthAfricaintheirpost‐apartheidcountry,isthe

questionofwhatexactlytheyarerebuildingandwhatthisnewnationshouldbebuiltupon.

Followingthis,IwillmorecloselyfocusonthedifficultquestionofaSouthAfricanhistorical

narrative.HowimportantisthisinnationbuildingandinSouthAfricaparticular?Cana

unifiedhistoricalnarrativebecreated?Thisleadsustothesecondpartofthischapter,

whichfocusesontheTruthandReconciliationCommission(TRC).TheTRCrepresentsone

elementofnationbuilding,andhasbeenimportantindemarcatingthepathofthecountry.

ThereforeIwilldiscusstheirmandateandhowreconciliationwaschosenoveramnesiaor

retribution.Inadditiontothis,Iwilllookattheroleofreligionintheproceedingsofthe

TRC,aswellashowreconciliationcanconstituteorpreparefornationbuilding.AfterthisI

willfocusontheactualimpactoftheTRContheregularperson,andhowonecansaythat

theTRCindeedfilledapositionthatwasneededinorderforthecountrytotakenecessary

stepsforward.Finally,thereisanexampleofubuntuinpractice,showinghowimpactfulthe

callforreconciliationhasbeenforpeopleinSouthAfrica.ProfessorJonathanJansenofthe

UniversityoftheFreeStateemployedreconciliation,andbydefaultubuntu,indealingwith

adisturbingactperformedbystudentsfromthisuniversity.Thiswillshowubuntuworking

inawidercommunitycontextandbeingmouldedintoacontextofmoderndemocracy.

Ratherthanbeproofoftheinautheticityofubuntu,seeingthatitisbeingutilisedfora

specificandimportantpurpose,thisprovestherelevance,progressionandadaptationof

ubuntu.Ubuntuevolves,asithasalwaysdone,inordertoaccommodatetheneedofbalance,

harmony,well‐beingandsharedidentityinthecommunity.

5.1NATIONBUILDING

‘These[pastwrongs]cannowbeaddressedonthebasisthatthereisaneedfor

understandingbutnotforvengeance,aneedforreparationbutnotforretaliation,aneedfor

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ubuntubutnotforvictimisation.’213Thesearewordstakenfromthe1993Interim

ConstitutionofSouthAfrica,whichbuiltthebasisfromwhichtheTruthandReconciliation

Commissioncouldexist.Thewordubuntuisspecificallyfeaturedwhentalkingofhowto

moveforwardaftertheendofapartheid.Thewordisnotfoundintherevisedandfinal

constitutionof1996,butubuntuinthesenseofanewhumanrightsorientedsocietycanbe

seenallthewaythrough.214Asmentionedpreviously,215thewordubuntufirstappeared

officiallyintheconstitutionoftheInkathaFreedomParty(IFP)in1975.Themovement

usedubuntuasabasisfortheirpoliticalprogrammepropagatingtheeconomic

emancipationoftheZulus,whichlaterwasrefashionedtowardsnationalliberation.216

WithoutalludingtoacollaborativelinkbetweentheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC)and

theIFP,whohavehadseveraldisagreementsintheliberationstruggleandbeyond,217the

ANCmadeuseofubuntunearlytwodecadeslater.Thedifferencebetweenthetwousesis

thepoliticalagenda.WhereastheIFPusedubuntuasaguidingprinciplefortheirpolitical

organisation,theANCmadeuseofitasanon‐politicalcallforunity.Onecannotbypassthe

factthattheANCisapoliticalparty,onethatevolvedfromaliberationorganisation.

However,thecontinuedstruggleforreconciliationandunityafterthefallofapartheidwas

seenasastrugglethatsurpassedpolitics.

InonewayitcanbearguedthattherewasnootherwayforSouthAfricatocommencethe

workofcreatinganation.TherehadneverexistedamoderndemocraticstateinSouth

Africa,andtherehadneverexistedaunifiednationorstatewhereallinhabitantswere

factoredintoalldecisions.Asstatedinchapterone,thesuppressionofSouthAfricastarted

longbeforetheapartheidregimewasmadeofficialin1948.NopeoplenativetoSouthAfrica

hadeverexperiencedfreedomorequalopportunities.AsDesmondTutustatesinhisbook

NoFutureWithoutForgiveness,hehadtowaituntilhewas62tovoteforthefirsttime,and

NelsonMandelauntilhewas76.218InmorethanonewaySouthAfricahadtostartfrom

scratchwhenthislackofpositivepastthatcouldformacollectivenarrativewasmissing.

Thoseoppressedhadacollectivenarrativeofbeingoppressed,andtheoppressorshada

collectivenarrativeofbeingoppressors.However,withoutsuppressingthepast,onehadto

jointhesetocollectivenarrativesintooneandmakeanewpresentandfuture.

213SouthAfricanGovernmentInformation2012.‘ConstitutionoftheRepublicofSouthAfricaAct200of1993.’214SouthAfricanGovernmentInformation2012.‘ConstitutionoftheRepublicofSouthAfricaNo.108of1996.’215In2.1.5216Eze2009:103.217Christie2000:32,133‐138.218Tutu2000:13.

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5.1.1THENATIONSTATE

Indiscussingnationbuildingonemustnaturallyaddressthequestionofthenation‐state;

whatisit?KwameGyekye219differentiatesbetweentwoconceptionsofthenationthatis

relevanthere:nationasanethnoculturalcommunityandnationasamultinationalstate.

Thefirstsenseofthenationisbasedontheetymologyofthewordnation,whichis‘birth

group’,or‘bloodrelatedgroup’.Gyekyecallsthistheoriginalmeaningofthewordnation

wherethereisemphasisonavoidingmixingofracesandnationalities,as18thCentury

GermanphilosopherG.W.Herderputit.220Centraltothisunderstandingofnationisthe

beliefthatonesharesancestralheritage,inadditiontosharingculture,language,history

and(possibly)territory.Gyekyeproposesthatthenationinitsoriginalsenseandtheethno

culturalcommunitysharedefinitionalboundarieswithoneanother.Thesharedidentityin

thesenseofcohesionbasedonbloodtiesfoundintherelationsbetweenpeopleinthis

instancespeakstothis,accordingtoGyekye.Inmanycases,eveninmodernmultinational

states,peoplestillequateethnicityandnationalaffiliation.AccordingtoGyekye,anation

doesnotneedtobeastaticconstruct;itcanalsobefluidwithoutphysicalcountry

boundaries.TheJewishpeoplereferredtoaJewishstatebeforetherewasoneinexistence,

andArableadersoftenrefertotheArabnation,eventhoughnosuchthingofficiallyexists.A

statethereforebecomesanentitywherethereissovereignpoliticalpower,atthecentre,

whichinturnbecomesanation‐statewhenthereisaculturallyhomogenousnation.

However,statesaremostlymultinationalandarestillreferredtoundertheumbrellaofthe

nation.Gyekyeholdsthatthismeansthatthemeaningofnationhasevolved.221

Thecomplexentityofthemultinationalstatehasnowbecomesynonymouswiththe

understandingofnation.Themultinationalstateiscomprisedofseveralethnocultural

communities,ornations.Thisiswherethemultinationalstateencounterstrouble.

Previously,whenthecomponentsofthestatewereseparatedintheirnations,therewere

equalinterestsandgoalsamongthemembersofthenations.Theheterogeneousentityof

thestateisnotnecessarilyornaturallybasedonsimilarculture,languageorbloodrelations.

Thisiswhynationbuildingisanissueforthestate,andnotthenationinitsoriginalsense.

AccordingtoGyekye,thestateattemptstoemulatetheunityofthenation,orthe

homogenousethnoculturalcommunity,inordertocreatecoherenceforthestate.Ashe

219KwameGyekye1997.TraditionandModernity:PhilosophicalReflectionsontheAfricanExperience.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.220Ibid:78.221Ibid:79‐82.

62

pointsout,thereisnevertalkofcountrybuildingorstatebuilding,butnationbuilding.This

isbecausethemultinationalstatehastobebuilt,unliketheethnoculturalcommunitythatis

alreadyoneunit.Asthemultinationalstateismadeupofmanyoftheseunits,oneneedsto

weldtheunitstogethersoastoactasiftheywereonepeople,onenation,oroneethno

culturalcommunity.Manynationsmakeonestate,inasense.Thatisnottosaythatone

longstosuppressthediversity,butrathertoaddthemoral,socialandculturalvaluesofthe

ethnoculturalentity.222ThisviewofthemultinationalstatebecomesveryapparentinSouth

Africa,acountryofelevenofficiallanguages,4mainpopulationgroupings,andseveralsub

groupingsallwithrootsinAfrica,EuropeandAsia.223Withthisunderstandingofthenation,

thestateandthenation‐stateinmindwedelvedeeperintowhichfactorsandelementsare

relevantinthebuildingofSouthAfrica.

5.1.2THEIMAGINEDCOMMUNITY

Nigerian‐AmericanprofessorofpostcolonialAfricanstudies,MichaelOnyebuchiEzecalls

SouthAfricapriorto1994astatewithoutanation.224GreatlyapplaudedBenedictAnderson

claimsthenationisanimaginedcommunity.Eventhoughmostcitizensofmostnationswill

nevermeetorknowofoneanotherdirectly,theywillstillassumethempartoftheir

extendedcommunity.AccordingtoAnderson,thiscommunityismarkedbyacommon

language,religionandculture.Thesefactorsfacilitatethenationalimagery,andare

contingentuponacommonfaithinthecommunitybythemembersofthecommunity.In

addition,somecharacteriseanationthroughacommonhistoricalnarrative,which

chroniclesthatpeoples’origins.225SouthAfricahadnoneoftheseinplace.Therehadbeen

nocommonlanguageaswhitepeoplespokeAfrikaans,anditwaspredominantlytheironly

language.Africansspokeseverallanguagesdependingonwhichgrouptheybelongedto.

Therewasnocommonreligion,althoughChristianitywasspreadbymissionariesand

widelyadoptedinthecountry.TheAfrikanerpeopledevelopedtheirownversionof

Christianity,excludingallnon‐whites.TheAfrikanersdidnotshareanyculturewithnon‐

whites,asbytheirdefinitiontheyweretheonlyonespossessingculture.Also,theircultural

basiswasprimarilyEuropean,notAfrican.226Whenitcomestothehistoricalarchiveof

SouthAfrica,whiteandblackhadexperiencedsimilarthings,howeverwhattheyshared

mostofallwasthewhitesuppressionoftheblack.Thisthenconstitutesahistoricalarchive, 222Gyekye1997:82‐85.223SouthAfrica.info2012.’SouthAfrica’sPopulation.’224Eze2009:104.225BenedictAnderson2006.ImaginedCommunities.London/NewYork:Verso.6.226Eze2009:29‐31.

63

howevernotaparticularlygoodone.Bytheendofapartheidmosttraditionsandsymbolsin

SouthAfrica,whichcouldtiepeopletogether,weremainlyremindersofwhathadbeen.

Eventheholidaysimplementedbytheapartheidgovernmentcelebratedeventswhichnon‐

whiteseitherhadnoconnectionto,nogoodconnectiontooranoppositeconnectionto.The

lattercanbeseenintheDecember16celebrationoftheBattleofBloodRiverknownasDay

oftheCovenant,whichblackpeoplecallDingane’sDayorHeroes’Day.227

Thisnationalhistorywillcementacommonpastandmakethisrelevantinthepresent.228

AccordingtoMichaelEze,whentalkingofidentityoneisalsotalkingofthe‘other’.An

identitycanonlybecreatedinrelationtosomethingelse;thereforeanationisdefinedbyits

borderswithothernations.Thismainlyconstitutesanationallanguagethatwillmakeit

easiertospotoutsiderscomingintotheirdemarcatedspace.229Thisisnecessarytopoint

outinordertoclarify,asMichaelEze,claimsthatthecolonialSouthAfricawasastate

withoutanation.ThescenarioEzeseesasabsentincolonialSouthAfrica,isanopen‐ended

convergenceofhistoricalmemoryandpast,whichcauseshimtoagreewithGellnerinthat

nationalismcreatesnationswheretheydonotalreadyexist,ratherthanbeingseenasatool

forthereawakeningofnations.ThisiswhatEzearguesSouthAfricanowmustdo;

transformthisnewstateintoanation‐state.‘ThenewSouthAfricaasalocationofmultiple

andoftencontradictoryidentitiesneedsitsownstoryinitsimaginaryformationasa

nation.’230IntryingtofindouthowSouthAfricacanmakeasocialtransformationintoa

nationthroughsocialengineering,Ezefindsanswersinthecreationofsocialandpolitical

myths.Thiswaythenewnationalconsciousnesscanbeinvented.Hestressesthatasa

narrative,amythisnotnecessarilyuntrue.Amythwillhaveavirtueinretellingthestory

overgenerations,andinthiswayappearscentralinaspectofsocialorderandcannarrate

thehumanexperience.Ithas,however,tobeviewedasanallegory.231

5.1.3PROCESSESINNATIONBUILDING

Ezefurtherelaboratesonthecaseofamythinregardstothenation.Ezearguesthata

nation’scoherenceisnotdependentonnarrativesofaunifiedpast,butratheraconfluence

ofnarratives.Ezeclaimsthatthisshowshownationbuildingisaprojectincontinuity.This

makesthenationadynamicdiscursiveformation,accordingtoEze,notafixedsocial

227Eze2009:129.228Ibid:104.229Ibid.230Ibid:106.231Ibid:106‐108.

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imaginary.Hefurtherarguesthatinthisviewthemythisnotagivenelementinnation

buildingbutarguesnonethelessforitsimportanceforyoungnationsasitcaninthis

instanceactasasolidifierofthemeaningofthenewnation.232Furthermore,anationoften

focusesonfindingits‘other’whendefiningitselfinordertohavesomethingtodistance

itselffrom,therebycreatingwhattheyarethroughwhattheyarenot.

Indiscussingnationbuildingitiscrucialtolookattheframesaroundwhichthistakesplace

andkeepinmindthatthecreationofnationhoodisaprocess.Thisprocessinvolvesasocial

formationthatneedsaspecificideologicalformthathastobemorethanjustpolitical

values.Thismeansthatnationhoodhastobebasedonsomethingprevious,andcannotrely

completelyonthecurrentpoliticalvalues.Theprocessofcreatingnationhoodcannotexist

aloneorinisolation.233Thenationthathadbeeninventedduringapartheidwasoneof

otherness.Apartheidwasdependentontheexistenceofitsother,theAfricannatives,to

legitimisetheirexistenceanddominance.Withoutanothertomirrortheiridentitythe

Afrikanercouldnotseparatethemselvesandseethemselvesasdifferent.234Ofcourse,

racismplayedacrucialpartofapartheidinSouthAfrica.SupportedbyAnderson,Ezeclaims

thatwithnationalboundariesracismbecomesaninstrumentofoppressionanddomination.

Thisistypicalofcolonialracism,whichfocusedagreatdealonclassratherthanthepurity

ofthenation.235Theinitialmotivationforthiswayofgoverningwasfinances.Inorderto

securethefinancialvaluesinSouthAfrica,allnotworthyofpossessingitshouldbe

excluded.Thisinturnbecamesystemiseddiscriminationbasedonthecolourofone’s

skin.236Thisisnottosaytherewasnotaclass‐basedsystembetweenthewhitesofSouth

Africa.However,theyallhadaccesstothesamesocietalbenefits.

Post‐apartheidSouthAfricashouldbetreatedasotherpostcolonialcountriesinthattheend

ofapartheiddoessignifytheendofcolonialisminSouthAfrica.Thisposeschallengesforthe

SouthAfricansociety,asanyother,inthat‘thewhiteman’hasoppressedthenativepeoples

ofSouthAfricaforcenturies.Ezepointsoutthedangersconnectedwithracismina

postcolonialcontextwherehearguesnationalcultureanddiscourse‘…canbecome

manipulatedtoenhancereverseracialdiscrimination…’237Therefore,thenationalidentity

ofSouthAfricaisintertwinedwithanationaldiscoursetocreateonenationalmemory,

232Eze2009:109.233Ibid:112.234Ibid:124.235Ibid:112.236Ibid:24‐26.237Ibid:112‐113.

65

wherethecountryhasahistoryofseveralmemories.Thisisachallengewhenoneis

creatinganewnationalidentity.238InFanon’sview,therehabilitationofanationcanliein

theclaimtoapastnationalculture.Thiscanofferthenativepopulationortheoppresseda

traceoftheunityorimagerytheywantormiss.InthecontextofSouthAfricathisseems

veryrelevant,asapartheidsystematicallynegatedtheotherperson’sidentityandhumanity.

Givingthosepreviouslyhistorylessaccesstoanationalculturecouldcauseasignificant

changeinthemandhowtheyviewtheiridentity,whichwillfurtherassistintheprojectof

nationbuilding.Thefirstembodimentofprovidingthenative,asFanoncallstheoppressed

peopleofSouthAfricainthisinstance,withanationalculturewasembodiedbytheTruth

andReconciliationCommission(TRC).Thisnewpublichistory,thatlegitimisedthe

existenceoftheTRC,redefinedpasthistoricalmomentsthroughanewinterpretationofthe

previousnarrative.OtherattemptsatredefinitionwerethediscussiononthefateofRobben

Islandin1992,mergingtheAfrikaner’sDayoftheCovenantwiththeliberationmovements

Heroes’Day,thefusionbetweentheSouthAfricanNationalDefenceForce(SANDF)andthe

militarywingoftheliberationmovement,thenewSouthAfricanflagandthenewnational

anthem,allmergingtheoldwiththenew.239Thesewereconsciousattemptsbythe

governmentto‘…achieveacontemporaneoussharedtime,asenseofnationalinclusiveness,

anationalcorebyassimilatingtheoldintotheneworder.’240

5.1.4UBUNTUANDHISTORICALNARRATIVE

EzepurportsthatthroughtheTRC,ubuntubecameasymbolofpublichistoryinSouth

Africaofferingabreakfromthepast.Ubuntuintroducedtwomodesofforgiveness,

accordingtoEze,oneessentialistandoneperformative.

‘Ontheonehand,thepowerofforgivenessisinthehandofthevictimwhoappealstohisculturaltradition(ubuntu)asasourceofthatpower(essentialist).Onetheotherhand,reconciliationisachievedinfulfilmenttothebargainwiththenationalistparty(performative).’241

EzeunderlinesthatthereisdebatesurroundingwhetherornottheTRCsucceededin

restoring‘agency’and‘voice’,meaningpower,tothesubjectsoftheproceedings.Eze

continuesbysayingthattheattempttorestorepowertopeoplecreatedawindowthrough

whichapossibilityforacollectivememorybecameapparent.Thesesharedimagesthat

makeupcollectivememorywillaidintheconstructionofnationhood,andtheimagined

238Eze2009:113.239Ibid:120‐121.240Ibid:121.241Ibid:127.

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community.AccordingtoBreweranationneedsacommonhistoricalnarrative,acommon

viewofthejourneytowardsnationhoodaswellasacommonidentity,whichwillbringout

commonsolidarity.242Ezeclaimsthatincreatinganation,whetherornotthemythone

basesthenationonisfactuallytrueorwhatisdesiredtobetrueislessimportant.Whatis

importantiswherethistakesthenation.InthecaseofSouthAfricaEzeseesthatmany

Africanintellectualshavewrittenabouttheirhistory,andespeciallyinregardstoubuntu,as

ameansofwritingabouttheirownidentity.DuringcolonialismtheidentityoftheAfrican

wassuppressedanddeconstructed,andSouthAfricasufferedundercolonialismlongerthan

anyotherAfricancountry,whenjustlyfactoringinapartheid.AllofthesewritingsonAfrican

philosophyandintellectualhistoryareanattemptofregainingone’slostidentityinorderto

rehabilitateone’ssubjectivity.Allofthisispartandparcel,accordingtoEze,ofattempting

tocreateacollectivememoryandbuildanationinSouthAfrica.243InEze’squesttoplace

ubuntufirmlyintheSouthAfricanimaginary,hedoesdiscussavitalissueintheSouth

Africancase;thepast.Nationbuildingisinpartreliantontheabilitytolookbackintoits

past.Theprocessofcreatingnationhoodis,asEzeputsit,‘…mediatedbyconstantreferent

toapasttraditionorapresuppositionofaphantasmalimaginationofapast.’244Withoutthe

abilitytoinventorimagineapasttherecanbenonation.KumarandHobsbawnsharethe

viewthatanationwithnopastisacontradiction.Thefuture,aswellasthepresent,is

dictatedinalargedegreebythecommonimageofacommonpast.However,thispastneed

notbeauthenticaccordingtoFrench19thCenturyscholarErnestRenan,asthenationisa

dynamicentityeverevolving.Extremismconnectedwithnationalismcomesfromfailingto

seethisassetofthenation,insistingonabsolutismofthephenomenon.245

Increatinganarrativeofthepast,themythneedssubstantivecontentinordertowithstand

theprocess,andsothemythissuffusedwithinventedtraditionsfilledwithmemories.This

willgivethemythlegitimacy,accordingtoEze.Thisiswhathearguestohavehappened

withubuntuinSouthAfrica.Asamyth‘…ubuntuinfusesavirtuellegemeinschaft[asan

ideologicalbasis]foraunifiedpostapartheidSouthAfrica;itfunctionstopreservean

illusionofcoherenceandcontemporaneity.’246Inorderforanewnationalconsciousnessto

becreated,ubuntuwasprojectedonthenationasitwasseenashistoric,traditional,

inclusiveandstabile,inclearoppositiontothepreviousnationalconsciousness,whichwas

242Eze2009:127.243Ibid:127‐128.244Ibid:146.245Ibid:147.246Ibid:148.

67

false,racist,exclusiveandunsafe.247Becausethecommunityofanationalreadyisimagined,

whatdoesitmatterifthenationalnarrativeandconsciousnessisalsoimagined?Thisis

Eze’spointofdepartureforfittingubuntuintotheSouthAfricanculturalandpolitical

narrative.Atthesametimeasbeingthestartingpointforacollectivememoryitprovidesa

pointofrealisationoftheimaginedcommunity,248whichparticipatesinstrengtheningthe

newnation.Themoresolidarityissharedandthemoreonebelievesthatmosteverybodyis

onthesamepage,themoreeasilyonecancontinueworkingforthegoodofthenation

howeverpainfulandslowitmightbe.

ThehistoryofSouthAfricaisverytraumatic,whichneedlesstosayhasaffectedthe

communitiesofthecountry.Familiesandcommunitieswereseparatedfromoneanother,

mostnotablythroughtheBantustanhomelandscreatedbytheapartheidgovernment.Being

uprootedfromone’slandisatraumaticeventinanycommunity,andnodifferentinSouth

Africa.However,inSouthAfricatherelationshipbetweenpeopleandthelandwasoneof

absoluteunity.Findingoneselfinanalienenvironmentwillundeniablyhaveanimpacton

howpeoplerelatetooneanother,andtotheirsurroundings.Atthesametime,this

uprootingofpeopledoesnotwithoutquestionmeanthatthevaluesystemspassedthrough

generationsdisappears.Itadapts.Maybeitadaptsintonotbeingaseasilyvisibleas

previouslyexperienced.Andmaybeitissometimesforgotten.Thisdoesnotmeanthat

placingubuntuinapublicdiscourseisuselessorwrong.Itisstillclearthatmanypeople

haveaconnectiontowhatisbeingdefinedasubuntu.Whetherornotpeopleusedthisvery

wordinthepast,orevenaddressedthisvalue,elementorideasospecifically,isirrelevant.

Itisirrelevantbecausetimeschange.ThenewrealityinSouthAfrica,wherethestruggleis

nolongertheprimaryfocus,cravesthatpeopleareabletoputintowordswhattheywant

andfeel.Thestateofperpetualbaresurvivalunderaheavyweighingthreateningmachineis

over.Andalthoughpeoplestillstruggle,primarilyforthebarenecessities,thestrugglehas

changed.Ashaspeople’sviewofculture,valuesandreligion,whattodowiththemandwhat

tousethemfor.OneimportantpartofnationbuildinginSouthAfricaisthatthisapproach

toreconciliationandmergingofmemoriesseemstoembracethegoodwiththebad.The

negativityoftheapartheidpastisbeingincludedinthenarrative,alongsideallelse.

DesmondTutumakesthispointwhenhesays‘Weareallvictimsofapartheid’.249

247Eze2009:148.248Ibid:148.249Ibid:128.

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5.2THETRUTHANDRECONCILIATIONCOMMISSION

DesmondTutu,thechairmanoftheTruthandReconciliationCommission(TRC),talksof

forgivenessastheultimateself‐service.Toforgivereinstatesthehuman’shumanity.Not

onlythat,theactofforgivenessgivestheperpetrator’shumanitybackaswell.Anythingthat

dehumanisesthevictimofacrimedehumanisestheoffenderaswell.Tutufamouslycalled

allSouthAfricansvictimsofapartheid.Theoppressorswerealsovictimsundertheirown

regime,asallofourhumanitywasintertwinedwithoneanother.Byinflictingendlesspain

andsufferingonthevictims,supportersofapartheidwereintheendalsosufferingthis

samepain.Theirwayoflifewascontingentonsuppressingotherpeople,whichultimately

madearottensocietyforall.250Thereisnodoubtthatwhiletheapartheidregimewasbeing

negotiatedaway,violenceinSouthAfricawasripe.Black,white,coloured,wereallcaughtin

whatseemedlikeadressrehearsalforacivilwar.DesmondTutuseemedveryawareofthis

ashetalkedofvotingforthefirsttimeinhislife,notknowingwhatcouldpotentiallyhappen

thatday.AbombhadexplodedatJohannesburgAirport,andtherewerenumerousthreats

madebyrightwingextremists.251TheTruthandReconciliationCommissionwasasmallbut

importantpartoftheworktowardsreconciliationinSouthAfrica.Itcannotbeviewed

outsideoftheprojectofnationbuilding.Inregardstoubuntuitisthemostvisibleand

internationallyknownattempttoutiliseubuntuforthebenefitofconstructinganewSouth

Africa.UbuntuisthebackboneoftheTruthandReconciliationCommission,andfeaturesso

heavilythatitisappropriatetoexplainthecommissioninthefurtherdiscussionofubuntu

inanarenaofnationbuildingandalsopolitics.TheTRCwasacomplexundertaking

attemptingtoprovidetruthsofwhathadbeendoneduringtheapartheidyears,right

wrongsandremindandrenewthespiritofubuntuinthemindsofallpeopleofSouthAfrica.

Inexplainingtheirmandate,theirstructureandtheirproceedings,aclearpictureisgivenof

howprominenttheconceptofubuntuwasinthemakingofthecommission.Italsoexplains

howtheTRCcametobeviewedasitdid,aremarkableforumforthosemostaffectedby

apartheid.Althoughtherehasbeenmuchcritiqueoftheirchoicesandtheoutcomes,ithas

becomeasoughtaftertemplateforothercountries.

5.2.1THEMANDATE

Talkingoftruthcommissionsgenerally,KennethChristieidentifiestwomainobjectivesin

recoveringthetruthinsuchprocesses.Ononehandthecommissionistoinvestigate, 250Tutu2000:42.251Ibid:13‐16.

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documentandrecordthehumanrightsviolationsunderdiscussion.Ontheotherhandit

focusesontransformingtheinstitutionsofsocietyfromviolatingtoprotectinghuman

rights.252TheTruthandReconciliationCommissioninSouthAfricaplayedacrucialpartin

transitioningthecountryfromagruesomeapartheidpast,toawaitingbrighterfuture.The

TRCplayedarelativelysmallrole,butitwasimmeasurablyimportant.Themandateofthe

TRCwasstatedintheinterimconstitutionofSouthAfrica.AsthenewSouthAfricawas

emergingafterthereleaseofpoliticalprisonersandunbanningofpoliticalparties,theANC

undertheleadershipofNelsonMandelawantedtodisplayopennessaboutthepastofthe

ANCasparticipantsinviolence.253

In1995NelsonMandela,asSouthAfrica’sfirstdemocraticallyelectedpresidentsignedthe

PromotionofNationalUnityandReconciliationAct,no.34.ThisActgavetheTRCtheir

mandatewiththeboundarieswithinwhichtheywouldwork.Theyweretopromote‘…

nationalunityandreconciliationinaspiritofunderstandingwhichmighttranscendthe

conflictsanddivisionsofthepast.’254TheTRCweretodealwithgrosshumanrights

violationscommittedbetweenthedayoftheSharpevillemassacre,March11960,andthe

dayofimplementationofthetransitionalgovernment,December51993.Thecommission

openedonApril151996anddidnotcloseuntiltwoyearslater.255

TheTRC’smandatedidnotgrantthemjudicialpower.Theywerenotabletocastasentence

onanyonetheymet.Theycouldgrantamnestytopeoplewhoshowedfulldisclosureand

couldprovethattheyhadbeenabsolutelytruthfulabouttheircrimes.TheTRC’sfocus

wouldbepoliticalcrimesmotivatedbypoliticalviews,ratherthanpersonalcrimes.Thishas

beenapointofcontentionasitisdifficultinahistorysuchasSouthAfrica’stodistinguish

betweencrimescommittedbecauseofpoliticsandnot,astheapartheidpoliticspermeated

society.Itwasinthechurch,intheschools,theworkplace,andgenerallyapartofeveryday

life.However,thelinehadtobedrawnsomewhere.TheobjectivesoftheTRCwasto:

1. accountforthemethods,policiesandcausesofhumanrightsviolations;2. attempttoexplainthecausesoftheseviolationsandtheconsequencesforthe

victims,theirrelativesandsociety;3. facilitatethegrantingofamnestyandtorestorethehumanandcivildignityof

victimsbygrantingthemanopportunitytorelatetheirownaccountsoftheviolationssuffered;

252Christie2000:49.253Ibid:78‐79.254Ibid:78.255Ibid:91.

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4. torecommendlegalandadministrativemeasurestopreventsuchviolationsinthefuture;

5. completeareportwhichwillprovideacomprehensiveanaccountaspossibleoftheeventsandcircumstancesofpasthumanrightsviolations.

Thecommissionwereseparatedintothreesub‐divisions,namelytheHumanRights

ViolationCommittee,cataloguingvictims’accounts,theReparationsandRehabilitation

Committee,hearingandhelpingvictims,andtheAmnestyandIndemnityCommittee,

focusingontheaspectofjustice.256

5.2.2WHYRECONCILIATION,NOTRETRIBUTION?

ThetransitioninSouthAfricawasbuiltoncompromise.TheANCwasunbanned,andletin

tonegotiatewiththeNationalPartywhomusthaveseentheirsystemreadytotumble.The

falloftheSovietUnioneliminatedthealreadyhardtobelieveideathatSouthAfricawasthe

lastfrontieragainstthecommunistthreat.257Thefinancialstateofthecountrywasdireand

violencerisingwhenF.W.deKlerkdecidedtounbantheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC),

thePanAfricanCongress(PAC)andseveralmorepoliticalparties,aswellasreleasing

politicalprisoners,nonemoreimportantthanNelsonMandela.258Amnestywasthegolden

bargainingcardfortheNationalPartywhennegotiationsstarted,andmembersoftheTRC

havestatedthatwithoutthiscompromisethecountrywouldhavefallenapart.Initiallythe

NationalPartywantedageneralamnesty,sothatthepastcouldsimplybeforgottenandthe

countrycouldmoveforward.However,thisformofgeneralamnesiawasnotsufficientfor

themajority,mainlyrepresentedbytheANC.Someformofjusticeandacknowledgementof

thepasthadtobeseen.TheNürembergmodelwascontemplatedanddiscussed,andfound

tooheavy.Thecostofsuchaprocesswouldbeimpossiblefortheeconomicallystrained

nationtobear.Nottomentionthetimeitwouldtaketoprocessallthoseresponsiblefor

humanrightsviolationsundertheapartheidregime,prolongingthepainitwouldimpart.At

thesametime,andcruciallyimportant,therewerenowinningsideinSouthAfrica.Oneside

hadnotbeatentheother,therewerenovictorsofthestruggle.InWorldWar2,Germany

hadquiteclearlylostthewar,whiletheallieshadwon.Therewasnostrengthleftinthe

Nazis.TheNationalPartyofSouthAfricacouldhavecontinuedwiththeapartheidsystem

withoutsufficientfinancesandmuchoftheworldagainstthem.Buttheydidnot.Thelast

optioninSouthAfricawasatruthcommission.Thishadbeenattemptedbefore,forinstance

inChile,andwouldfocusonreconciliationoftheopposingsides,notretributionforthe 256Christie2000:89‐90.257Tutu2000:44,Christie:46.258Ibid:45.

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otherside.259ThewhitepopulationandtheNationalPartystronglyadvocatedleavingthe

pastinthepast.Throughoutthenegotiationsforanewgovernment,mainlybetweenthe

NationalPartyantheANC,therewasunwillingnessfromtheNationalPartyindiscussing

thehumanrightsviolationsmadeontheirbehalfduringapartheid.TheANCengageda

differentstance,andPresidentMandelasetupthe‘CommissionforEnquiryintoComplaints

byFormerAfricanNationalCongressPrisonersandDetainees’andthe‘Commissionof

InquiryintoCertainAllegationsofCrueltybyANCMembers’in1992todealwithclaimsof

humanrightsviolationsatthehandsofthepartyandtheirmilitarywingUmkhontowe

Sizwe.260AlthoughsomepartymembersthoughttheircausewasjustandtheTRCweretoo

harshonviolationsbythepartyintheirproceedings,261someANCmembersandother

majoritygroupsofSouthAfricafavouredaNurembergapproachtowardstheactionsofthe

NPandotherwhitepeoplecommittingcrimesduringapartheid.Theyfeltthatcourtjustice

wastheonlywaytofreethepopulationfromthepastofSouthAfrica.Theonlycorrectway

todealwiththeseviolationswastobewithintheframesofthecourtoflaw.262Desmond

TutustatesthataNürembergtypeoftrialwouldputanunmanageablestrainonthealready

shatteredSouthAfricaneconomy.Afteryearsofsanctionsbytheinternationalcommunity

andboycottsoftheirexports,theeconomyhardlyhadaheartbeat.Tutugoesontoexplain

theoutlandishcostsoftwotrialsofapartheidgovernmentofficialspriortothe

commencementoftheTRC’sproceedings.263IfsimilartreatmentshouldbegiventoallNP

officials,thetrialswouldgoonformanyyears,neverclosingthechapterofthehorridpast.

However,forthosewhodidnotapplyforamnestytheTRCwouldrecommend

prosecution.264Atthesametimereparationsandprogrammesforsolvingthesocial

imbalancecausedbyapartheidwouldhavebeenutterlyimpossibletosustain.Further,the

collectiveamnesiawishedandfoughtforbytheNationalPartywouldfreemoneyfor

programmesrectifyingthesocialdifferences,butcouldnotgivetheoppressedpopulation

recognitionforwhathadhappenedtothem,theirfamiliesandcommunities.265Itwould

foreverthenbetheelephantintheroom,sotospeak.TheANCandthemajoritypopulations

ofSouthAfricadidnotseethisassufficient.So,withinthefinancialrestrictionsandwiththe

feelingofjusticeinmind,atruthcommissionwasselectedasthemediumthroughwhichthe

259Christie2000:45,56,66‐69.260Ibid:78‐79.261RanghildDrange2000.HumanRights,ReconciliationandDemocraticConsolidationAcasestudyoftheSouthAfricanTruthandReconciliationCommission.Thesis‐UiO.85.262Christie2000:121,165.263Tutu2000:35.264Christie2000:124.265Tutu2000:38,39‐40.

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pastwouldbeaddressed.Therewouldbenolegalprosecutionforcriminalactscommitted,

butamnestyforthosewhorevealedalltheirownwrongdoingsinfrontofthecommissionas

wellasthevictimsand/ornext‐of‐kin.266Anapologywasnotarequirementforamnesty,

andnotthegoaloftheexercise.267Thevictimsand/ornext‐of‐kinweregivenan

opportunitytotellthecommissiontheirsideofthestoryandforgivetheirperpetrator(s)if

theysowished.Therearestoriesofpeoplewhocouldnothavegoneonwiththeirlives

withouttheTRCandstoriesofpeoplewhocould,ordidnotfinditassatisfyingand

cleansingasthewouldhavehopedto.Also,someofthecriticismsoftheTRCregardhowthe

commissionmainlydealtwithgrosshumanrightsviolations,notthesystematicnatureof

theapartheidregime,orsmallercasesofruinedlives.268However,thelinehadtobedrawn

somewhere.TheargumentforthisisthattheexerciseofreconciliationintheTRCisjust

that,anexercise,andthepeopleparticipatingareseentoberepresentativeofthelarger

population.Andinviewingthebiggerpicturepresentedintheend,onewouldseethe

frameworkofasystematicallydetrimentalregime.

5.2.3RELIGIONANDTHETRC

ItseemsthatresearchontheTruthandReconciliationCommissionfocusmainlyonthe

socialsciences.Thereisnotmuchmentionofreligion,unlessitiscriticismofthechoiceof

anArchbishoptobeitshead.269Whenitcomestonationbuilding,thereislittlescholarly

emphasisonreligion.Thiscouldbethecasebecausescholarsareafraidtomeddleanother

elementintothereconciliationprocess.SouthAfrica’shistoryseesChristianitycomingin

withtheBritish,trumpingthenativereligions(especiallyontheWestcoast).Christianity

wasthentakenoverbytheAfrikanersandturnedintoatwistedreligiousethno‐racialbelief,

allthewhilesuppressingwhattheyviewedasinferioranimalisticreligionoftheAfricans.

TodaySouthAfricahasallsortsofChristianity,Islam,Hinduism,Buddhism,Judaism,and

AfricanTraditionalReligion,oranamalgamationofChristianityandATR.Religionplaysan

importantpartinnationbuildingandthereconciliationprocess,justasitplayedan

importantroleinthestruggleforfreedom.AccordingtoKennethChristie,oneofthemost

practicalandrevealingaspectsoftheworkoftheTRCwasthenumberofdiscoveredbodies.

Thesebodieswereexhumedandreturnedtotheirfamilies.Christiehimselfdevotesno

morethanaparagraphtothis,sayingonlythat:‘Onecommissionerinformedmethatfor

266Tutu2000:41,52.267Christie2000:13,155,166.268Ibid:152.269Ibid:166.

73

Africanpeoplethatgravewassignificant;itwasanimportantpointofremembrancethat

theycouldpointtoandsaythereismyfather’sgrave,mymother’sgrave,andsoon.They

couldinthatsensehavesomethingtoidentifythatthatpersononcelived.’270

WhatChristieneglectstoseehereistheactualimportanceofthis.Forthefamilyandthe

community,theseburialsmighthaveprovenmoreimportantthananyotheraspectofthe

TRC.Thisalonemaybeenoughtofosterasenseofreconciliationamongthepeoplewho

wereabletoburytheirlovedonesproperly.AmongtheNdebeleforinstance,thereare

complexandlonglastingceremoniestoaccompanydeath.Afterthesehavebeenperformed,

intimatingtheimportanceofprocreationthroughhavingtheireldestchildbytheirdeathbed

andtheimportanceofthelinkwiththelivingdeadthroughtheslaughterofanoxorgoat,

burialritesfollow.IntheexampleputforwardbyJohnMbitiregardingtheNdebele,the

brotherinitiatesthediggingofaholeandothermenhelphim.Thedeadbodyiswrappedin

ablanketoranimalskin.Intheprocessionthedeadbodyiscarriedtothedugouthole.

AccordingtoMbiti,thegravehasaneast‐westshapeinordertocapturethemovementof

thesun.‘Theoldestsonstrikesthegravewithaspear,andthenthebodyislaiddown.’271

Mbiticlaimsthattheclashbetweenthespearandthegravesymboliseshowtherewillbeno

dangeronthewaytoorinthenewplacewherethedeadmanisheading.Thebodyitselfhas

tofacesouthinthegrave,andthemanhastobelaidonhisright,whereasthewomanmust

belaidonherleft.Personalbelongingsalsohavetobeputintothegravebeforeitiscovered

withdirt.Thepersongoingtothehereaftershouldnotfeelpoor.Thepersonburiedmust

alsobegivenfoodtosustainhimorherontheirjourneytothehereafter,andthereforean

animaliskilled.ThelastpartofthisburialceremonyIwilladdresshereisofgreat

importanceinunderstandingthesignificanceofaproperburial.Theremainingmembersof

thefamilyofthedeceasedandthecommunitydrinkamedicinemadefromtheburntbones

ofthekilledoxorgoat.Thisunitesthemwiththeirdepartedcommunitymember.272Among

theYoruba,theritesconnectedwithburialcreateaspacewhereallreligio‐socialdifferences

areforgotten.Thefocusisonsocialintegration,notonsocialclassorreligiousaffiliation.As

pointedoutbyWandeAbimbola,manyYorubaaremembersoftheMuslimorChristian

faith,andthisisputasideoutoftherespectforthedeceased.273Thisexampleinparticular

alsoshowcasesthemergingofAfricanTraditionalReligionwithotherreligions,inaddition 270Christie2000:156.271Mbiti2008:146.272Ibid:146‐147.273WandeAbimbola1991.‘ThePlaceofAfricanTraditionalReligioninContemporaryAfrica:TheYorubaExample,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.55‐56.

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totheimportanceoftheburialritesandwhatsortofeffectitcanhaveonacommunity.In

SouthAfricasinceitwasfirstcolonisedupuntiltheendofapartheid,manyofthesesocietal

structureswerebroken.Therestorationofthefreedomtochoosetoperformriteslikethis

ortoparticipateinthemisdeeplymeaningful.

5.2.4RECONCILIATIONASNATIONBUILDING

SouthAfricanwriterAndréBrinkarguesthatAfrikanersandAfricansaremoresimilarthan

theyliketothink,andtheybelongtogetheronthebasisthattheyhavethesamecollective

consciousnessofthesamepast.RobertThorntonclaimsthattheAfrikanerandtheAfrican,

whoseeeachotherasenemiesyetsonsofthesamesoil,competetobeoftheland,notonly

ontheland.274Thisisakeynotioninunderstandingtheproblematicissuesconcerningthe

newSouthAfrica.TheAfrikanersseethelandasgiventothembyGod,andtheyaredestined

tolivethere.Theirprimaryaimfortakingcontroloverthenativepopulationwastosave

themfromthemselves,astheywereuneducatedandlackedreligion,despitethenative

populationactuallyhavinginhabitedthatlandfromtimeimmemorial.However,the

AfrikanerviewsthemselvesasAfricans,becauseAfricaisafteralltheircontinent.275

TheMinisterofJustice,DullahOmar,whointroducedthePromotionofNationalUnityand

ReconciliationActin1995,callstheTruthandReconciliationCommissionapathwayanda

stepping‐stonetothenewSouthAfrica.ThiswaytheTRCisonlyoneaspectofthebroader

projectofnationbuilding.Therewereothercommissionsandprogrammesinplacetoaid

SouthAfricainitstransitiontodemocracy.Theissuestotackleweremultiple,forinstance

retrievinglandthathadbeentakenawayfrompeoplewhenblackSouthAfricanswere

movedfromtheirhomesandcommunities,toberelocatedinwhatwascalledBantustans.276

Aswellasrectifyingthegrosseconomicimbalancethatwasbuiltupduringapartheid,and

educatingpeopleinanewschoolsystemwhereallchildrenwouldbetaughtthesame.Not

onlythis,butexpandingelectricityandwatersystemssoitwouldcoverthosepreviously

withoutthesebasicpartsofdailylifetakenforgrantedbythewhitepopulation.277

OnecommissioneroftheTRCwashonestaboutseeingtruthasthemainfocusofthe

commission,wherereconciliationwouldfollowlater,asaneffectoftheprocesscreatedby

theTRC.Hearguedthisbecausehefeltthatthecommissionwasinessenceeducating

274Christie2000:107.275Eze2009:30‐31.276Christie2000:102,Eze2009:31.277Ibid:103.

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peopleaboutwhatexactlywentonduringapartheid.Thisattempttocreateacommonview

ofthehistoryofSouthAfricawastobeafirststepintheprocessofnationbuilding.278South

Africaismadeupofmillionsofpeople,whileonlyafewthousandstookpartinthe

proceedingsofthecommission.Asitwaswidelybroadcast,availableforeveryonetosee,

thecommissionembracedallwhoshowedinteresttopartakeinthiscreationofhistory.

ThiswaytheTRChadareachfarbeyondtheroomswhereconfessionsandforgivenesswere

takingplace.Thiseffectisnecessarilyverydifficulttomeasure,bothinsideandoutsidethe

venuesoftheTRC.

5.2.5INTERCONNECTEDNESS‐TOWARDS‐WHOLENESS

DesmondTutustatesthatpeopleareabletochange,andinthefaceofthecommissionitis

possiblefortheperpetratorsofeviltorecognisetheirwrongsandaskforforgiveness.279

AntjieKrog,awellknownSouthAfricanwriter,putsthewordubuntuasideinheressay

‘Thisthingcalledreconciliation…’280andreplaceditwithinterconnectedness‐towards‐

wholeness.Sheviewsubuntuassoover‐usedandexploitedthatitbecomesunusable.

Interconnectedness‐towards‐wholenessexplainsthecoreofubuntufromtheviewpointof

Africancommunitarianism.Sheexplainsinterconnectedness‐towards‐wholenessasa

‘…mentalandphysicalawarenessthatonecanonly‘become’whooneis,orcouldbe,throughthefullnessofthatwhichisaroundone–bothphysicalandmetaphysical.Wholenessisthusnotapassivestateofnirvana,butaprocessofbecominginwhicheverybodyandeverythingismovingtowardsitsfullestself,buildingitself;onecanonlyreachthefullestselfthough,throughandwithotherswhichincludeancestorsanduniverse.’281

ShedoesinthisconnectwithIfeyaniMenkitiinhisviewthatpersonhoodisnotsomething

given,itissomethingonemustearn,andatwhichonecouldfail.282InKrog’sview,the

exerciseoftheTRCwasgroundedinthebeliefthatacknowledgingone’sinterconnectedness

andactingonthiswouldleadtowardswholenessfortheperson.Toachievethisforgiveness

andreconciliationwerekeyelements.Krogiscarefultopointoutthedistinctionsbetween

forgivenessandreconciliation.Whereasforgivenessinvolvesachangeinthevictim,

reconciliationinvolveschangeinboththevictimandtheperpetrator.Krogbelievesthat

someoftheuniquenessoftheTRCisfoundinthemutualdependencyofreconciliationand

forgiveness.AccordingtoKrog,forgiveness‘…opensuptheprocessofbecoming,while 278Christie2000:153.279Ibid:146.280AntjieKrog2008.‘’Thisthingcalledreconciliation…’ForgivenessasPartofanInterconnectedness‐towards‐wholeness.’SouthAfricanJournalofPhilosophy.281Krog2008.355.282Menkiti1984.172,173.

76

[reconciliation]isthecrucialstepintothisbecoming.’283Whentalkingofforgivenessinthe

contextoftheTRCitisimportanttopointoutthatthisforgivenessisnotinlargepart

connectedtotheChristianunderstandingofforgiveness.Whereas,aspointedoutbyKrog,

thecolouredandwhitepeoplewhotestifiedinfrontoftheTRCreferredtoChristianityin

whichwhentheyforgavetheperpetrator,Jesusforgavethem.However,amongtheXhosa

andTswanatestimoniesforinstance,therewasnomentionofGodorJesus.IntheTRC

context,theXhosawordforreconciliationisforgiveness.284Thisisvitalinunderstanding

howtheactofforgivenesswasviewedbythemajorityofthosepartakingintheproceedings

oftheTRC.Oneofferedforgivenessbasedonadesiretobeamorehumanpersoninthe

interconnectedworld,notbecauseofareligiousbeliefinJesus.ThisdebunksDutch

anthropologistWimvanBinsbergen’sclaimthattheTruthandReconciliationCommission

wascreatedunderEuropean,whiteChristiandominance.AccordingtovanBinsbergen,with

thisbasisthecommissionisillegitimateinitsworktowardsnationalunity.285However,as

statedabovebyAntjieKrog,Christianityanditsperceptionofforgivenesswasnotdominant

intheproceedingsofthecommission.Itwasvisibleduringtestimoniesofwhiteand

colouredSouthAfricans,butnotamongtheblackSouthAfricans.Inadditiontothis,the

commissiondidnotactivelycalluponit.AccordingtovanBinsbergen,SouthAfricawillpay

ahighpricefornotrevealingtherealAfricanperceptionofsinandevilintheaftermathof

apartheid.vanBinsbergenfurtherarguesthatduetotheillegitimatebasisforthe

proceedings,SouthAfricanswillwakeupfeelingcheatedbecausetheTRCfacilitateda

‘…massiveandmanipulativerepressionofresentment,’286especiallythroughitsuseof

ubuntu.287ThisiscounteredbyMichaelEzewhoclaimsthatthestrengthanduniquenessof

ubuntuasapublichistoryisthatitwillincludeandmakeroomfor‘…differentnarratives

andmemorieswhilesimultaneouslyredefining(notobscuring)hiddenantagonismswithin

thenationalmargins.’288

TheGugulethuSevenweresevenyoungmenwhowereapproachedbyrepresentativesfor

theSouthAfricanPoliceForcedisguisedasguerrillas,recruitingpeopletoUmkhontowe

Sizwe,themilitarywingoftheANC.Thesevenyoungmenwereambushedandallkilledby

securitypolicein1986.Thecircumstancesofthekillingswerefarfromstraightforward,

withwitnessesstatingtheyhadseentheyoungmenunarmedthatmorning,andtheywere 283Krog2008:356.284Ibid:356,357,358.285vanBinsbergen2001:76.286Ibid:77.287Ibid:76.288Eze2009:128.

77

foundwithweaponsonthem.DuringaprivatemeetingsetupbytheTRCbetweenoneof

thekillersandthemothersoftheGugulethuSeven,themotherofChristopherPiet,Cynthia

Ngewustatedthefollowing(translatedtoEnglish):

‘Thisthingcalledreconciliation…ifIamunderstandingitcorrectly…ifitmeansthisperpetrator,thismanwhohaskilledChristopherPiet,ifitmeanshebecomeshumanagain,thisman,sothatI,sothatallofus,getourhumanityback…thenIagree,Isupportitall.’289

Krogarguesthatthisstatementfromanilliterate,uneducatedmemberofSouthAfrican

societyproveshowubuntuisanaturalpartofpeople’sconsciousness.Ngewuunderstood

herowninterconnectedness,andsheunderstooditinrelationtotheperpetrator’s

interconnectednessaswell.Theperpetratorkilledbecausehehadlosthishumanity,

forgivinghimwouldallowhimtoregainit.Ngewu’shumanitywasaffectedbythekillingof

herson,andshecould,afterofferingthisforgiveness,onceagainbecomefullyhuman

herself.KrogusesthisquoteandthisstorytoshowhowubuntuwaspermeatingtheTRC

proceedings,whichinherviewexplainedtheabsenceofrevenge.290Therewereother

examplesfromtheTRCproceedingsthatshowcasedthepresenceofubuntu,or

interconnectedness‐towards‐wholeness.Krogcitesninereferencestointerconnectedness

duringthesecondweekofproceedings.Amongsomeofthemwerethese:

‘(a)…weneedtokeepremindingourselveswedobelonginonefamily.Andtohelpthosewholosttheirhumanitytorecovertheirold(ChairpersonTututoKwisombafamily)

(c)Yourwoundisourstoo(CommissionerNtsebezatoJuqufamily)

(If)theTruthCommission(can)assistintheeducationofthatboy,aswellasaccommodationofthatboy.Becauseintheoldend,heisgottocontributemaybetopeace–towardspeaceinthiscountry,hewillhavefeltthepain,andhewillhavefeltmaybehowtoforgive,thankyou(MrKamaintheMzimkuluJohnsoncase)’291

Inthisprocessofredefiningthepresentandtheconceptswithinit,victimsornext‐of‐kin

whoparticipatedintheproceedingsoftheTRCexpectedamutualefforttowardsthe

regainingandre‐establishmentofhumanityandinterconnectedness.Inmostcasesthisdid

nothappen.AccordingtoKrog,thisexplainstheangershownbymanyvictimsnow.

AlthoughmanyusethisangertoshowwhatafailuretheTRCwas,Krogarguesthatthe

angerdoesnotcomefrombeingforcedintoforgiveness.Itcomesfrombeingtheonlyparty

holdinguptheirendofthebargain.292WhatsetsKrogapartinherassessmentoftheTRCis

herapparentattempttounderstandtheworkingsaroundtheTRC.Instudyingthematerial, 289Krog2008:356.290Ibid:356‐357.291Ibid:358‐359.292Ibid:364.

78

thecritiqueoftheTRCasbeingaChristianinfusedEuropeanconstruct,isslashedbythe

participantsthemselves.Theirwordsshowhowtheessenceofubuntupermeatedthe

chairpersonsandthosetestifying,mostlynon‐whiteAfricans,whoforallintentsand

purposesmadeupmostofthevictims.

5.2.6ANEXAMPLEOFRECONCILIATIONTODAY

AnexampleofhowtheTRCstillaffectspeopleandnationaldiscoursetodayisfoundinthe

actionsofprofessorJonathanJansen.AsrectoroftheUniversityoftheFreeStatehe

promulgatedreconciliationafterhistermbeganin2009.Hisarrivalintothejobasrector

wasaresultofanincidentthathittheInternetinearly2008andsparkedanational

outrage.293FourwhitemalestudentsfromUniversityoftheFreeStatefilmedblackfemale

universityworkers‘…drinkingfrombottlesofbeer,racingagainsteachother,eatingfroma

dish,vomitingintobuckets,dancingandplayingrugby.’294Itwasadeliberateactof

humiliationbythefourwhiteyoungmenoftheblackfemaleuniversityworkers.Thepartof

thevideothatcausedthemostnegativereactionwaswhereoneofthestudentsappearedto

beurinatingintothedishoffoodpresentedtothewomen.295Followingthis,theuniversity

lookedfornewleadershipafteradmittingthatthisbehavioursprungoutfromthe

institutionalculture.Jansendroppedthechargesoftheyoungmenandinvitedthemto

comebacktotheuniversity.296Thefourboyswerefined20000Rand297and12monthsin

jaileachaftertheypleadguilty.298Hebasedhisdecisiononthewishforreconciliation,

forgivenessandsocialjusticetobecomeapartoftheuniversity.299UniversityofFreeState

hasbeenanAfrikaans‐speakinguniversity,wheretherehashistoricallybeennoracial

integration.TheuniversitywasestablishedintheBoercreatedOrangeFreeState.Thiswas

theindependentBoerstateaftertheyhadlefttheCapeColonyduetotheBritish.It

remainedawhiteuniversityuntilthestartofthe1990s.300AccordingtoJonathanJansen,

priortotheincidentmentionedabove,therehadbeenprotestsvoicedagainstracial

integrationoncampus.301Hehasworkedtowardsrebrandingtheuniversityandbringing

thestudentstogether.JansenhasnotbeenshytovoicehisviewthatmuchofSouthAfrican

293deWaal,Mandy2011.‘ThebeautifulmindofJonathanJansen.’294News242010.‘SAHRCgoestocourtoverReitz.’295Ibid.296JonathanJansen2009.‘Whywe’rewithdrawingchargesagainstReitzfour–Jansen.’297Equals:14379NOK,2425USD,1532GBP–22.05.2012.298TimesLive2011.‘ReconciliationprogrammeforReitzfourandworkers.’299Jansen2009.300SouthernAfricanRegionalUniversitiesAssociation.301Jansen2009.

79

societystillexistsinseparation,victimandperpetrator.Youngpeopleactasifthey

experiencedapartheid,whentheyhavenot.Theprofessorseesthatpeoplearestillaffected

byapartheidandthesocietalstructurescreatedunderit,andpeoplearealsostrugglingto

moveaheadbeyondtheTruthandReconciliationCommission.Jansenclaimspeopleare

attemptingtoignorethepast,withunsuccessfuloutcomes.Hisviewisthatthepastisthere,

andweneedtodefinehowwewillbetoday.302JonathanJansen’sworkforreconciliation

aftertheterribleactionsofthestudentsshowsthatthelessonsofAfricancommunityand

whatcameforwardduringtheTRCisstillintheforefrontofpeople’sminds.Ubuntucanbe

locatedanywhere.Itdoesnothavetobespokenofoutloud,butitcanstillbespokenofand

bepartofchoicesonemake.

5.3CONCLUSION

Throughtheactionsofthepostapartheidgovernmentubuntuwasgivenaringsideseatin

thebuildingofthenewSouthAfrica.EvenbeforetheofficialmandatefortheTruthand

ReconciliationCommission,thetransitionalgovernmentplacedubuntuintheconstitution

asaguidingprincipletoleadthewayofallthatwastocome.NelsonMandelabecamethe

imageofthisapproach,saying:

‘…theoppressormustbeliberatedjustassurelyastheoppressed…WhenIwalkedoutofprison,thatwasmymissiontoliberatetheoppressedandtheoppressorboth…Fortobefreeisnotmerelytocastoffone’schains,buttoliveinawaythatrespectsandenhancesthefreedomofothers.’303

DesmondTutubecametheimageoftheTruthandReconciliationCommission,notshying

awayfrompromotingtheSouthAfricanapproachworldwide.Thishasforinstanceleadto

Turkey’sexplorationofapplyinganubuntu‐basedreconciliationmodeltobridgethedivides

betweentheTurksandtheArmenians.304Tutuhasexclaimedthat‘…[w]hatdehumanises

you,inexorablydehumanisesme.’305Ubuntuhasbeenutilisedtoitsfullestcapacityforthe

greaterpurposeofattemptingtocreateunityandstabilityinSouthAfrica.Itisimportantto

keepinmindthatthewayinwhichubuntuhasbeenusedintheTRCisonlyonepath

towardsreconciliation,whichisalong‐termproject.However,thefactthanubuntucanbe

locatedin20thand21stCenturySouthAfricaspeakstoitsauthenticity,relevanceand

302Jansen2009,deWaal2011.303Hailey2008:13.304Ibid:15.305Ibid:13.

80

resilience.Ubuntuhasevolvedandisnowfoundinamoderndemocraticstate,utilisedto

benefittheprogressionandwell‐beingoftheallthoselivinginSouthAfrica.

81

CONCLUSIONSThepurposeofthisthesishasbeentoanswerthreemainquestions,andinthatansweringa

largerone.Throughthisthesisithasbecomeclearthatthereareseveralanswerstowhat

ubuntuis.Ithasbeeninterpretedasalifephilosophy,alifeguide,aworldviewandmore.

However,theanswerthathasbeenimportantthroughthisthesisisthatubuntuisa

religiouslyanchoredwordoriginatingfromtheNgunilanguagegroupofSouthernAfrica

thatdenotesthepromotionofharmony,sharedidentityandwell‐beinginthecommunity.

Thewordislinkedtotheselfaswellasthenatureofinterconnectednessandcanbelocated

mosteverywherebothorallyandpractically.Ubuntucanbeseenthroughthosecommunity

structuresthataresettopromote,maintainorrestoreharmony,sharedidentityandwell‐

being.Inthecommunitiesdealtwithinchapterthree,onecanseeanunderlyingfocuson

life,andthepreservation,transmittanceandtherestorationofit.Careistakeninteaching

theyoungaboutthebalanceoftheuniverse,theimportanceofrelationshipsandofchildren.

Thestructuressurroundingmarriageareallinplacetoensurethatbalancewillbe

maintainedinbothfamiliesinvolved.Theancestorsaretakencareof,andhonouredthrough

naming,soastokeepthefamilyunited.Thecommunitycomestogetherinordertoattempt

inunisontorestorebalanceifsomethinghasgonewrong,ortoprovidethanksgiving,alsoin

unison.Therearerolesinthecommunityspecificallyforpeopletrainedtoassistthe

membersofthecommunityinfindingthepathtoharmonyandbalance.Ubuntuispartofall

ofthis.Whichiswhyitseemsnothingbutnaturalthatubuntushouldevolveintosomething

thatcanplayavitalroleinthehealingofSouthAfrica.

Thisleadsustothelargerquestionofubuntu’sauthenticity.Ifubuntumerelyisanacademic

constructinaglobalisedworldforthebenefitofmoderndevelopmentinAfrica,shouldone

notthenbeabletolocateubuntuanywherebutinthoseacademiccontexts?Ifindeedthe

presentinterpretationofubuntu,whichplacesubuntuinpublicprocesses,isinvented,how

doesoneexplainthecontinuouspresenceofubuntu?Ubuntudoesexistinregularpeople’s

lives,provenbothbytheexamplesprovidedinchapterthreeaswellasbythemotherof

ChristopherPiet,asseeninchapterfour.Thisalsoanswerswhyubuntustillplaysarolein

SouthAfricansociety,eitherthroughthecontinuedattentionbythegovernment,orby

universityrectors.Ubuntuhasevolved,asanyotherreligiouselementorphenomenon.

Placingthesephenomenaintonewcontextsdoesnotautomaticallyimplythatitnolongeris

truetoitsoriginalformormeaning.

82

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