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MOBILITY AWARE ROUTING WITH PARTIAL ROUTE PRESERVATION IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS
Sanat Sarangi, Subrat Kar Bharti School of Telecommunication Technology
And Management, IIT Delhi New Delhi 110016 India
[email protected], [email protected]
ABSTRACT
We propose a novel reactive routing algorithm called PARTROUTE which achieves energy efficient routing in sensor networks with stationary and mobile nodes. PARTROUTE uses coarse mobility awareness in each node to reduce the overheads of reactive routing by intelligently re-using parts of the created on-demand routes beyond their standard lifetime. We show that the responsiveness of the network improves while the overall network traffic is reduced. The effectiveness of PARTROUTE with a large percentage of mobile nodes is also shown.
Keywords: wireless sensor network, routing protocol, PARTROUTE, mobility aware, AODV, AODVjr
1 INTRODUCTION A typical sensor network has a single gateway and a set of connected nodes that participate in sensing and forwarding application defined events to the gateway. Some of the key driving factors in designing routing algorithms for sensor networks are (a) size of the network (the number of nodes), (b) limited node energy, (c) deployment topology and (d) provision for node mobility. Traditionally, there have been two approaches to routing– proactive and reactive. In proactive routing, routes can be computed and updated beforehand so that data is sent through the best possible route. In reactive routing, routes are created on-demand. The diversity of sensor network applications have driven the evolution of classes of application appropriate routing algorithms which can be cluster-based [1], hierarchical [2], robust [3], energy-aware [4], geographic [5], query based [6] or swarm-behaviour-based [7]. When some nodes in the network are mobile, reactive routing becomes necessary. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) [8] and Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) [9] are popular reactive algorithms developed for mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs). 2 MOTIVATION Most reactive algorithms assume that the nodes in the network are mobile. However, mobile nodes are not explicitly aware of their own mobility.
Recently, in [10], PH-MA-AODV and Agg-AODV have been proposed that use mobility awareness to improve the performance of reactive algorithms with high-speed MANETs. In PH-MA-AODV a highly mobile node discards a route-request to prevent itself from participating in route formation. In Agg-AODV the route-request accumulates the degree of mobility of each intermediate node and the destination chooses the route with minimum mobility. However, both the algorithms assume that the intermediate nodes can precisely measure their speed of movement. In [11], prediction of broken links is used to trigger routing updates before links break.
Mobility requirements in most sensor networks are different from those of MANETs. The emphasis in sensor networks is on minimizing energy consumption with provision for (often low) mobility within a stationary mesh of nodes where all nodes talk to a central gateway. We propose a routing algorithm PARTROUTE for memory-constrained and energy-sensitive sensor networks with stationary and mobile nodes where each node is explicitly aware of its mobility status at any point of time and this knowledge is used to intelligently preserve part(s) of the route(s) formed during reactive routing beyond the standard route lifetime. PARTROUTE dynamically adapts itself to changing network conditions and helps improve event delivery while reducing both (a) the overall network traffic and (b) latency of route formation (which is critical) for mobile nodes.
With rapid strides in Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS), coarse mobility (moving or stationary) awareness can now be easily added to
UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2 848
Ubiquitous Computing and Communication Journal (ISSN 1992-8424)
sensor nodes with the help of low-cost accelerometers. Accelerometers have been used to detect gait postures like walking, standing, lying [12] [13]. Such information in the context of the behavioural pattern of the subject can be used to know whether a node is (and to predict if is likely to remain) stationary or mobile. In a sensor network containing such semi-mobile nodes, any semi-mobile node that finds itself stationary could temporarily behave like any other (always) stationary node. PARTROUTE is designed to effectively use this behavior to significantly improve routing performance in such networks. The rest of the paper is divided into four sections. Section III describes the algorithm. In Section IV we evaluate the performance of PARTROUTE analytically and compare it with the simulation results given in Section V. PARTROUTE is also compared with AODVjr [14] to show the improved performance under different conditions.
3 THE PARTROUTE ROUTING
ALGORITHM In PARTROUTE, we consider a sensor network with N nodes v1..vN having a set of stationary nodes VS and a set of mobile nodes VM. |VS| + |VM| = N and VS VM = N. Any node vi belongs to only one of the sets and adheres to the policies laid out for that set. L(vi, vj) is a link between vi and vj, i j. In PARTROUTE we have two kinds of links– static and dynamic. If two nodes vi, vj VS, they are permitted to form a static or a dynamic link. In all other cases the link is dynamic. Links are created and updated only on reception of packets and a table is used to maintain link information. A route between vi and vj with intermediate node vk is denoted by P(vi, vk, vj), i j k. A dynamic link has a lifetime of lifetimeDYNAMIC and for a static link it is lifetimeSTATIC with lifetimeDYNAMIC < lifetimeSTATIC. The value for lifetimeSTATIC is application specific and is further discussed in Sections 4 and 5. It depends on factors like deployment area, number of nodes, mobility behaviour of nodes and their event generation rates.
AODV is an established reactive routing algorithm for MANETs and AODVjr is a successor to AODV which achieves performance comparable to AODV without overheads such as sequence numbers, gratuitous RREP, hop count, hello messages, RERR and precursor lists from AODV. AODVjr is therefore more suitable for memory and energy constrained sensor networks. We compare PARTROUTE with AODVjr.
PARTROUTE uses two kinds of route-requests: M-ROUTE-REQUEST and S-ROUTE-REQUEST for route creation as discussed in Section 3.4 and Section 3.5 respectively. M-ROUTE-REQUEST is processed by vi, vj VS VM whereas S-ROUTE-REQUEST is processed by vi if vj VS and
discarded if vj VM. A mobile node uses only M-ROUTE-REQUEST to create a route to the gateway. All stationary nodes in the network except the gateway use S-ROUTE-REQUEST to reach the gateway. The gateway uses M-ROUTE-REQUEST to find a stationary or mobile node in the network since M-ROUTE-REQUEST is accepted and processed by all nodes. We assume that the network has a single gateway and each node in the network is aware of this gateway. The principle can be extended to multiple gateways, without loss of generality. In PARTROUTE stationary nodes are allowed to behave like mobile nodes under certain conditions. If the duration for which mobile nodes rest (i.e. become stationary) is large when compared to the duration for which they move, they can be allowed to temporarily function as stationary nodes during the stationary phase. The target application determines (a) the use of this role-switching feature and (b) the duration of rest. Role-switching is discussed in Section 3.3. 3.1 Reactive Route Discovery We use Expanding Ring Search based route discovery [15], an energy efficient method to discover a route to a destination node. The source sends a route-request message with TTL set to 1 and simultaneously starts a timer that expires after twice the node-traversal time. If the destination is one hop away it sends a route-reply message which reaches the source before the timer expires. If a route-reply is not received, the source increases the TTL value, proportionately increases the timeout and repeats the process till either the destination is reached or the source gives up. This limits the propagation extent of the flooded route-request thereby saving energy. The destination sends the route-reply back to the source along the route taken by the first route-request it receives. When a node with a valid route to the destination sends a route-reply on behalf of the destination, the reply is called gratuitous [15]. 3.2 Partial Route Preservation Partial route preservation implies retaining a part of a reactively created route, for a period longer than the standard lifetime for the route. The partial route is called a trace. Each node on a trace is called a representative. A stationary or mobile node which is not a representative is called a non-representative. The gateway is considered to be a representative of itself. In PARTROUTE there can be two kinds of route-replies to a route-request: (a) intermediate-node route-reply that can only be generated by a representative, (b) destination-node route-reply that only the gateway can generate. Henceforth, a node that is allowed to send a route-reply for a route-request is called a reply-node. It may be noted that an intermediate-node route-reply is different from a gratuitous route-reply [15] which is generated by any
UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2 849
node witsequencethe nodeSequencePARTROgratuitouany comintermedi
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UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2 850
3.5 RoM
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UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2 851
ROUTE-node respgateway between nodes thintermedifor eventthis as a node MREQUESbreaking new routein the cylink lifcommuni
Therecould advSo we comobile condition
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ure 4: A circulalysis
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ute to the gatewpects a route-rat a distance xich it originatich it receiveay experiencedistance x and2πxdx. Hence
sponse Time ywhere in mulative delay K in CK. Thi
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route requestst x/L hops
se situation fould have to fitraces. For thiFor PARTROan intermedi
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lar sensor netwo
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a given instanx from the Gway. It generaresponse. Delax is the duratites the route-rs the route-re
ed by M for ald (infinitesime, for a given (RTA) experieCK is obtain
y over all posiis is given as
sumptions in is received a
circle of radiuadcast the rou
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to reach G. or PARTROUield all route-s case Dx 2τOUTE, the roate node if itould be encou
of sensor noded by M can h (⎡x/L⎤−1) intn M and G.
ork deployment
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nt T, the mobilG and does nates a route-reay (D ) experion between trequest and th
eply. So the cll its positions
mal) width dx algorithm A,
enced by M pned by averaitions at distan
Section 4.1, at the same tius L around
ute-request to s allowed to re request wouThis is also
UTE since therequests in thτ x/L . ute-reply mayt is a represenuntered at n ho
des in CK reach the
termediate
t for
Response
le node M not have a equest and rienced by the time at he time at
cumulative s on a ring from G is the mean positioned aging the nce x, 0
1
the route ime by all M. These repeat the
respond to uld need at
the worst e gateway he absence
y be given ntative. A ops where
UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2 852
1 n xlifetimes formationattempts Assumingequal proDx 2τ
In thethe first h
Lowepossibilitchoked wperformaResponsespeed mo5.2.2). W(TI) whicPARTROthe valuPARTRO
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5 SIMU Discrete 1000 secoPARTROon PARTfor PARFinally, Ta measurPARTRO 5.1 Co An inodes. Talways atransmitsgateway.
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g n takes eacobability, the ∑ /L n /
e best case, ahop. So Dx 2er the Respty of the gatewith route-requance in a livee Time improbile nodes
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OUTE when cue of TI, bOUTE.
PARTROUTETAODV
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ber of event sore created ad for longer dusponses to roucontrolling thIf a node in t
for this traof the netwo
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have effective
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Trace Index dire of the RespOUTE.
onditions ideal circular
There are no awake. For , it receives aNon-receipt
y pattern of Mguration specon earlier ntage of stch value withmean value ox/L τ x/
all route-reque2τ. ponse Time, way and noduest packets the scenario. Aroves perform(further discu
e a figure of mcompare the
compared to Abetter the re
ple Event Souof PARTROUources increaand (b) exisurations. Mor
ute-requests frhe flooding othe network hace to persisork it is impts at interva
meters especie of event gentable value for traces.
ation with simto evaluate thffect of multipanalyzed. Thee compared aiscussed in Seponse Time o
radio modelpacket losseevery event
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M is random, trcific and trroute formatationary no
hin its range wof Dx is given/L 1 . ests are fielde
lesser is es near it gethat could degr
Also, decreasemance for hussed in Secmerit Trace Ine effectivenesAODVjr. Smaesponsiveness
urces UTE improvese since (a) msting traces e traces help g
rom mobile nof routing conhas a trace tost for the enportant that ials smaller t
ially size of neration shouldr lifetimeSTATI
mulation runshe performancple event soue results obtaiagainst AODection 4 is usef the network
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of the same evgateway, a s
vent- generatinbile as per reerating mobie performancobile nodes isy choose a los to 2.0m/s. he chosen veloe chosen. It
e may be eor (b) a role-in Section 2) imulation.
er-circular regiond a gateway
eployed in a CK in Sectiondivided into 3
g nodes in eacs 75m. Fromnode farthest
3 intermediate5m to reach tes in each sedensity of nnodes acrossven with mobsonable size fe Index for C
of its four comwith radius K)as a refer
performanceat a corner ra
n-event-generae mobile movnerating node
a. The range o
vent instead oset (R) of 30 ng nodes (conequirement) anile nodes arece of PARTs random wayocation and aAfter movin
ocity the nexmay be not
either (a) an-switching semwhich is stat
on with random
quarter-circun 4.1) with rad3 sectors withch sector. The
m Section 4.1,t (i.e. 300m) e nodes separthe gateway.
ector to (a) sunodes, (b) s the deploymbility and (c)for analysis.
CK (in Section
mponent quar) and hence forence for e in topologiather than the
ating nodesves only withie(s) move in of each node
of the next randomly
nfigured to nd one or e used to TROUTE. ypoint [8]. a velocity ng to the xt location ted that a n always mi-mobile tionary for
mly
ular region dius 300m h 10 non-e range of , an event
from the rated from However, ufficiently keep the ment area ) create a It can be
n 4.2) also
rter circles for QK. QK
analyzing ies where centre of
s when in its own the whole is kept at
UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2 853
75m to hrange oflifetimeDYand EVEestimatedevent trgeneratinnode in Pthe retrieuses d(Section HenceforPARTRO We uthe total ntransmitteto denoteby all noevents sean acknowtransmittetransferre
TPE T
5.2 Re
5.2.1 E Fromreduce thdiscussioof event speriodicalifetimeSTperformasignificanby increa
Figure 6: lifetimeSTA200 secon
5.2.2 C
Respmobile ev150s as used for
have sufficientf nodes. PaYNAMIC is keptENT-RETRYd Hop Traveransmission i
ng mobile nodPARTROUTEes defined bydestination-no3.5) till it su
rth we use OUTE with theuse the term number of (daed by all nodee the total numodes. Event Cent by an evenwledgement. ed for everyed to the gatew
P CE C
esults Effect of multim Fig. 6 it is clhe Response Tn in Section sources once t
ally, any furtTATIC does
ance e.g. fornt improvemeasing lifetimeS
Variation of ReATIC (lifetimeSTds)
Comparison of
ponse Time fovent source doshown in Figr comparison
t overlap betwacket size ist at 15s, CTPE
Y-COUNT is rsal Time is is attempted
de every 6 secE fails to delivy EVENT-REode M-ROuccessfully dPARTROUTe value of lifeTotal Packet
ata and routinges. Event Pacmber event paCount refers tnt source for So, the total ny event (TP
way is given b
iple event soulear that multiTime of the ne4.3. Also, forthe created trather increase
not signifir a single ent in response
STATIC from 150
esponse Time (TATIC takes valu
f PARTROUT
or PARTROUoes not vary s
g. 6 So, PARn with AOD
ween transmiss kept constERIOD is set to
set to 3.0.1 seconds. by an ev
conds. If a mover an event aTRY-COUNT
OUTE-REQUEdelivers an evE-x to referetimeSTATIC asCount to den
g control) packet Count is u
ackets transmito the numbewhich it rece
number of pacPE) successfby
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in the valueicantly imprevent source e time is obser0 to 200.
(in seconds) wites 50, 100, 150
TE with AODV
UTE for a sinsignificantly a
RTROUTE-15DVjr. A cer
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vent-obile after T, it EST vent. r to s x. note
ckets used itted
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rcentage of thbile and the p
mpared by vags 7, 8 and 9 stal Packet
ARTROUTE-1It is observe
des, Responsen half of thatalmost twicesponse Timeen when up toen almost all o algorithm
ure 7: VariatioODVjr and PAR
bile nodes (0%
For 0% mosent over (thstationary
tantaneously ically shorterPARTROUT
g 8) are duegher Event Pacction 4.2, wheves at a (rel
ARTROUTE-1ivering 3% mits significantl
ure 8: TPE for
he stationary nperformance oarying this pershow variation
Count and50 and AODVed from Fig.
e Time for PAt of AODVjr e as responsremains signi40% nodes arnodes (80%
ms have s
on of Response RTROUTE-150
: all nodes stati
bility, eventshe long) tracenodes wherecreated route
r. So, marginTE-150 when e to PARTROcket Count. Hen the event-glatively highe50 outperf
more events wily lower Resp
r AODVjr and P
nodes from R of both the algrcentage fromn of the Respod Event CVjr for 0-80%. 7 that for
ARTROUTE-1i.e. PARTRO
sive as AODificantly smalre mobile. Asnodes) are m
similar per
Time (in seconfor different nuonary)
s in PARTROes created a peas in AODes to the gatally higher Tcompared to
OUTE-150’s However, as digenerating moer) speed of forms AODith 21% loweronse Time.
PARTROUTE-
are made gorithms is m 0 to 80. onse Time,
Count for % mobility.
stationary 150 is less OUTE-150 DVjr. The ller (60%) expected,
mobile, the rformance.
nds) for umbers of
OUTE-150 priori over DVjr, the teway are
TPE levels o AODVjr
relatively scussed in obile node f 4-5 m/s, DVjr by r TPE due
150
UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2 854
With
decreasesPARTROimprovemlack of s150 and Count forfor all caalmost samore eve
To sewith a larthe simulswitchingThe duragiven bymean vala standarswitchingis initiallmore evelower TP
Figure 9: 150
A todeploymebehavioucommonl10 wherenodes anthrough wremainingrandom-wThere iRemaininTransmisbetween PARTROcomparedand 20% node tranin carryin
mobility, lens. For 40OUTE-150 iment of 26%sufficient statAODVjr hav
r PARTROUases except wame. PARTROents than AODee the effectsrge stationarylation we cong its status beation for beiny two normallues of 450s ard deviation g from happenly mobile. PAents, has a 17%PE compared t
Event Count fo
opology in ent has been u
ur of PARTRly used confie 50% of the nd the gatewwhich events g 50% move waypoint mobs one even
ng conditionsssion range adjacent node
OUTE-150 ded to AODVjr lower TPE. W
nsmission rangng out localiza
ngths of traces0% mobiliis 74% of . With 80% tionary nodesve similar TPTE-150 is mowith 0% mobOUTE-150 de
DVjr with 40%s of semi-moby period withinfigure each netween mobilng mobile anlly distribute
and 50s respecof 10s. Thi
ning synchronARTROUTE-% lower respoo AODVjr.
or AODVjr and
Fig. 5 withused to characROUTE. Howguration woustationary no
way) form acan be easilthroughout th
bility model dnt-generating s are the sof nodes an
es on a row olivers 12% mat a 20% low
With approprige, the configuation [16] [17]
s shorten so Tity, TPE f AODVjr–
mobility, dues PARTROUPE levels. Evore than AODbility where ielivers up to 1
% mobility. bility (Sectionin the durationnode in R to kle and stationnd stationary d variables wctively, each wis prevents rnously. Each n-150 delivers onse time and
d PARTROUTE
h random ncterize the genwever, a typuld look like odes in R (i.e connected y routed and he grid usingdiscussed ear
mobile nosame as earnd the distar column is 7
more events wwer response tiate adjustmenuration also h].
TPE for an
e to UTE-
vent DVjr it is 15%
n 2) n of keep nary.
are with with role-node
5% d 8%
E-
node neral pical Fig. . 15 grid the
g the rlier. ode. rlier. ance 75m. when time nt of helps
Fig
5
Ind0.3FigIndthelowstatTra0.6
Fig
6 Weinto(traincrmoimpPerconappchanetwdepPA
ure 10: A grid
5.2.3 VariationFrom Sectio
dex with L=752 for worst,
g.11 shows hodex for PARToretical wors
west value of 0tionary nodesace Index is 0.6.
ure 11: Trace I
CONCLUSI
e have shown o stationary aace) preservatrease the efbility awareportance of rformance onditions hasplicability toaracteristics owork, nature
ployment topoARTROUTE
deployment of
n in Trace Indon 4.2, theor5 and K=300 a
mean and bow the simulTROUTE-150st, mean and 0.44 is observs. With 40% .6 which is be
Index Analysis
ION
how logicalland mobile notion over statffectiveness oe sensor n
energy-efficf PARTROU
been showo different of the nodes e of event ologies could
to bring
f nodes
dex retical values are given as 1best case reslation results 0 compare ag
best case leed for Trace Imobility, the
etter than mea
ly dividing thodes with partionary nodesof reactive rnetworks whciency is pUTE under wn to illus
situations. comprising t
traffic andd be used to
about s
of Trace , 0.66 and
spectively. for Trace
gainst the evels. The Index with observed
an value of
e network rtial route
s can help routing in here the aramount.
different strate its
Mobility the sensor d typical configure
significant
UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2 855
improvements on all routing performance parameters. PARTROUTE can also find significant application with Body Sensor Networks where the mobility pattern of nodes can be determined with sensors like accelerometers. 7 REFERENCES [1] W. R. Heinzelman, A. Ch, and H. Balakrishnan:
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